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M/S Busitema Mining Company Ltd. produced 37 kg of gold in 2003. Production was inhibited
by an unstable electricity supply. In 2004, Canmin Gold Ltd. [a subsidiary of International
Business Investments Corp. (IBI)] explored gold in Busia, which is located in southeastern
Uganda. Surface Mining, which refers to a method of extracting minerals from the earth by their
removal from an open pit or borrows, requires a large tract of land for its operations (Wikipedia,
2008). There is therefore a continuous divergence of interest between land required for surface
mining and other land uses such as farming and housing, among others.
Gold mining has become increasingly attractive during the last decades due to soaring gold
prices (Hammond et al. 2007). This has triggered a gold boom, both in industrialized countries
(e.g., the United States, Australia, and Canada) and in developing nations (e.g., South Africa,
Peru, Indonesia, or West Africa). Since gold is often extracted using toxic substances, the
environmental consequences of gold mining can be devastating, particularly in fragile tropical
ecosystems, as a consequence, gold mining activities in developing nations often lead to open,
sometimes violent, negotiations about the use of land (Muller, 2004). To mitigate such conflicts,
governments, mining companies, and rural stakeholders sometimes react with resettlement and
alternative livelihood programs, and former farmers engage in small-scale artisanal mining. This
is problematic, because such small-scale resource use is often connected to further environmental
degradation and inefficient resource use (Banchirigah and Hilson, 2010). Overall, there is a risk
that rural livelihoods become unsustainable in such contexts.
Land use has already altered more than half of the planet‟s terrestrial ecosystems, mainly for
increasing the provision of a few ecosystem services, such as food production. Since not all
services can be maximized simultaneously, every land use decision involves trade-offs, often
resulting in competing interests and substantial conflicts about the desired use of land among
stakeholders (Rodriguez etal. 2006; Turner et al. 2007). Economic land use theory suggests that
markets resolve such conflicts via differences in land rents that will lead to the most profitable
land use allocation. The problem is that ecosystem services are often difficult to value in
economic terms and remain externalities. Degradation of such services may lead to conflicts
among land users (Wunder, 2005). Surface mining is an extreme example of a land use practice
that can lead to such conflicts. Mining is an important component of the economy of many
nations, particularly in the developing world. For example, 25% of Guinea‟s and 5.9% of South](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/ad36ec28-70ba-400a-8b49-df1a0e3aac17-161201082641/85/PIUS-IMERI-Final-Desertation-15-320.jpg)
PIUS IMERI Final Desertation
- 1. i BUSITEMA UNIVERSITY FACULTY OFNATURAL RESOURCES AND ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES IMPACTS OF SURFACE GOLD MINING ON LAND USE SYSTEMS AND LIVELIHOODS OF THE PEOPLE OF BUSIA DISTRICT. CASE STUDY OF BUTEBA, BUSITEMA AND SIKUDA SUB COUNTIES. BY OBUKUI PIUS IMERI BU/UP/2013/230 A RESEARCH REPORT SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF NATURAL RESOURCES AND ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF A DEGREE OF A BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN NATURAL RESOURCE ECONOMICS OF BUSITEMA UNIVERSITY. JUNE, 2016
- 2. i DECLARATION I OBUKUI PIUSIMERI do hereby declare that this research report is my own work and has never been submitted to any university or institution of higher learning for any academic award and where other peoples‟ research was used, the authors were dully acknowledged. Signature……………………………… Date………………………………… OBUKUI PIUS IMERI
- 3. ii APPROVAL This serves tocertify that this work has been as a result of efforts of OBUKUI PIUS IMERI under my guidance and supervision and is now ready for submission to the faculty of Natural Resources and Environmental Sciences. Supervisor ……………………………………… Date………………………………… M/S GIMBO REBECCA
- 4. iii DEDICATION I dedicate thisresearch report to my father Mr.Imeri Bisansio and my mother Mrs. Apadet Esther Dorine who have struggled to raise and educate me and to all my siblings.
- 5. iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Though I didthis research report single handedly, I was socially and financially supported by a number of individuals and parties that I feel indebted to mention. I hereby acknowledge my supervisor M/S Rebecca Gimbo who critically guided me throughout the entire research project; also acknowledgement goes to all my friends especially the 2013/2014 class for you were there whenever things were tending out of hand. I would also love to acknowledge the residents of Busitema, Buteba and Sikuda sub counties for availing me the information that has enabled me to obtain research findings and complete my research work. In a special way I acknowledge two people who have been so influential in this study these are Dr. Wafula David Egesa and Stephanie Owembabazi, who always stood by me at moments I critically felt down and may be could not push on anymore, your spiritual, physical and financial support will always be remembered. May the good lord bless you abundantly.
- 6. v Table of Contents DECLARATION.............................................................................................................................i APPROVAL ...................................................................................................................................ii DEDICATION...............................................................................................................................iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENT............................................................................................................. iv Table of Contents............................................................................................................................ v LIST OF FIGURES ....................................................................................................................... ix LIST OF TABLES.......................................................................................................................... x LIST OF ACRONYMS ................................................................................................................. xi ABSTRACT..................................................................................................................................xii CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION............................................................................................. 1 1.1 General Introduction ............................................................................................................. 1 1.2 Background of the study ....................................................................................................... 1 1.3 Problem statement................................................................................................................. 3 1.4 Objectives.............................................................................................................................. 4 1.4.1General objective............................................................................................................. 4 1.4.2 Specific objectives.......................................................................................................... 4 1.5 Research questions................................................................................................................ 4 1.6 Significance of the study....................................................................................................... 4 1.7 Theoretical framework.......................................................................................................... 5 1.8 Scope of the study ................................................................................................................. 5
- 7. vi CHAPTER TWO: LITERATUREREVIEW................................................................................. 6 2.1 Introduction........................................................................................................................... 6 2.2 General characterization of ASGM in the country................................................................ 6 2.3 Economic contribution of gold mining ................................................................................. 8 2.4 social and environmental impacts of gold mining on local livelihoods around the area. ... 13 2.5 Government intervention for sustainable development of the sector.................................. 17 CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY ..................................................................................... 19 3.1 Overview............................................................................................................................. 19 3.2 Research design................................................................................................................... 19 3.3 Study population ................................................................................................................. 19 3.4 Sample size and Sampling strategies .................................................................................. 19 3.4.1 Sample size................................................................................................................... 19 3.4.2 Sampling strategies....................................................................................................... 20 3.5 Methods of data collections................................................................................................. 20 3.5.1 Self-administered questionnaires.................................................................................. 20 3.5.2 Interviewing.................................................................................................................. 20 3.5.3 Focus Group Discussions ............................................................................................. 20 3.6 Data analysis techniques and data processing..................................................................... 20 3.7 Validity and Reliability of data collection instruments....................................................... 21 3.8 Limitations to the study....................................................................................................... 21 CHAPTER FOUR: PRESENTATION AND DISCUSSION OF RESULTS.............................. 22
- 8. vii 4.1 Introduction......................................................................................................................... 22 4.2Analysis of bio-data ............................................................................................................ 22 4.2.1 Age of respondents ....................................................................................................... 22 4.2.2 Sex of the respondents.................................................................................................. 23 4.2.3 Marital status of the respondents.................................................................................. 24 4.2.4 Distribution of respondents by education level ............................................................ 24 4.3 Analyses of economic activities carried out to earn a living of individual respondents and community benefits from gold mining...................................................................................... 25 4.3.1 Economic activity carried out to earn a living.............................................................. 25 4.3.2 Benefits derived from gold mining............................................................................... 26 4.4 Analysis of the gold mining associated risks ...................................................................... 27 4.4.1 Gold mining associated risks........................................................................................ 27 4.4.2 Relationship between gender and impacts from gold mining ...................................... 28 4.4.3 Economic activities affected by gold mining ............................................................... 29 4.4.4 Respondents‟ Knowledge about Environmental Impacts............................................. 30 4.4.5 Relationship between education levels and knowledge about environmental impacts 31 4.4.6 Environmental Impacts due to surface gold mining..................................................... 32 4.5 Intervention measures ......................................................................................................... 33 4.5.1 Community Intervention against environmetal consequences from gold mining........ 33 4.5.2 Organizations working in the mining communities ..................................................... 34 4.5.3 Interventions by organizations...................................................................................... 35
- 9. viii CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY,CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDETIONS................... 36 5.1 Introduction......................................................................................................................... 36 5.2 Summary of findings........................................................................................................... 36 5.3 Conclusion of the study....................................................................................................... 36 5.4 Recommendations of the study ........................................................................................... 37 5.5 Areas for further study ........................................................................................................ 38 REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................. 39 APPENDICES .............................................................................................................................. 42 Appendix 1: Modern pits to reduce breakage and minimize accidents, initiative of EWAD... 42 Appendix 2: Un covered pits hazardous to people and animals ............................................... 43 Appendix 3: A ball mill used to crash the stones to fine particles............................................ 44 Appendix 4: Questionnare......................................................................................................... 45
- 10. ix LIST OF FIGURES Figure1.1: Theoretical frame work ................................................................................................ 5 Figure 4.3: Age of respondents..................................................................................................... 22 Figure 4. 4: Gender of respondents............................................................................................... 23 Figure 4. 5: Marital-status of the respondents .............................................................................. 24 Figure 4.6: Graph showing respondents‟ education levels ........................................................... 24 Figure 4.7: Economic activity carried out to earn a living ........................................................... 25 Figure 4.8: Benefits from gold mining ......................................................................................... 26 Figure 4.9 Gold mining associated risks....................................................................................... 27 Figure 4.10: Relationship between gender and gold mining associated risks .............................. 29 Figure 4.11: Economic activities affected by gold mining........................................................... 29 Figure 4.12: Respondents‟ Knowledge about Environmental Impacts ........................................ 30 Figure 4.13: Relationship between education levels and Respondents‟ knowledge about environmental impacts.................................................................................................................. 32 Figure 4.14: Graph showing Environmental Impacts................................................................... 32 Figure 4.15: Graph showing Community intervention measures ................................................. 33 Figure 4.16: Pie chart showing organisations working in the communities................................. 34 Figure 4.17: Graph showing interventions by organizations........................................................ 35
- 11. x LIST OF TABLES Table2.1: Total global direct and indirect GVA of the global gold mining industry and annual average gold price......................................................................................................................... 10 Table 4.3: Chi-Square Tests for gender in relation to gold mining associated risks .................... 28 Table4.4: Significance of education level in determining the knowledge about environmental impacts.......................................................................................................................................... 31
- 12. xi LIST OF ACRONYMS ASGM:Artisanal and Small Scale gold mining BMC: Busitema Mining Company CBO: Community Based Organization DGSM: Department of Geological Survey and Mines EWAD: Environmental Women and Development GDP: Gross Domestic Product GVA: Gross Value Added IBI: International Business Institute MFPED: Ministry of Finance, Planning and Economic Development MSDTA: Mineral Sector Development Technical Assistance NEMA: National Environment Management Authority NFA: National Forestry Authority NGO: Non Government Organization NRM: National Resistance Movement SMMRP: Sustainable Management of Mineral Resources Project SPSS: Statistical package for social sciences UBOS: Uganda Bureau of Statistics UNEP: United Nations Environmental Programme URA: Uganda Revenue Authority WGC: World Gold Council
- 13. xii ABSTRACT The impacts ofsurface gold mining on land use systems and livelihoods of the people of Buteba, Busitema and Sikuda sub counties in Busia district was the case study. Gold mining activities spur a myriad of benefits to the communities around yet with great impacts to people‟s lives and to the environment. The study objectives included: -to establish the economic contribution of gold mining to the livelihoods, establish the social and environmental impacts of gold mining around the area and to suggest possible measures to influence government intervention for sustainable development of the area. The study was cross sectional where by both qualitative and quantitative approaches were used to collect data. To efficiently conduct the study, the researcher targeted 60 respondents located in the 3 sub counties to make a more scientific justifiable sampling frame. Simple random sampling and purposive sampling techniques were used. The data collected through interviews and self administered questionnaires was coded using EXCEL, then taken to STATA 11 and SPSS 16 for analysis which facilitated the formation of frequency tables, graphs and pie charts. The researcher found out that most livelihoods living in these communities derive their livelihood from agriculture, the study also indicated that surface gold mining contributes to incomes; people have been able to put up shops and also pay school fees for children at school. Conclusively it‟s evident that surface mining has had some negative impacts on the livelihoods of the people and the environment through deaths recorded, accidents, diseases, environmental challenges like soil erosion, tree cutting (deforestation) etc. Other complications realized are as a result of use of mercury during the process of amalgamation to produce the gold though this is long term. The researcher therefore recommends that for a further improvement in the livelihoods of these communities, government should come give a hand in terms of improved mining methods which also put in consideration environmental conservation for sustainability; this should also follow stake holder analysis and public sensitization.
- 14. 1 CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION 1.1General Introduction This chapter introduces the study topic, background, problem statement, objectives, and research questions of the study, conceptual framework, justification and scope of the study. 1.2 Background of the study Throughout history, gold has been mined and refined to meet the needs of people and economies globally. Its chemical and physical properties have caused it to be one of the most sought after minerals on the planet. It has been the focus of many epic historical conflicts, and the cause of much controversy. Because of its scarcity and distinct qualities, gold has a very high monetary value and has often been used as currency. The scarcity of gold is due to the extraordinary geological processes required to produce it and the difficulty in extracting and refining gold ore. These processes are often time consuming, destructive to the landscape, and harmful to the natural habitat surrounding the mining area. As a result mining gold ore is expensive and controversial in many parts of the world. An excellent example of the tremendous efforts and struggles associate with mining is the California Gold Rush in the Sierra Nevada. Uganda was known to produce cobalt, columbium (niobium) and tantalum, gold, iron ore, steel, tin, and tungsten. Uganda also produced such industrial minerals as gypsum, kaolin and other clays, lime, salt, talc, and vermiculite, and such building materials as cement, limestone, and pozzolanic materials. Uganda‟s gross domestic product (GDP) increased by 5.9% in 2004 after rising by 4.7% in 2003. The GDP was $44.7 billion based on purchasing power parity, and the per capita GDP based on purchasing power parity was about $1,700. In 2003, construction accounted for 10% of the GDP; manufacturing, 9%; water and electricity, 1%; and mining and quarrying, 1% (Uganda Bureau of Statistics, 2004, International Monetary Fund, 2005). In July 2004, the Parliament of Uganda authorized the Government to borrow $42.3 million from the African Development Fund, the Nordic Development Fund, and the World Bank Group to finance the Sustainable Management of Mineral Resources Project, which would assist Uganda in increasing production and tax revenues from its mining sector (Mutumba, 2004).
- 15. 2 M/S Busitema MiningCompany Ltd. produced 37 kg of gold in 2003. Production was inhibited by an unstable electricity supply. In 2004, Canmin Gold Ltd. [a subsidiary of International Business Investments Corp. (IBI)] explored gold in Busia, which is located in southeastern Uganda. Surface Mining, which refers to a method of extracting minerals from the earth by their removal from an open pit or borrows, requires a large tract of land for its operations (Wikipedia, 2008). There is therefore a continuous divergence of interest between land required for surface mining and other land uses such as farming and housing, among others. Gold mining has become increasingly attractive during the last decades due to soaring gold prices (Hammond et al. 2007). This has triggered a gold boom, both in industrialized countries (e.g., the United States, Australia, and Canada) and in developing nations (e.g., South Africa, Peru, Indonesia, or West Africa). Since gold is often extracted using toxic substances, the environmental consequences of gold mining can be devastating, particularly in fragile tropical ecosystems, as a consequence, gold mining activities in developing nations often lead to open, sometimes violent, negotiations about the use of land (Muller, 2004). To mitigate such conflicts, governments, mining companies, and rural stakeholders sometimes react with resettlement and alternative livelihood programs, and former farmers engage in small-scale artisanal mining. This is problematic, because such small-scale resource use is often connected to further environmental degradation and inefficient resource use (Banchirigah and Hilson, 2010). Overall, there is a risk that rural livelihoods become unsustainable in such contexts. Land use has already altered more than half of the planet‟s terrestrial ecosystems, mainly for increasing the provision of a few ecosystem services, such as food production. Since not all services can be maximized simultaneously, every land use decision involves trade-offs, often resulting in competing interests and substantial conflicts about the desired use of land among stakeholders (Rodriguez etal. 2006; Turner et al. 2007). Economic land use theory suggests that markets resolve such conflicts via differences in land rents that will lead to the most profitable land use allocation. The problem is that ecosystem services are often difficult to value in economic terms and remain externalities. Degradation of such services may lead to conflicts among land users (Wunder, 2005). Surface mining is an extreme example of a land use practice that can lead to such conflicts. Mining is an important component of the economy of many nations, particularly in the developing world. For example, 25% of Guinea‟s and 5.9% of South
- 16. 3 Africa‟s GDP aswell as the majority of foreign revenues of these countries are mining related (Aryee, 2001). However, local livelihoods rarely profit from mining activities, although mining has widespread and drastic environmental and social effects on them (Kumah, 2006). Surface mining, for example, removes vegetation and soils, interrupts ecosystem service flows, and results in inevitable and often permanent farmland loss. Mining activities also frequently result in toxic waste that causes water pollution and health problems (Akabzaa and Darimani, 2001; Habashi, 1996). Likewise, dust pollution from heavy traffic on mining dirt roads affects neighboring communities (Ayine, 2001), and soil erosion is common around mines (Akabzaa and Darimani, 2001). Overall, surface mining in the developing world often erodes livelihood foundations, forcing populations to relocate and farmers to develop alternative income strategies (Kumah, 2006). As a consequence, conflicts between communities and mining operators over land use rights are common in many regions worldwide and can become a serious threat to development and security (Maconachie and Binns, 2007). 1.3 PROBLEM STATEMENT It has been realized that mining affects environmental and social change no matter where it occurs. Mining-related disruptions can impact the physical environment and or local Communities (Miranda M et al, 2005). However, it has been realized that although some degree of disturbance is inevitable even in the best managed mines, nearly all negative social and environmental impacts are avoidable if companies would operate according to the best possible standards (Miranda et al, 2005).The main challenge here is how to ensure that mining communities benefit from the presence of mining companies and to reduce the negative effects of mining in such Communities. This, in recent years, has been termed „responsible mining‟ and has been successfully campaigned by Civil Society Organizations all over the world. Responsible mining has been defined by the Mongolian River Resources (2008), with stated principles of responsible mining such as sustainable development, equity, participatory decision making, accountability and transparency, precaution, efficiency and polluter responsibility. Land use conflicts are becoming increasingly apparent from local to global scales. Surface gold mining is an extreme source of such conflicts, but mining impacts on local livelihoods often
- 17. 4 remain unclear. Mygoal therefore was to assess land cover change due to surface gold mining in Busitema, Sikuda and Buteba Sub Counties in Busia district Eastern Uganda; one of the country‟s largest gold mining regions, and to study how these changes affected land use systems, find out the economic benefits, accruing to gold mining and challenges associated. 1.4 OBJECTIVES 1.4.1General objective To assess the impacts of surface gold mining on land use systems and livelihoods of the surrounding community. 1.4.2 Specific objectives 1. To establish the economic contribution of gold mining to the livelihoods of Busitema Sub county. 2. To establish the social and environmental impacts of gold mining on local livelihoods around the area. 3. To suggest possible measures to influence government intervention for sustainable development of the area. 1.5 RESEARCH QUESTIONS 1. What is the economic contribution of gold mining to the livelihoods? 2. What are the social and environmental impacts of gold mining on local livelihoods around the area? 3. What are the policies in place for government intervention to promote sustainability? 1.6 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY The purpose of my research is to influence different stake holders related to environmental conservation and mineral extraction to streamline the disparities in gold mining and environmental destruction for sustainable management.
- 18. 5 1.7 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK Figure1.1: Theoretical frame work 1.8 SCOPE OF THE STUDY The study focused on the impacts of surface gold mining on land use systems and livelihoods and was conducted in Busitema, Sikuda and Buteba sub counties in Busia district and was carried out from January to May 2016. Gold mining Health concerns School drop outs Soil infertility Deforestation Swamp reclamation Income Shops Housing
- 19. 6 CHAPTER TWO: LITERATUREREVIEW 2.1 Introduction This chapter reviews the existing literature related to the subject of the study. The literature is mainly from various sources mainly textbooks, internet, newspapers and journals. 2.2 General characterization of ASGM in the country Production of iron and salt in Uganda has occurred since ancient times; artisanal and small‐scale gold mining (ASGM) is a much more recent phenomenon. The emergence of ASGM can be traced through four periods of minerals sector development over the past century. First, establishment of a number of colonial gold and tin mines across Southwestern Uganda between the 1920s and 1950s introduced small-scale mining to the indigenous Banyankore, Batoro, Bakiga, and other Bantu-speaking tribes of that region of the country. This led to small migrations into mining areas by various local tribes as well as Rwandese and Congolese, whose descendants still populate many of the mining areas today. (Hinton, 2011) Second, between the 1950s and 1970s, establishment of Falconbridge‟s Kilembe mine marked the first and, as of yet, only large‐scale mine in the country, producing over 271,000 tonnes of blister copper as well as cobalt. (Tuhumwire, J., 2002) During this time, a number of small, semi-mechanized lead, tin, wolfram, and coltan mines also operated in the Southwest (e.g., Kitaka, Mwerasandu, Kirwa, Ruhizha), most of which were founded in the pre-independence (pre-1964) period but were later operated mainly by small Indian-Ugandan or Ugandan, rather than British, companies. During this period these mines were the third GDP contributor after coffee and cotton, contributing up to 35% of the country‟s foreign export earnings. (Hester, B.and Boberg, W., 2006) Under the 1964 Constitution, mining of gold and diamonds was illegal, yet gold continued to be extracted within the region, in particular around sites of pre-independence gold mines. Widespread political and civil unrest under the regime of Idi Amin led to the collapse of the formal mining sector in the late 1970s and retrenchment of over 10,000 trained miners. Dispersion of these unemployed miners stimulated unlicensed ASGM across the Southwest and, to a lesser extent, in the goldfields of the East and Northeast.
- 20. 7 Widespread extralegal goldmining continued until 1986, when the National Resistance Movement (NRM) came to power and President Yoweri Museveni made licensing of gold mining possible by presidential decree. With the relative stability experienced since the mid-1980s, a series of gold discoveries by artisanal miners generated rushes that drew between 1,000 to 5,000 miners and introduced ASGM to a number of farming and pastoral communities. Important areas include: Kisita in Mubende District and at Rugyeyo in Kanungu District between 1986-89; a number of smaller localities across the Buhweju Goldfield (e.g., Buhweju, Mashonga) and in Amonikakinei and Tiira in Busia District during the 1990s and 2000s (Hinton, J., 2005) and, gold rushes drawing between 500 and 5,000 miners, respectively, to Buhweju in the Southwest and Napak in Karamoja Region over the past year. Most of these ASGM activities have been alluvial, but those few occurring in hard rock deposits have led to the establishment of small to medium-scale mechanized operations in Mubende (Kisita Gold Mine) and Busia (Busitema Gold Mine) where mining, crushing, grinding, and gravity concentration equipment replaced the manual hauling, crushing, grinding, and panning methods that characterize ASGM across the country. At Busitema, cyanide vat leaching was introduced as an alternative to mercury amalgamation which is still practiced by ASGM in that region. Although licensing of several other small‐scale, hard rock operations (visa‐a-vie “Location Licenses” for small operations) also resulted from a series of discoveries in the 1980s through to today, these operations continue to be highly manual, employing essentially the same practices as unlicensed miners.
- 21. 8 2.3 Economic contributionof gold mining The practice of artisanal and small-scale gold mining (ASGM) is increasing in many low- and middle-income countries (LMICs), mainly due to the rising price of gold and widespread poverty. Gold from these informal mines may represent 20–30% of the world‟s output (UNEP, 2006). It is estimated that about 15 million people work in ASGM and that perhaps 100 million people worldwide depend on the sector for their livelihood (Spiegel S.J., Viega M.M, 2006). Artisanal and small-scale mining (ASM) in Uganda provides a source of livelihood for almost 200,000 women and men, over half of which are engaged in production of industrial minerals to serve the construction demands of the country‟s rapidly growing population (3.3% per annum). At least 20,000 of these miners are engaged in gold mining via ASGM, which has become a relatively important economic activity, mostly in the regions of Busia and Karamoja in the East and Northeast as well as in the Kigezi and Buhweju goldfields across the West and Southwest of the country. (Tuhumwire, J., 2002) Gold has been the luster of kings, merchants and commoners for many centuries. One key consideration in the latter part of the 20th century, the beginning of the 21st century and into the centuries ahead is that gold mining is not quite what it used to be. Much of the world‟s gold comes from stripping massive amounts of earth rather than just from digging for gold veins in underground mines, and much of this takes place in nations that many people in the world have either never heard of nor can locate easily on a map. As a mineral, gold has always epitomized prosperity, and gold mining is amongst the world‟s oldest forms of economic activity. Societal awareness and interest in gold as a metal is high yet, despite this, the role of the gold mining industry in supporting growth within the global economy is seldom discussed. Commentators tend to focus on the impact of mining industry as a whole, grouping gold production with other minerals such as iron ore or copper. However, whilst the absolute volumes of gold produced from mining operations is dwarfed by those of other minerals, the value of gold means that the gold mining industry can make substantial contributions to the growth and prosperity of national and regional economies. The scale of the industry‟s economic contribution can be assessed by calculating the „gross value added‟ (GVA) by gold mining. GVA is a calculation that estimates the contribution of industrial
- 22. 9 activity to anation‟s gross domestic product (GDP). It is important to note two points in relation to GVA. GVA is not the same as production; production statistics describe the physical volume of gold produced whereas GVA statistics (as used throughout this report) describe the economic value of gold output. GVA is not the same as profit; a company can generate substantial GVA within an economy and still be unprofitable. Direct GVA estimates the economic value of the gold mining industry‟s production to an economy. Indirect GVA estimates the value of economic production in associated sectors as a result of gold mining companies‟ expenditures on raw materials, goods and services (the supply chain).
- 23. 10 Table 2.1: Totalglobal direct and indirect GVA of the global gold mining industry and annual average gold price Year Direct GVA (US$bn) Direct and indirect GVA (US$bn) Global annual average price (US$ per ounce) 2000 12.2 25.2 279.1 2005 19.0 39.0 444.5 2010 73.1 150.3 1,224.5 2012 98.7 205.6 1,669.0 2013 83.1 171.6 1,411.2 Source: Maxwell Stamp analysis based on GFMS, Thomson Reuters Gold survey; GFMS, Thomson Reuters Gold mine economic service; The London Gold Market Fixing Limited (TLGMFL) The role that China‟s gold mining industry has played in supporting development and driving high levels of economic growth should not be underestimated. The industry‟s contribution to national GDP has grown by 269% since 2007 and was estimated to be US$11.98bn in 2013, more than double the size of Suriname‟s entire economy. The global economic impact of the industry more than doubles when both the direct and indirect GVA contributions of the gold mining industry are taken into account. This is illustrated by Table2. 1, which also illustrates how the price of gold affects the contribution that the gold mining industry makes to the economies of host countries; changes to the price of gold have clearly been central to the growth in the gold mining industry‟s economic contribution, though the increase in GVA exceeds the rise in the price of gold. Whilst North America remains a significant region for gold mining activity, the majority of gold production is from regions with less advanced economies. This has important implications for economic development, as in smaller and less advanced economies the contributions of the gold
- 24. 11 mining industry willhave a greater proportionate impact on national economies and therefore, potentially, also on the economic development of host nations. Gold mining can be an important catalyst for development, but as other industry sectors develop the relative importance of gold mining declines as the economy diversifies. Mining and producing gold obviously generates a significant economic benefit. The social costs must be considered as well. The World Gold Council (WGC), a pro-gold group, has issued its report on the social and economic impacts of gold mining. It would normally be expected that the WGC‟s views are universally positive, yet sometimes the group issues views that are cautious regarding gold trends. Gold mining companies are a major source of income and economic growth, with an important role in supporting sustainable socio-economic development. During 2013, gold mining companies contributed over US$171.6bn to the global economy through their production activities and expenditure on goods and services. This is more than the combined gross domestic product of Ecuador, Ghana and Tanzania, or close to half of the gross domestic product of countries such as South Africa or Denmark. Many of the countries that are significant gold producers are also impoverished countries that are long term recipients of development assistance (aid) from foreign government donors. Given that reliance on foreign aid is an inherently vulnerable position for any impoverished country, it is notable that the economic value directly and indirectly created by the gold mining industry globally has exceeded the global total value of development assistance every year since 2010. Although Uganda is endowed with a great diversity of geological formations and structures, the mining sector is still in a stage of infancy. The sector‟s contribution to Uganda‟s economy accounts for less than 0.9% of GDP and 8.2% of exports as of the 2003/04 FY. Most actors in the sector are at the small scale and artisan levels with a significant absence of large-scale mining activity. A significant proportion of ASGM in Uganda is seasonal, and miners often use revenues to invest in farming and meet basic needs, such as school fees, healthcare, and home improvements. Cumulatively, this economic contribution can be substantial and is visibly evident in the form of shops, restaurants and goods available in trading centers near to many of the larger ASGM areas. In 2008, gold miners‟ incomes from ASGM were estimated to total US$21.4 million most of which was injected into local and, to a lesser extent, regional economies.
- 25. 12 A significant proportionof ASGM in Uganda is seasonal, and miners often use revenues to invest in farming and meet basic needs, such as school fees, health care, and home improvements. Cumulatively, this economic contribution can be substantial and is visibly evident in the form of shops, restaurants and goods available in trading centres near to many of the larger ASGM areas. In 2008, gold miners‟ incomes from ASGM were estimated to total US$21.4 million most of which was injected into local and, to a lesser extent, regional economies. (Hinton, J., 2009) The government is actively seeking private and foreign investment to promote large scale mining growth and to reorganize small-scale and artisan mining activities to enhance productivity and, technical, environmental and social performance. The overall objective of the government is to build capacity in the mining sector through the Mineral Sector Development Technical Assistance Project (MSDTA) by targeted interventions to alleviate poverty in rural areas with significant small-scale and artisan mining activity.
- 26. 13 2.4 social andenvironmental impacts of gold mining on local livelihoods around the area. Artisanal and small-scale gold mining, like other extractive activities, raises numerous environmental concerns. Emissions of mercury (Hg) into the atmosphere as well as direct releases of mercury to soil and water are of primary concern because of the extensive use of mercury to amalgamate gold by artisanal miners. Recent estimates suggest that the ASGM sector is the primary source of mercury into the global atmosphere, accounting for approximately 37% (727 tonnes) of all global emissions (United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP),2013) While mercury has gained most attention, there exist many other direct and indirect factors that contribute to poor ecological conditions in ASGM communities. This necessitates that impacts on the natural system, as well as planning for interventions be viewed under a broad ecosystem lens. ASGM sites require water for a variety of functions (e.g., sluicing/washing, panning, and amalgamation preparation), and thus mining activities need to be located in close proximity to water sources. A life cycle analysis of ASGM in Peru by Valdivia and Ugaya (Valdivia S.M., Ugaya C.M.L, 2011) that examined ASGM mining impacts, found that alluvial mining required 49,019,000 L of water in the sluicing/washing step to yield one kilogram of concentrated gold ore (99.5% gold) from 23,922 tonnes of ore, or 2049 L of water for 1 tonne of ore processed. In addition to the quantity of water used, ASGM activities can have significant impacts on water quality. Ore processing may result in intentional and unintentional releases of produced water and chemicals, cause erosion from surface disturbances, and alter water flow due to excessive surface or groundwater withdrawals. Localized lowered water tables, increased siltation in rivers, and increased flooding have all been observed with mining generally (UNEP, 2008) Owing to the transitional nature and short histories of some ASGM communities, potable water and sanitation infrastructure such as indoor plumbing and pit latrines, or even designated areas for defecation, may be non-existent, causing additional biological contamination concerns for drinking water sources. ( . Long R., Renne E., Robins T., Wilson M., Pelig-ba K., Rajaee M., Yee A., Koomson E., Sharp C., Lu J.,2013) The impact of mining on local communities can be devastating. Most notable are the disruption of social cohesion, internal migration due to loss or deterioration of economic activities, intense
- 27. 14 inequality against womenwho are primarily affected by a predominantly male activity. (Carlos Zorrilla 2009, Sweeting, A.R. & Clark, A.P. 2000)) In Busia in the Eastern part of the country, and to some extent in neighboring Bugiri, about 600- 1000 miners do use mercury. Furthermore, with the exception of the occasional gold rush, the majority of gold miners work in small groups of less than six panners and diggers. Only in a few sites does the number of gold miners in a group exceed 15-20. (UNEP-Uganda, 2012) As such, the main environmental impacts from ASGM in Uganda relate to siltation of rivers and wildcat pitting causing localized degradation of soil and vegetation (in some cases affecting forest resources). Particularly in the tropical climate characteristic of the west and Southwest, natural reclamation of sites (natural re-growth and recovery of rivers) appears to be relatively rapid. However, in some localities, the situation of several hundred miners working within a given watershed has been observed to impact cumulatively downstream water users via siltation and to create health and safety hazards (e.g., for cattle and humans from wildcat pitting) as well as impeding post-mining agricultural use. This is most evident in ASGM areas of Buhweju, Kaabong, and Napak and, to a lesser extent, Moroto Districts. In protected areas where sporadic ASGM is occurring, such as Bwindi Impenetrable Forest or Kashoya-Kitomi Central Forest Reserve, there is some concern about the cumulative effects of ASGM on these ecosystems. Gold mining in Busia District occurs in an extension of northern Tanzania‟s greenstone belt where gold occurs in association with quartz veins or as a secondary enrichment within a banded iron formation unit at the base of laterites. As such, mercury amalgamation was introduced in the 1990s by a few Ugandan miners who previously sought fortunes in Tanzania. Unlike the small, mechanized processing centres found in Tanzania, methods used in Busia are comparatively crude and manual (pounding with mortars and pestles, hand amalgamation in basins, open air burning over fires, haphazard discharge of tailings into waterways). No comprehensive assessments of mercury mobility and bioaccumulation have been done in the area although, based on gold production estimates and methods used, it is estimated that approximately 150kg of mercury per annum are emitted into the environment. Approximately 45kg per annum of this mercury may be discharged with tailings into small rivers and streams. Most of this is likely retained in sediments but a portion may reach Lake Victoria over 30km downstream via a series of wetlands where potential for methylation of mercury and incorporation into the food chain may be possible. (UNEP-Uganda, 2012)
- 28. 15 Environmental and humanhealth concerns are most evident from inhalation of mercury vapour via open air burning over fires or from using small blowtorches, some of which takes place in cooking areas of the home and in the presence of children. Fatalities and serious injuries due to collapse of pit walls or underground tunnels presents a more immediate concern in Busia and all of the other ASGM areas. Between one and five deaths are known to occur annually while many more are likely to go unreported. There is currently a risk of proliferation of cyanide use by ASGM in conjunction with mercury amalgamation in Busia District, thereby potentially increasing both mobility and methylation potential of mercury. After more than 6 years of disputes with local artisanal miners, Busitema Mining Company (BMC) established a central processing centre utilizing a stamp mill, copper plates and mercury amalgamation for whole ore amalgamation wherein tailings would be retained by the company for subsequent cyanide vat leaching. Despite concerns vocally expressed by ASM consultants with respect to the environmental risks of introducing such technology to Uganda (as well as concerns regarding the BMC approach to access and benefit sharing from the central processing centre), BMC continued to implement the model for over a year. In terms of socio‐economic impacts of ASGM, a relevant characteristic of ASGM in Uganda is that most miners are indigenous to the communities and areas where they live and work (or have been long-time residents) and “migration” is typically only within a sub county or, at most, a district. Issues related to HIV/AIDS and stimulation of the sex trade through the cash-based economy is significant. However, common concerns related to modification of cultural values and inter‐cultural conflict are far less pronounced than documented in other countries (the exception being particularly large rushes such as that currently taking place in Napak in the Karamoja Region). Miners often obtain informal consent from land owners prior to work (whether they hold land title or not) and some form of profit sharing seems to be preventing related conflicts. (UNEP-Uganda, 2012) Elemental mercury is used in ASGM because of its ability to isolate gold from other non-target minerals. Mercury creates a bond with gold, called an amalgam. Because of the low vapor pressure of mercury, burning the gold-mercury amalgam leaves the valuable gold behind. Mercury emitted during amalgam burning can have significant impacts at the local scale in villages and towns where mercury vapor is emitted, and globally when that mercury vapor enters the global atmospheric pool and is transported large distances before being redeposited as
- 29. 16 inorganic mercury onthe landscape (United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) Global Mercury Assessment. UNEP; Geneva, Switzerland: 2002.). Inorganic mercury can be methylated (bound to carbon) by microorganisms mainly in aquatic ecosystems. Methyl mercury is often found in fish at higher concentrations since it is able to bioaccumulate and biomagnify in organisms (Watras C.J., Back R.C., Halvorsen S., Hudson R.J.M., Morrison K.A., Wente S.P., 1998). ASGM with mercury can result in atmospheric emissions as well as direct releases to soil and water, accounting for an estimated 37% of total global anthropogenic mercury emissions annually, It has now been estimated by the United National Environment Programme (UNEP) that ASGM has surpassed fossil fuel combustion as the largest contributor to global anthropogenic mercury in the atmosphere. The largest regional consumers of mercury for ASGM are East and Southeast Asia, South America, and Sub-Saharan Africa (Pacyna E.G., Pacyna J.M., Sundseth K., Munthe J., Kindbom K., Wilson S., Steenhuisen F., Maxson P., 2005).
- 30. 17 2.5 Government interventionfor sustainable development of the sector Historically, development of the minerals sector in Uganda has been hindered by a number of policy, legal, regulatory, and enforcement constraints. For instance, the Mining Act of 1964 enshrined a number of problems ranging from granting absolute discretionary powers, to administration, to creating size and duration of tenure for various licenses that were not suited to the nature of the sector, to inappropriate taxation given regional and international norms. (Pers comm., 2011) It has been realized that although some degree of disturbance is inevitable even in the best managed mines, nearly all negative social and environmental impacts are avoidable if companies would operate according to the best possible standards (Miranda et al, 2005). Reviews and discussions within the Government and stakeholder consultations led to policy and legal reforms beginning with a Mineral Policy in 2001, followed by promulgation of the Mining Act (2003) and Mining Regulations (2004). The reform process received criticism from some stakeholders concerning lack of genuine and informed engagement (and lack of inclusion of stakeholder recommendations in legislation), yet the resulting code is essentially in line with international “best practice” and enables Uganda to compete for investment by creating liberalized, stable, and conducive conditions. A key change is that the Mining Act is now administered by the Commissioner of the Department of Geological Survey and Mines (DGSM), thereby separating powers from the Minister responsible for Minerals, and licenses are granted on the basis of first come, first served principles. Furthermore, DGSM has, over the past 3 years, engaged in regional initiatives with the Uganda Bureau of Statistics (UBOS) and improved information sharing with the Uganda Revenue Authority (URA). At the same time it‟s reporting of estimates of informal ASM production has served to increase the priority afforded to ASM and the minerals sector in general. This has substantially increased the attention of the GOU, including the Ministry of Finance, Planning and Economic Development (MFPED), and plans have subsequently been developed to increase budgetary support to DGSM to help fulfill its ASM regulation and extension service mandates. Much of the recent attention to ASGM has been catalyzed by the Sustainable Management of Mineral Resources Project (SMMRP), which was implemented from 2004-2011, funded by the World Bank, African Development Bank, Nordic Development, and the GOU, one of five components of the SMMRP addressed community development and small‐scale mining,
- 31. 18 targeting gold aswell as other metallic minerals (tin, coltan, wolfram) and industrial minerals (limestone, marble, stone aggregate, etc.), SMMRP activities sought to strengthen institutional capacity to support formalization and improved performance of ASM throughout the country.
- 32. 19 CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY 3.1Overview This part represents the research design, sampling strategies, methods and procedures that were used to collect data and data analysis methods. It describes the variables that were considered to be very important in determining the impacts of surface gold mining on land use systems and livelihoods in order to achieve the set objectives. 3.2 Research design A cross-sectional design was used for the study to provide a framework for data collection and analysis. A cross sectional design entails the collection of data in more than one case (usually more than one) and at a single point in time to collect a body of qualitative and quantitative data in connection to two or more variables (usually many more than two) which are examined to detect a pattern of association (Bryman, 2008). The cross sectional design was thus appropriate in studying the communities within the 3 sub counties. This is because the study involved the study of three different communities on relevant issues on Surface gold mining, the environment and livelihood at a single point in time. It also involved the collection of data on these issues to establish a connection or association among them. 3.3 Study population The target population was people living in Busia district and my target population was estimated to be of around 55200 people living in the sub counties of Busitema, Sikuda and Buteba sub counties (UBOS, 2009), accounting for the Households living around the gold mining areas. These respondents are to be selected using sampling techniques as below. 3.4 Sample size and Sampling strategies 3.4.1 Sample size My sample size was a population of 60 respondents from 3 sub counties of Busia district. They included households who derive their living from gold mining, those who are affected by the mining activities both directly and indirectly and the local leaders with in those communities to
- 33. 20 whom cases goas regards mining activities and also find out how they have helped their people to adapt to these changes as a result. 3.4.2 Sampling strategies The study used simple random sampling and purposive sampling. Simple random sampling was used to ensure that each member of the society has an equal chance of being selected in the study group and also to avoid cases of bias. However, for convenience, purposive sampling method was used to interview only a specified group of people like those who directly do the mining, those who benefit from gold mining and those affected by the mining activities and the sub county chiefs for specified information. 3.5 Methods of data collections 3.5.1 Self-administered questionnaires The main method of data collection was the self-administered questionnaires which was written in English and later translated in local languages for those who do not understand English. I chose this method because a lot of information can be got within a short period of time, enables respondents to answer questions more accurately and also raise sensitive issues which would be difficult with the use of focused group discussions. 3.5.2 Interviewing Interviews to selected individuals intended to support or augment the information obtained from self administered questionnaires. 3.5.3 Focus Group Discussions A group of individuals was selected randomly and questions concerning the study were asked to get their answers. 3.6 Data analysis techniques and data processing This involved the statistical treatment of data, data processing, and finally analyzing the data. When all the questionnaires were answered, statistical packages were employed to analyze all the data and it was computerized. The process of data processing involved categorizing of the data with all responses of each question being listed, coded and then entered into excel and finally
- 34. 21 STATA11 and SPSSfor analysis. The analysis was done at univariate level i.e. the use of frequency tables, pie charts and tables. 3.7 Validity and Reliability of data collection instruments Validity of an instrument refers to the ability of the instrument to collect justifiable and truthful data (Odiya 2009). The research was done on law full grounds according to the pilot studies which were carried out to test whether the pre designed questions in the questionnaire would produce the desired information as regards the objectives of the topic. Reliability also helped in ensuring consistency of the data collected. The pre test was done by approaching a few of the respondents and getting data from them to assess how long it would take to administer the questionnaire. The findings in the pilot study were used to re design the instruments used to come up with a vivid data collection approach. 3.8 Limitations to the study I faced a challenge of limited information about the estimated impacts of surface gold mining on people‟s livelihoods and the environment. Limitation of financial resources to collect the data considering the distance I had to cover to get to those places and they are apart. Fear by respondents to disclose information with a view that I am a government spy.
- 35. 22 CHAPTER FOUR: PRESENTATIONAND DISCUSSION OF RESULTS 4.1 Introduction This chapter presents the results from the analysis and discussion of findings with reference to the impacts of surface gold mining on land use systems and livelihoods of the surrounding community of Busitema, Buteba and Sikuda sub counties in Busia district. 4.2 Analysis of bio-data The demographic characteristics of the respondents comprised of the location, gender, age, level of education, time spent in a place and marital status. 4.2.1 Age of respondents Figure 4.2: Age of respondents Source: Primary data 2016 Respondents‟ age groups were identified in order to find out the most active age group in the mining activity. From the table above, 48.3% of the respondents were below 25 years of age, 23.3% aged between 26 – 35, 16.7% between 36 – 45 and 11.7% of the respondents were aged between 46 – 55 years of age. This indicates that there are more youth involved in the mining activities from the sampled areas, followed by those aged between 26 – 35 years with 23.3%. There were few old people from 60 years and above involved in the mining. The many numbers in the youthful stage explain why there are few people carrying out agriculture because it‟s only the elderly still doing it of which they are worn out leading to food insecurity in most of these areas.
- 36. 23 4.2.2 Sex ofthe respondents Gender of respondents is important to assess the gender plane in gold mining activities. The findings of the research are shown in the figure below. Figure 4. 3: Gender of respondents Source: primary data, 2015 According to the figure above, findings indicate that the percentage of males to females‟ involvement in gold mining is large, giving 68% of respondents as compared to the 32% of the female participants (half of the males). This indicates that males were more than females among the sampled respondents. Mining involves a series of hectic activities which can only be borne by the males; most of the women get involved in intermediary activities like panning and amalgamation.
- 37. 24 4.2.3 Marital statusof the respondents Figure 4. 4: Marital-status of the respondents Source: Primary data According to the figure above, 43.3% of the sampled respondents were single, 55% were married, and 1.67% of the respondents did not specify their status. This implies that most of the respondents were married. 4.2.4 Distribution of respondents by education level Education levels influence behavior and activities carried out. Findings are summarized in the figure below. Figure 4.5: Graph showing respondents’ education levels Source: Primary data 2016
- 38. 25 According to thefigure 4.5 above, 21.67% of the sampled respondents attended primary education, 51.67% of the respondents have been to secondary school, 20% to tertiary institutions while 6.67% of the respondents had never attained any level of education. This states that most of the sampled respondents have been to secondary school. These high levels of secondary level education might be as a result of the recent sensitization programmes in the area to parents. 4.3 Analyses of economic activities carried out to earn a living of individual respondents and community benefits from gold mining. 4.3.1 Economic activity carried out to earn a living Figure 4.6: Economic activity carried out to earn a living Source: Primary data According to the pie-chart above, 15% of the respondents claimed that they obtain their incomes from other forms of economic activities which include Teaching, business etc. 53% claimed to be acquiring their incomes from artisanal gold mining, while the rest of the 32% get their incomes from farming, this takes in course Agriculture, Cattle keeping etc. This implies that among the sampled respondents, more of them derive their livelihood from mining. Most of the people in these areas survive through mining gold and very few have remained doing agriculture though also in some places people do both, you can not solely rely on mining.
- 39. 26 4.3.2 Benefits derivedfrom gold mining Figure 4.7: Benefits from gold mining Source: Primary data From the figure 4.7 above, 28.33% of the respondents had school fees being catered for by gold mining, 20% have built themselves personal houses, 1.67% of the respondents bought land and 50% of the respondents claimed mining provides them with personal income for survival. This therefore implies that more of the respondents earn incomes for daily survival from gold mining. Incomes earned are used for daily expenditure and general improvement of standards of living; these incomes have also boosted other small businesses like the bars and restaurants around.
- 40. 27 4.4 Analysis ofthe gold mining associated risks 4.4.1 Gold mining associated risks Figure 4.8 Gold mining associated risks Source: Primary data 2016 According to the figure 7 above, the respondents from the 3 sub counties, 23.3% of the respondents said that gold mining has led to deaths of their beloved ones, 25% state that mining gold caused accidents, 18.33% have had their crops damaged, 30% of the respondents say the problem of diseases for example cancer, persistent headaches etc. as a result of gold mining is reigning, cancer is as a result of mercury from amalgamation whereas 3.33% of the respondents say have never been affected in any way by the activity. This indicates that most respondents are most tortured with the problem of diseases arising as a result of gold mining. Deaths usually have been rampant because people dig these pits anyhow but of late some technology facilitated by EWAD has reduced the number of deaths.
- 41. 28 4.4.2 Relationship betweengender and impacts from gold mining The relationship between gender and impacts as a result of gold mining was analyzed using a Pearson chi square test as shown in table 4.3. The p-value was less than 0.05 that is 0.035<0.05 which indicates that gender is statistically significant in explaining and determining the level of risks as a result of gold mining in these communities. This also explains why it‟s most male respondents who were negatively impacted by gold mining activities since it‟s those involved most as illustrated in figure 4.9, these negative impacts include diseases, accidents etc. Table 4.2: Chi-Square Tests for gender in relation to gold mining associated risks Value df Asymp. Sig. (2-sided) Exact Sig. (2-sided) Exact Sig. (1-sided) Pearson Chi-Square 4.465a 1 .035 Continuity Correctionb 1.795 1 .180 Likelihood Ratio 4.751 1 .029 Fisher's Exact Test .097 .097 Linear-by-Linear Association 4.390 1 .036 N of Valid Casesb 60 Source: Primary data 2016
- 42. 29 Bar chart Figure 4.9:Relationship between gender and gold mining associated risks Source: Primary data 2016 Figure 4.10 shows the relationship between gender and the gold mining associated risks, it indicates that male participants were more prone to these risks since it is them involved most. 4.4.3 Economic activities affected by gold mining These activities were selected because these are the most common activities done apart from gold mining; grazing involves rearing animals such as cows, goats etc. Figure 4.10: Economic activities affected by gold mining
- 43. 30 Source: Primary data Fromthe figure above, 72% of respondents stated that Agriculture is affected by mining activities because when pits have been dug, they can never be used for any other activity- due to the burrying of top fertile soil with infertile underground murram,. 25% stated that cattle rearing was affected due to animals‟ deaths as a result of the un covered pits and 3% of the respondents stated that gold mining does not affect the two activities anyway. This clearly indicates that most of the respondents indicated agriculture being affected by gold mining activities due to less land left for cultivation. 4.4.4 Respondents’ Knowledge about Environmental Impacts Figure 4.11: Respondents’ Knowledge about Environmental Impacts Source: Primary data 2016 From the figure above, 87% of the respondents say surface gold mining has an impact on the environment whereas 13% of them do not agree that mining has an associated environmental impact. This implies that most of the respondents agree that mining brings about environmental impacts. This is partially because most respondents have been to secondary level of education where hopefully they have some knowledge as regards environmental degradation.
- 44. 31 4.4.5 Relationship betweeneducation levels and knowledge about environmental impacts A chi square test was performed to analyze the relationship between the education levels and knowledge about environmental impacts from gold mining. In table 4.4 below the p - value was less than 0.05 that is 0.048<0.05 which indicates that the knowledge about environmental impacts from the activity was best known to those who have been to school especially secondary level where most respondents fall. This also explains why many of the respondents who have been to secondary school had knowledge about it and also every respondent in tertiary has full knowledge about the impacts meaning all of them were aware as shown in figure 4.12. Table4.3: Significance of education level in determining the knowledge about environmental impacts Chi-Square Tests Value df Asymp. Sig. (2-sided) Pearson Chi-Square 7.927a 3 .048 Likelihood Ratio 7.818 3 .050 Linear-by-Linear Association .001 1 .976 N of Valid Cases 60 Source: Primary data 2016 Bar chart
- 45. 32 Source: Primary data2016 Figure 4.12: Relationship between education levels and Respondents’ knowledge about environmental impacts 4.4.6 Environmental Impacts due to surface gold mining Figure 4.13: Graph showing Environmental Impacts Source: Primary data 2016 From the figure above, 36.67% of the respondents said mining has led to tree cutting this is as a result of clearing land to create space for digging new pits,11.67% of the respondents stated water contamination as a result of the running water used in washing the particles to be
- 46. 33 amalgamated and thiswater ends up in water sources like wells and also under groundwater tables to contaminate the borehole water, 23.33% of the respondents stated soil erosion which occurs as a result of the running water used in the ball mills and wash machines, 13.33% of the respondents stated air pollution because mining is attached to crushing stones and many other activities which use sophiscated machinery and they release a lot of smoke to the air, 1.67% of the respondents stated noise from ball mills and other activities like manual panning and 13.33% of the respondents did not specify their choice, it could be because they are totally not informed about environmental damage visavie gold mining. This implies that from the sampled respondents, most people attatch gold mining to a problem of tree cutting as earlier explained why. Also due to the education level of most respondents, most respondents could only indicate tree cutting as the biggest challenge to the environment with gold mining. 4.5 Intervention measures 4.5.1 Community Intervention against environmetal consequences from gold mining Figure 4.14: Graph showing Community intervention measures Source: Primary data 2016 From the figure above, it is evident that 76.67% of the respondents say the community has been trying to curb some of the gold mining related impacts through senstizing communities, 21.67% say the local leaders were discouraging child labour and 1.67% of the sampled respondents were not specific in their reason. This indicates that the community has been trying hard to sensitize the miners through it‟s local leaders.
- 47. 34 4.5.2 Organizations workingin the mining communities Figure 4.15: Pie chart showing organisations working in the communities Source: Primary data 2016 From the pie chart, 63% of the respondets have received experts inform of Non government organisations, 7% have received District officials while 30% of the respondents have not received any expert in their communities. This indicates that majority of the respondents have heard gold mining related issues through NGO experts such as Environmental Women and development.(EWAD)
- 48. 35 4.5.3 Interventions byorganizations Figure 4.16: Graph showing interventions by organizations Source: Primary data 2016 From the figure above, 28.33% of the respondents have been fully senstized to handle mining and it‟s resultant challenges, 21.67% of the respondents have been given protective gears, 20% have been helped to form groups while for 30% of the respondents this did not apply to them.
- 49. 36 CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY,CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDETIONS 5.1 Introduction This chapter contains the summary, conclusions, recommendations and areas of further research. 5.2 Summary of findings Research findings indicate that the majority of the respondents were aged below 25 years, 68% were males and 32% females, 43 respondents were married. The findings also indicate that more male respondents had reached secondary level of education. The research findings indicate that, 53% of the respondents derive their livelihood from mining; the findings also indicate that 50% of the respondents earn income for daily survival and improved standards of living from gold mining. The research findings also indicate that 30% of the sampled respondents suffer from the problem of diseases such as heart disorders, cancer, chronic headaches etc. as a result of the mining activities in the area. Findings also indicate that 72% of respondents say the most affected activity from gold mining is agriculture which involves cultivation of crops such as maize, beans, cassava etc. Much of the land in these areas has been channeled for mining living other activities potential of livelihood survival not favored due to the pits and large coverage of land needed to carry out the activity. Research findings indicate that 87% of the respondents agree that gold mining brings about environmental damage such as tree cutting, air pollution etc, 36.67% of the respondents stated that tree cutting is the biggest environmental problem in these areas because whenever a pit is to be dug, you need to cut a tree down or other shrubs there within to clear the land. The research findings indicate that 76.67% of the respondents have been sensitized fully by the community leaders as regards the gold mining related impacts, findings also indicate that 63% of respondents have received experts inform of Non Government Organisations to sensitise and offer more guidance including gadgets such as protective gears and also formalising groups. 5.3 Conclusion of the study From the research findings, it is observed that benefits from gold mining are majorly income, used for school fees and housing, money earned from gold mining is being used to improve
- 50. 37 standards of living,and improve on the general infrastructure of the area, and incomes can also be used to attain better health care services. From the research findings it is also observed that people face problems of accidents, diseases and death from gold mining. Accidents usually occur as a result of damaged and cracked pits, diseases usually are attached to complications from pounding, mercury amalgamation for gold and as a result of ground breakage, and there are still many deaths in these areas. Findings also indicate that gold mining activities affect people‟s agriculture activities and most people in these areas survive on agriculture apart from gold mining. From the research findings, it is also indicated that 87% of the respondents are aware that gold mining activities bring about environmental damage, evident from soil erosion and cutting down of trees to facilitate opening of new pits. There is a positive relationship between respondents‟ education level and their knowledge about the environmental impacts as a result of gold mining in that the respondents who attained education up to secondary and tertiary level took the environmental challenges as serious as compared to those who stopped in primary or had no education at all. Therefore there is need to undertake immediate actions especially through provision of education services to the local people in order to enable them understand that they need to mine the gold but as well as enjoy the ecosystem services provided by the environment. The research findings also indicate 63% of the respondents have been fully sensitized by NGOs such as EWAD in communities of Tiira and Syanyonja, this is focusing on sensitizing people about proper mining methods and formalizing their groups of trade for better pay and EWAD also does give women protective gears to guard them against harms of mining especially mercury. 5.4 Recommendations of the study The researcher commends that the government should carry out seminars and workshops with the aim of creating knowledge and information dissemination about proper mining methods that ensure efficiency, proper ways of digging pits to ensure they can be covered and still be used for another activity and also to minimize accidents and deaths registered from the communities.
- 51. 38 The researcher furtherrecommends that government should support the artisanal miners inform of ensuring fair trade such that they are not cheated by dealers, this should follow group formalization. Furthermore, the researcher recommends environmental bodies be integrated with in the mining activities in the communities to ensure compliance. These bodies include NEMA and NFA. 5.5 Areas for further study Stake holder analysis: This should include bringing all the different individuals and groups that are involved in the gold mining industry to ensure sustainable use and management of the environment. It should address the needs of the people who directly and indirectly derive their living from mining and those affected as a result of the mining activities. These stake holders may include interest groups like NGOs, CBOs and individuals. Assessing impacts of surface gold mining should also involve assessing nature of tools used for mining.
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- 54. 41 Oxford Policy Management(2011) .Tanzania investment benefits study, World Bank Sustainable Management of Mineral Resource Project, at www.opml.co.uk (accessed December 2014). Pacyna E.G., Pacyna J.M., Sundseth K., Munthe J., Kindbom K., Wilson S., Steenhuisen F., Maxson P. Environ. 2010; 44:2487–2499.doi: Global emission of mercury to the atmosphere from anthropogenic sources in 2005 and projections to 2020. Atmos. Pers comm., 2011, Ag. Principal Inspector of Mines, Dept. of Geological Survey and Mines, Entebbe, Uganda. Tuhumwire, J., 2002, An Overview of the Mineral Sector in Uganda, Unpubl DGSM Report JTT/39, March 2002, 19p. United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), 2002. Global Mercury Assessment. UNEP; Geneva, Switzerland United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), 2006. Summary of Supply, Trade and Demand Information on Mercury. UNEP; Geneva, Switzerland WBCSD (2009) Measuring impact case study: Supporting local economic growth in Ghana, at www.wbcsd.org (accessed December 2014). Wikipedia.org: Gold http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gold World Bank (2013) Brief: Gender in extractive industries, at www.worldbank.org/en/topic/extractiveindustries/brief/gender-in-extractive-industries (accessed December 2014). www.africaminingvision.org www.wiradjuricondocorp.com (accessed December 2014).
- 55. 42 APPENDICES Appendix 1: Modernpits to reduce breakage and minimize accidents, initiative of EWAD Pits built using pieces of timber supported to each other to enable someone go very deep and ground on the sides remains firm.
- 56. 43 Appendix 2: Uncovered pits hazardous to people and animals Pits which have been deserted for a long time account for multiple deaths and accidents, vegetation has covered all over.
- 57. 44 Appendix 3: Aball mill used to crash the stones to fine particles
- 58. 45 Appendix 4: Questionnare Myname is OBUKUI PIUS IMERI, a student of Busitema University doing this research as a partial fulfillment for the award of a BSc. Degree in Natural resource economics. This questionnaire is designed to assess the impacts of surface gold mining on land use systems and livelihoods in Busitema, Sikuda and Buteba sub counties. Please answer all the questions with honesty because the information you give is purely academic and it will be treated with a lot of confidentiality. I am therefore requesting you to participate in this study by responding to these questions. SECTION A: (BIO DATA) 1. Name of location: Village……………………… Parish………………. Sub county……………………… 2. Sex: (i) Male (ii) Female 3. What is your age? (i)Below 25 (iii) 36 -45 (ii) 26 – 35 (iv) 46–55 4. What is your highest level of education? (i)Primary (iii) Tertiary (ii)Secondary (iv) None
- 59. 46 5. Marital status: (i)Single (ii) Married (iii) Others specify…………………. 6. How long have you stayed in this place? (i)Less than 5 yrs. (iii) 10 yrs. and above (ii) 6 – 10 yrs. SECTION B: (CONTRIBUTION TO LIVELIHOODS) 7. What economic activities do you carry out to earn a living? ……………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………… 8. Which of these is your key source of income? ……………………………………………………………………………………………… 9. What is your annual income from the activity? ………………………………………………………………………………. 10. How has gold mining benefited this community ……………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………… 11. How have you benefited from gold mining directly or indirectly? ……………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………
- 60. 47 SECTION C: (Impactsas a result of gold mining) 12. Have you ever been affected by mining activities? i. Yes ii. No 13. If yes, how? ……………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………… 14. Of the activities you are doing, which one is most affected by gold mining and how? ……………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………… 15. Do you agree that gold mining has an impact on the environment? i. Yes ii. No 16. If yes, how? ……………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………… 17. Overall, what are the problems associated with gold mining in this area? ……………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………….
- 61. 48 SECTION D; (Interventionmeasures) 18. How has the community been able to handle these problems above? ……………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………… 19. Have you received any expert to talk to you about gold mining, its benefits and impacts? i. Yes ii. No 20. If yes, please specify: i. NGO ii. District official 21. How have these people helped you solve some of the above problems? ……………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………… THANK YOU