The placenta functions to transfer nutrients and waste between the mother and fetus through respiratory, excretory, and nutritive processes. It produces hormones like human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG), human chorionic somatomammotropin (hCS), estrogen, and progesterone that are crucial to maintaining the pregnancy. The placenta, fetus, and maternal systems form an integrated unit where hormones are transferred between compartments to regulate processes of pregnancy and fetal development.

2. PLACENTAL FUNCTION
Transfer of nutrients and waste
products bn the mother & fetus.
RESPIRATORY
EXCRETORY
NUTRITIVE
Produces or metabolizes the hormones
& enzymes necessary to maintain the
pregnancy.

3. PLACENTAL FUNCTION
BARRIER FUNCTION
IMMUNOLOGICAL FUNCTION

4. Transfer function
Transport is facilitated by the close
approximation of maternal and fetal
vascular systems within the placenta.
It is important to recognize that there
normally is no mixing of fetal and
maternal blood within the placenta.

5. Respiratory function—Intake of o2 &
output of co2 takes place by simple
diffusion.o2 supply to fetus rate of
5ml/kg/min & this achieved with cord
flow of 165-330ml/min.
Excretory function—waste products
urea, uric acid,creatinine are excreted
to maternal blood by simple diffusion.

7. NUTRITIVE FUNCTION
Glucose is the major energy substrate
provided to the placenta and fetus. It is
transported across the placenta by facilitated
diffusion via hexose transporters
Although the fetus receives large amounts of
intact glucose, a large amount is oxidized
within the placenta to lactate, which is used
for fetal energy production.

8. Amino acid concentrations in fetal blood are
higher than in maternal blood. Amino acids
are therefore transported to the fetus by
active transport .
LIPIDS—TG`s & FA directly transported from
mother to fetus in early pregnancy but
synthesised in fetus later in pregnancy.
Thus,fetal fat has got dual origin.

9. Water & electrolytes—Na,K+,Cl- by
simple diffusion.Ca,Ph,iron by active
transport.
BARRIER FUNCTION:-Protective
barrier to the fetus against noxious
agents circulating in maternal blood.
(High MW >500daltons.

10. IMMUNOLOGICAL
FUNCTION
Fetus & placenta contain paternally
determined antigens,foreign to the mother .
Inspite of this ,no evidence of graft rejection.
Probably:
1. Fibrinoid & sialomucin coating of
trophoblast may suppress the troblastic
antigen.
2. Placental hormones ,steriods,HCG have got
weak immunosuppressive effect,may be
responsible for producing sialomucin.

11. 3.Nitabuch`s layer which intervenes bn decidua
basalis &cytotrophoblast probably
inactivates the antigenic property of tissue.
4.There is little HLA & blood group antigens on
trophoblast surface.so antigenic stimulus is
poor.
5. Production of block antibodies by mother
,protects fetus from rejection.

12. ENDOCRINE—hormones secreted
internally.
HORMONE--Any organic chemical that
is secreted by a gland into the
circulatory system and is transported to
some target organ. The target may be
either peripheral tissue (such as muscle
or other gland) or brain.

13. Fetal, placental & maternal compartments
form an integrated hormonal unit
The feto-placental-maternal (FPM) unit
creates the
Endocrine Environment
that maintains and drives the processes of
pregnancy and pre-natal development.

14. PLACENTAL HORMONES
Human Chorionic
Gonadotropin (hCG
Human Chorionic
Somammotropin (hCS)
or Placental Lactogen(hPL)
OTHER HORMONES
Chorionic
Adrenocorticotropin
Chorionic thyrotropin
Relaxin
PTH-rP
hGH-V
Estrogen (E)
Progesterone (P)
HYPOTHALAMIC-LIKE
RELEASING HORMONES
GnRH
CRH
cTRH
GH-RH
PLACENTAL PEPTIDE
HORMONES
Neuropeptide-Y
Inhibin & Activin
ANP

15. To understand the FPM one
should know:1. The major hormones involved:
hCGn
Progesterone
Estrogen
Human Chorionic Somatomammotropin (hCS)
(placental lactogen)
2. How the FPM compartments work together
to produce the steroid hormones
3. The transfer of hormones between
the FPM compartments.

17. Human Chorionic
Gonadotropin (hCG)
PREGNANCY HORMONE---
glycoprotein
Half life –24hrsof hCG
Levels peak at 60-70 days then remain at a
low plateau for the rest of pregnancy.
Placental GnRH have control of hCG.
FUNCTIONS:
1. RESCUE &MAINTENANCE of function of
corpus luteum.

18. Prevents degeneration of corpus luteum
Stimulates corpus luteum to secrete E + P
which, in turn, stimulate continual growth of
endometrium.
2.hCG stimulates leydig cells of male fetus to
produce testosterone in conjunction with
fetal pituitary gonadotrophins.Thus indirectly
involed in development of external genitalia.
3. Suppresses maternal immune function
& reduces possibility of fetus
immunorejection

19. Human Chorionic
Somammotropin (hCS)
or Placental Lactogen
Structure similar to growth hormone
Produced by the placenta
Levels throughout pregnancy
Large amounts in maternal blood but
DO NOT reach the fetus

20. Human Chorionic
Somammotropin (hCS)
or Placental Lactogen
Biological effects are reverse of those of
insulin: utilization of lipids;
make glucose more readily available to
fetus, and for milk production.
hCS levels proportionate to placental size
hCS levels placental
insuffiency

21. Estrogen (E)
FORMS-estriol,estradiol &estrone .
Estriol most important .
Levels increase throughout pregnancy
90% produced by placenta.
(syncytiotrophoblast)
Placental production is transferred to
both maternal and fetal compartments

23. Two of the principle effects of placental
estrogens are:
Stimulate growth of the myometrium and
antagonize the myometrial-suppressing
activity of progesterone. In many species, the
high levels of estrogen in late gestation
induces myometrial oxytocin receptors,
thereby preparing the uterus for parturition.
Stimulate mammary gland development.
Estrogens are one in a battery of hormones
necessary for both ductal and alveolar growth
in the mammary gland.

24. Progesterone (P)
Levels increase throughout pregnancy
80-90% is produced by placenta and
secreted to both fetus and mother

25. Progestins, including progesterone, have
two major roles during pregnancy:
Support of the endometrium to provide an
environment conducive to fetal survival. If the
endometrium is deprived of progestins, the
pregnancy will inevitably be terminated.
Suppression of contractility in uterine
smooth muscle, which, if unchecked, would
clearly be a disaster. This is often called the
"progesterone block" on the myometrium.
Toward the end of gestation, this myometrial-
quieting effect is antagonized by rising levels
of estrogens, thereby facilitating parturition.

26. Progesterone and other progestins also
potently inhibit secretion of the pituitary
gonadotropins luteinizing hormone and
follicle stimulating hormone. This effect
almost always prevents ovulation from
occuring during pregnancy

27. FETAL ADRENAL GLAND

29. Adrenal Gland
Development
Adrenal Cortex
 Vital to organism survival
 Begins to develop at 4th
week of embryonic life
 Functional around 10th
to 12th
week of embryonic
life
 Enzymes necessary for biosynthesis of
adrenocortical hormones do not develop
simultaneously
 hCG may have a role in stimulating Adrenocortical
development
Adrenal Medulla
 Originates from nervous system
 Ganglia of Autonomic Nervous System

30. Fetal Adrenal Cortex
Function Adrenal Cortex
 Zona Glomerulosa
 Has enzymes to convert Pregnenalone to:
 Progesterone
 Deoxycorticosterone
 Corticosterone
 Aldosterone
 Zona Fasciculata
 Converts Pregnenalone and Progesterone
to 17OH-Pre and 17OH-Pro
 17OH-Pro is converted to cortisol (major
glucocorticoid)
 Zona Reticularis
 Converts 17OH-Pre into DHEA and
Androstenedione (androgens)