Pneumonia is an infection of the lungs that causes inflammation and accumulation of fluid and pus in the air sacs (alveoli). It can be caused by bacteria, viruses, or fungi. Bacterial pneumonia is the most common type in adults.
Common symptoms of pneumonia include cough with phlegm or pus, fever, chills, difficulty breathing, and chest pain with breathing or coughing. Diagnosis is usually made by hearing crackles on lung exam and seeing an infiltrate on chest X-ray.
Bacterial pneumonia often follows an upper respiratory viral infection. Risk factors include smoking, asthma, COPD, immunosuppression, and swallowing disorders. The elderly are at highest risk. Bacteria enter the lungs and multiply in the alveoli and interstitium leading to inflammation.
Viral pneumonia typically causes milder symptoms and often resolves on its own. Fungal pneumonia is rare but more serious in immunocompromised individuals. Hospitalization may be required for oxygen, IV antibiotics, fluids and supportive care.
Treatment for bacterial pneumonia involves appropriate antibiotic therapy. Viral pneumonia is managed with rest, fluids and symptom relief. Most types of pneumonia can be effectively treated, but complications like lung abscess or respiratory failure can occur. Preventive measures include vaccination, lifestyle changes and managing chronic conditions.
Pneumonia is an infectious disease in one or both lungs. Micro-organisms such as bacteria, fungi, and viruses can cause pneumonia. In adults, bacterial pneumonia is most common.
Pneumonia-medical information (symptoms , management , diagnosis)martinshaji
Pneumonia is an infection that inflames the air sacs in one or both lungs. The air sacs may fill with fluid or pus (purulent material), causing cough with phlegm or pus, fever, chills, and difficulty breathing. A variety of organisms, including bacteria, viruses and fungi, can cause pneumonia.
Pneumonia can range in seriousness from mild to life-threatening It is most serious for infants and young children, people older than age 65, and people with health problems or weakened immune systems.
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Pneumonia is an infectious disease in one or both lungs. Micro-organisms such as bacteria, fungi, and viruses can cause pneumonia. In adults, bacterial pneumonia is most common.
Pneumonia-medical information (symptoms , management , diagnosis)martinshaji
Pneumonia is an infection that inflames the air sacs in one or both lungs. The air sacs may fill with fluid or pus (purulent material), causing cough with phlegm or pus, fever, chills, and difficulty breathing. A variety of organisms, including bacteria, viruses and fungi, can cause pneumonia.
Pneumonia can range in seriousness from mild to life-threatening It is most serious for infants and young children, people older than age 65, and people with health problems or weakened immune systems.
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The lower respiratory system, or lower respiratory tract, consists of the trachea, the bronchi and bronchioles, and the alveoli, which make up the lungs. These structures pull in air from the upper respiratory system, absorb the oxygen, and release carbon dioxide in exchange.
this is detailed study on lower respiratory diseases
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measles and influenza for nursing and other health department
INTRODUCTION.
DEFINITION.
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF LUNG,
Epidemiology,
CLINICAL MANIFESTATION
DIAGNOSTIC EVALUATION
COMPLICATION
MANAGEMENT
PREVENTION
HEALTH EDUCATION.
Pneumonia is an inflammation of the lung parenchyma caused by various microorganisms, including bacteria, mycobacteria, fungi, and viruses.
Pneumonitis is a more general term that describes the inflammatory process in the lung tissue that may predispose and Pneumonia is an inflammation of the lung parenchyma that is caused by a microbial agent.
place the patient at risk for microbial invasion.
Pneumonia is classified into four: community-acquired pneumonia (CAP) and hospital-acquired pneumonia (HAP), pneumonia in the immunocompromised host, and aspiration pneumonia.
Tuberculosis (TB) remains one of India's severest public health problems and causes enormous morbidity and mortality. India has the highest tuberculosis burden in the world, accounting for over a quarter of the global incidence. The annual incidence of TB in India is approximately 2.8 million cases out of 10 million cases worldwide.
Factors contributing to India's high TB rates include poverty, overcrowding, malnutrition, smoking, and lack of awareness. Pulmonary TB is the most common form, though extrapulmonary TB is also seen. Drug resistant TB, including multi-drug resistant and extensively drug resistant TB, poses treatment challenges.
India follows the Directly Observed Treatment Short-course (DOTS) strategy promoted by the WHO for TB control. The RNTCP (Revised National Tuberculosis Control Program) provides free diagnosis and treatment for TB patients across the country. However, many patients still prefer private healthcare and face financial difficulties in completing treatment.
Progress is being made in tackling TB through improved diagnostics like GeneXpert, contact tracing, treatment regimen compliance monitoring, and use of information systems. However, continued strengthening of the public health system, research, public awareness campaigns, political commitment and community engagement is needed to eliminate TB in India.
Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is a laboratory technique used to make many copies of a specific DNA segment. PCR relies on thermal cycling, heating and cooling the DNA sample to trigger a series of reactions that replicate the target DNA sequence exponentially.
PCR requires DNA template, primers, DNA polymerase enzyme, and nucleotides. Primers flank the target region on DNA to be amplified. In a thermal cycler, the sample undergoes cycles of denaturation (separating DNA strands), annealing (primers bind to flanking regions), and extension (DNA polymerase synthesizes new strand).
After 30-40 cycles, sufficient copies of the target DNA segment have been produced to allow detection and analysis. PCR’s sensitivity allows identifying trace amounts of DNA and has made PCR a foundational tool of molecular biology research and clinical diagnostics.
PCR applications include cloning and sequencing DNA, analyzing forensic samples, detecting viruses or bacteria, DNA fingerprinting, and studying genetic diseases. Quantitative PCR allows quantifying DNA. Reverse transcription PCR (RT-PCR) first transcribes RNA into cDNA for amplification. Real-time PCR monitors amplification as it occurs. Variations alter PCR conditions for specialty applications.
Since its invention in the 1980s, PCR has revolutionized life sciences and biomedical research. Automated thermal cyclers and optimized reagents have made PCR a standard, inexpensive, and readily accessible molecular technique available in all laboratories.
The lower respiratory system, or lower respiratory tract, consists of the trachea, the bronchi and bronchioles, and the alveoli, which make up the lungs. These structures pull in air from the upper respiratory system, absorb the oxygen, and release carbon dioxide in exchange.
this is detailed study on lower respiratory diseases
please comment
thank you
measles and influenza for nursing and other health department
INTRODUCTION.
DEFINITION.
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF LUNG,
Epidemiology,
CLINICAL MANIFESTATION
DIAGNOSTIC EVALUATION
COMPLICATION
MANAGEMENT
PREVENTION
HEALTH EDUCATION.
Pneumonia is an inflammation of the lung parenchyma caused by various microorganisms, including bacteria, mycobacteria, fungi, and viruses.
Pneumonitis is a more general term that describes the inflammatory process in the lung tissue that may predispose and Pneumonia is an inflammation of the lung parenchyma that is caused by a microbial agent.
place the patient at risk for microbial invasion.
Pneumonia is classified into four: community-acquired pneumonia (CAP) and hospital-acquired pneumonia (HAP), pneumonia in the immunocompromised host, and aspiration pneumonia.
Tuberculosis (TB) remains one of India's severest public health problems and causes enormous morbidity and mortality. India has the highest tuberculosis burden in the world, accounting for over a quarter of the global incidence. The annual incidence of TB in India is approximately 2.8 million cases out of 10 million cases worldwide.
Factors contributing to India's high TB rates include poverty, overcrowding, malnutrition, smoking, and lack of awareness. Pulmonary TB is the most common form, though extrapulmonary TB is also seen. Drug resistant TB, including multi-drug resistant and extensively drug resistant TB, poses treatment challenges.
India follows the Directly Observed Treatment Short-course (DOTS) strategy promoted by the WHO for TB control. The RNTCP (Revised National Tuberculosis Control Program) provides free diagnosis and treatment for TB patients across the country. However, many patients still prefer private healthcare and face financial difficulties in completing treatment.
Progress is being made in tackling TB through improved diagnostics like GeneXpert, contact tracing, treatment regimen compliance monitoring, and use of information systems. However, continued strengthening of the public health system, research, public awareness campaigns, political commitment and community engagement is needed to eliminate TB in India.
Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is a laboratory technique used to make many copies of a specific DNA segment. PCR relies on thermal cycling, heating and cooling the DNA sample to trigger a series of reactions that replicate the target DNA sequence exponentially.
PCR requires DNA template, primers, DNA polymerase enzyme, and nucleotides. Primers flank the target region on DNA to be amplified. In a thermal cycler, the sample undergoes cycles of denaturation (separating DNA strands), annealing (primers bind to flanking regions), and extension (DNA polymerase synthesizes new strand).
After 30-40 cycles, sufficient copies of the target DNA segment have been produced to allow detection and analysis. PCR’s sensitivity allows identifying trace amounts of DNA and has made PCR a foundational tool of molecular biology research and clinical diagnostics.
PCR applications include cloning and sequencing DNA, analyzing forensic samples, detecting viruses or bacteria, DNA fingerprinting, and studying genetic diseases. Quantitative PCR allows quantifying DNA. Reverse transcription PCR (RT-PCR) first transcribes RNA into cDNA for amplification. Real-time PCR monitors amplification as it occurs. Variations alter PCR conditions for specialty applications.
Since its invention in the 1980s, PCR has revolutionized life sciences and biomedical research. Automated thermal cyclers and optimized reagents have made PCR a standard, inexpensive, and readily accessible molecular technique available in all laboratories.
Hypertension during pregnancy occurs when blood pressure rises to unhealthy levels, and is a leading cause of maternal and fetal morbidity and mortality. Hypertension disorders in pregnancy include:
Gestational hypertension - elevated blood pressure arising after 20 weeks gestation without proteinuria.
Preeclampsia - hypertension with proteinuria and/or end-organ dysfunction arising after 20 weeks gestation in previously normotensive woman. Can lead to eclampsia (seizures).
Chronic hypertension - high blood pressure predating pregnancy or arising before 20 weeks gestation. Increases preeclampsia risk.
Risk factors for hypertension in pregnancy include obesity, diabetes, kidney disease, first pregnancy, family history, and age over 40. Complications include placental abruption, preterm delivery, slowed fetal growth, and future maternal heart disease.
Signs of preeclampsia include high blood pressure, swelling, sudden weight gain, headaches and visual disturbances. Routine prenatal blood pressure monitoring can detect hypertension. Definitive treatment is delivery of baby and placenta. Before term, management aims to optimize maternal health and fetal outcomes. Delivery is indicated for severe features.
Having high blood pressure during pregnancy requires more intense monitoring, lifestyle changes, and possibly antihypertensives. Following childbirth, blood pressure usually normalizes. Awareness of future cardiovascular disease risk is important. With proper care, many women with hypertension can have good pregnancy outcomes.
Gastric ulcers, also known as stomach ulcers, are open sores that develop on the lining of the stomach. They occur when the mucus layer protecting the stomach is disrupted, allowing the stomach acid to erode and inflame the tissues. The most common cause of gastric ulcers is infection with the bacterium Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori).
Symptoms of gastric ulcers include burning abdominal pain that can radiate to the back, bloating, nausea, loss of appetite, and vomiting. Pain tends to worsen when the stomach is empty and improves briefly after eating. Ulcers can lead to bleeding in the stomach evidenced by black stools or vomiting of blood.
Risk factors for gastric ulcers include H. pylori infection, frequent NSAID pain reliever use, smoking, excessive alcohol intake, severe physical stress, and family history. Diagnosis involves endoscopy to visualize the ulcer, and testing for H. pylori infection.
Treatment includes antibiotics to eradicate H. pylori if present, acid-suppressing medications like proton pump inhibitors, removing aggravating factors, and protecting the stomach lining. Avoiding spicy, acidic or fried foods can help symptoms. Complications like bleeding ulcers or perforations may require hospitalization. Most ulcers heal with proper treatment but can recur if risk factors are not addressed.
Diabetes mellitus refers to a group of metabolic diseases characterized by high blood glucose levels (hyperglycemia) resulting from defects in insulin secretion, insulin action, or both. Insulin is a hormone produced in the pancreas that regulates blood sugar. Diabetes develops when the body cannot produce enough insulin or cannot effectively utilize the insulin it produces.
There are two main types of diabetes mellitus:
Type 1 diabetes is an autoimmune disease where the immune system attacks and destroys the insulin-producing beta cells in the pancreas. This results in insulin deficiency and a lifelong dependence on exogenous insulin for survival. It often occurs in childhood and adolescence.
Type 2 diabetes involves insulin resistance, meaning cells fail to respond properly to insulin. It begins with insulin resistance and abnormal insulin secretion, eventually leading to reduced insulin production. Type 2 diabetes is more common in adults, related to obesity and lack of exercise.
Common symptoms of diabetes include excessive thirst and urination, increased hunger, unexplained weight loss, fatigue, blurred vision, and slow healing of wounds. Diabetes causes long-term damage to various organs due to elevated glucose levels. Potential complications include heart disease, stroke, kidney failure, blindness, neuropathy, and lower limb amputations.
Diabetes mellitus is diagnosed through blood tests measuring glycated hemoglobin (HbA1c), fasting blood glucose, and glucose tolerance testing. Management focuses on keeping blood sugar levels within target range through medications, diet, exercise, and lifestyle changes. Proper glucose control and treatment of complications is crucial to avoid diabetes-related disability and premature mortality.
Diabetes is a chronic metabolic disease characterized by elevated blood glucose levels (hyperglycemia) resulting from defects in insulin secretion, insulin action, or both. Insulin is a hormone produced by the pancreas that regulates blood sugar. Diabetes develops when the body can't make enough insulin or can't effectively use the insulin it produces.
The two main types of diabetes are type 1 and type 2. Type 1 diabetes is an autoimmune disease where the pancreas stops producing insulin. It often develops in childhood. People with type 1 diabetes require lifelong insulin injections to survive. Type 2 diabetes is more common and results from insulin resistance. Initially it can be managed with lifestyle modifications, oral medications, and insulin supplementation.
Common symptoms of diabetes include increased thirst and urination, constant hunger, weight loss, blurred vision, and fatigue. Long-term complications include damage to nerves, blood vessels, eyes, kidneys, and other body systems due to uncontrolled blood sugar. These can lead to increased risk of heart attack, stroke, kidney failure, blindness, and lower limb amputations.
Diabetes requires regular blood sugar monitoring. Treatment aims to keep blood glucose within a target range. This involves medications, diet, exercise, foot care, eye exams, and treatment of associated conditions like high blood pressure. Diabetes education and self-management are key. With proper management and glucose control, people with diabetes can avoid complications and maintain a good quality of life.
Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is a progressive lung disease characterized by persistent respiratory symptoms and airflow limitation. The main symptoms include dyspnea, cough, and sputum production. COPD is caused by exposure to inhaled irritants, most often cigarette smoke, leading to chronic inflammation and structural changes in the lungs.
The predominant form of COPD is chronic bronchitis, which involves chronic cough and sputum production for at least 3 months per year for 2 consecutive years. This is associated with inflammation and eventual thickening of the bronchial tubes. Emphysema is another form of COPD characterized by permanent enlargement of airspaces and destruction of lung parenchyma.
The airflow limitation in COPD is due to a combination of parenchymal destruction (emphysema) and small airways disease (chronic bronchitis). The obstruction is generally progressive and irreversible. Diagnosis is based on symptoms, exposure history, and spirometry showing irreversible airflow limitation.
COPD treatment aims to reduce symptoms, improve exercise tolerance, prevent exacerbations, and slow disease progression. Smoking cessation is essential. Medications used include bronchodilators and inhaled steroids. Supplemental oxygen may be required in advanced disease. Exacerbations are treated with antibiotics, oral steroids, and other supportive therapies. Patients often have decreased quality of life and COPD is a leading cause of mortality worldwide.
Asthma is a chronic inflammatory disease of the airways characterized by reversible airflow obstruction. It is a heterogeneous condition with different underlying disease processes. The most common symptoms of asthma are wheezing, shortness of breath, chest tightness and coughing, which can vary over time in their occurrence, frequency and intensity.
Asthma attacks or exacerbations involve acute worsening of symptoms driven by airway inflammation and bronchospasm. These are usually triggered by factors like allergens, irritants, exercise, infections and stress. During an attack, inflamed and constricted airways limit airflow into and out of the lungs, causing breathing difficulty.
The underlying disease process in asthma involves chronic airway inflammation mediated by various immune cells including mast cells, eosinophils, T lymphocytes and others. This inflammation causes airway hyperresponsiveness leading to recurrent episodes of wheezing, breathlessness, chest tightness and coughing. Airway remodeling from repeated injury can worsen these responses.
Asthma is diagnosed based on clinical history, examination and lung function tests. Spirometry is used to demonstrate reversible airway obstruction. Management includes avoiding triggers, using bronchodilators for symptom relief, and controlling airway inflammation with inhaled corticosteroids. Asthma cannot be cured but appropriate modern management can control symptoms and allow normal activity.
TNM Classification and Implication to Cancer Staging.pptxWakib Amin Mazumder
The TNM classification system is a standardized method for describing the extent of a cancer's spread. TNM stands for Tumor, Node, Metastasis. The T category describes the original (primary) tumor's size and extent of invasion. The N category describes the extent of spread to nearby lymph nodes. The M category describes the presence and extent of distant metastasis.
Knowing the TNM categories is crucial for determining the stage of a cancer, which in turn guides prognosis and treatment options. Higher T, N and M categories generally indicate more advanced stage disease with worse prognosis. TNM classification is specific to each type of cancer, as the staging criteria are different based on factors like typical pathways of spread.
After using imaging, pathology, and physical exams to determine the T, N and M categories, this information is combined to assign an overall stage, from Stage 0 to Stage IV. Stage 0 is carcinoma in situ, meaning the cancer is localized with no invasion. Stage IV indicates the cancer has extensively metastasized. Intermediate stages I-III describe progressively more extensive direct tumor invasion and lymphatic involvement.
The TNM system helps physicians evaluate prognosis, choose appropriate therapies, evaluate potential curability with surgery and radiation, and facilitate meaningful communication about management and outcomes for a given stage of cancer. TNM classification and staging is central to modern oncology and allows standardization of diagnosis and treatment across cases.
Genetic disordors and their classification, single gene inheritance,
multifaction inheritance, mitochondrial inheritance and the chromosomal inheritance
2024.06.01 Introducing a competency framework for languag learning materials ...Sandy Millin
http://sandymillin.wordpress.com/iateflwebinar2024
Published classroom materials form the basis of syllabuses, drive teacher professional development, and have a potentially huge influence on learners, teachers and education systems. All teachers also create their own materials, whether a few sentences on a blackboard, a highly-structured fully-realised online course, or anything in between. Despite this, the knowledge and skills needed to create effective language learning materials are rarely part of teacher training, and are mostly learnt by trial and error.
Knowledge and skills frameworks, generally called competency frameworks, for ELT teachers, trainers and managers have existed for a few years now. However, until I created one for my MA dissertation, there wasn’t one drawing together what we need to know and do to be able to effectively produce language learning materials.
This webinar will introduce you to my framework, highlighting the key competencies I identified from my research. It will also show how anybody involved in language teaching (any language, not just English!), teacher training, managing schools or developing language learning materials can benefit from using the framework.
How to Create Map Views in the Odoo 17 ERPCeline George
The map views are useful for providing a geographical representation of data. They allow users to visualize and analyze the data in a more intuitive manner.
Instructions for Submissions thorugh G- Classroom.pptxJheel Barad
This presentation provides a briefing on how to upload submissions and documents in Google Classroom. It was prepared as part of an orientation for new Sainik School in-service teacher trainees. As a training officer, my goal is to ensure that you are comfortable and proficient with this essential tool for managing assignments and fostering student engagement.
2. What is pneumonia?
Pneumonia is an infection that inflames the air sacs in one or both lungs. The air
sacs may fill with fluid or pus (purulent material), causing cough with phlegm or
pus, fever, chills, and difficulty breathing. Pneumonia can be life-threatening,
especially for certain risk groups.
3. Causes
Pneumonia can be caused by a variety of organisms, including:
1. Bacteria: Streptococcus pneumoniae is the most common cause of bacterial
pneumonia.
2. Viruses: Including influenza (flu), and SARS-CoV-2 (causes COVID-19).
3. Fungi: More common in people with chronic health problems or weakened
immune systems.
4. Symptoms
Key symptoms of pneumonia can include:
- Cough, often producing mucus or phlegm.
- Fever, sweating, and shaking chills.
- Shortness of breath.
- Chest pain that worsens with breathing or coughing.
- Fatigue and muscle weakness.
- Nausea, vomiting, or diarrhoea.
5. Risk factors
You are at greater risk for pneumonia if you:
- Are over 65 years old or below 2 years old.
- Have a weakened immune system due to
disease (like HIV/AIDS) or medical
treatment (like chemotherapy).
- Have a chronic illness like asthma, COPD,
diabetes, or heart disease.
- Smoke, or have a history of heavy drinking.
- Have recently had surgery or been
hospitalised.
- Have difficulty swallowing, due to neurological
conditions or other conditions that might cause
aspiration.
6. Types
Pneumonia types can be classified in several ways, including:
- By cause: bacterial, viral, fungal.
- By where the infection was acquired: community-acquired, hospital-acquired,
aspiration pneumonia.
- By location in the lung: lobar pneumonia (affects one part or "lobe" of the
lung),
bronchopneumonia (scattered throughout both lungs).
8. Steps for treatment
Treatment for pneumonia usually varies depending on the type and severity of pneumonia, the person's
overall health status, and the specific causative organism. Below are general steps for treating
pneumonia, but each patient needs to be individually evaluated by a healthcare professional.
● Medical evaluation :f you exhibit symptoms of pneumonia, such as fever, cough, and difficulty
breathing. A physical examination and tests may be required, including blood tests, a chest X-ray or
CT scan, and possibly a sputum test to identify the specific type of pneumonia.
● Medication as per the diagnosis (next slide)
● Rest and hydration is important
● Oxygen therapy: In severe cases, hospitalisation may be required, where oxygen therapy or
breathing treatments can be administered.
● Follow ups: it is important to have regular follow ups to ensure that the pneumonia has fully cleared.
A repeated chest x-ray is often performed
9. Treatment
The specific treatment for pneumonia depends on the type of pneumonia,
the severity of symptoms, and the patient's overall health. Antibiotics,
antivirals, or antifungals are usually used.
For bacterial pneumonia, antibiotics such as amoxicillin-clavulanate (typical
adult dosage: 500 mg three times a day for 7-10 days) or azithromycin
(typical adult dosage: 500 mg on the first day, then 250 mg daily for 4 more
days) can be used in community-acquired pneumonia. Hospital-acquired
pneumonia may require different antibiotics and more aggressive
treatment.
For viral pneumonia, antiviral medications like oseltamivir (Tamiflu: typical
adult dosage for treatment of influenza is 75 mg twice daily for 5 days; for
prevention 75 mg once daily) might be used, particularly if influenza is the
cause.
For fungal pneumonia, antifungal medications are used,
such as fluconazole or itraconazole.
A 10-day treatment plan will depend on the specific
causative organism, the patient's response to treatment,
and their overall health. For example, bacterial pneumonia
might be treated with amoxicillin-clavulanate, 500 mg three
times a day for 10 days. Supportive care to alleviate
symptoms like cough and fever, and to maintain hydration
and nutrition, is also important.
10. Prevention
Vaccines can prevent some types of pneumonia, such as pneumococcal
pneumonia and influenza. Good hygiene can also prevent respiratory infections
that sometimes lead to pneumonia. Lastly, managing and preventing chronic
illnesses and quitting smoking can also lower the risk of getting pneumonia.