for school purposes

1. CHAPTER 4:
COMPONENTS OF
SPECIAL AND
INCLUSIVE EDUCATION
By Group 2

2. OBJECTIVES:
Enumerate the processes involved in Child Find through
the pre- referral process.
Identify the assessment tools, methods, and principles in
working with children with additional needs.
Identify the different placement within a continuum.
Compare accommodations and curriculum modifications.
Identify ways hot to involve parents as parts of the home-
school collaboration.

3. I. CHILD FIND THROUGH A PRE- REFERRAL PROCESS
Referral for evaluation and special education services begins
by identifying students who have additional needs and who
may be at risk for developmental disabilities. School
guidance counselors, early childhood teachers, primary
school teachers, and community- based daycare workers
are often the first to notice such developmental delays in
children. In other instances, the parents themselves notice
the delays and seek consultation with pediatricians and
other specialists.

4. A child noted to have significant difficulties in relation
to expected competencies and developmental milestones
may be referred by parents and teachers for observation
and assessment. A team of professionals, known as a pre-
referral team, is comprised of special education teachers,
counselors, administrators, and psychologists who
collaborate to determine reasons for the observed
challenges (Hallahan et al. 2014).
A. PRE -REFERRAL PROCESS

5. Taylor (2009) provided an assessment model that begins
with a pre-referral process. Children with noted
developmental delays and difficulties are identified through
observations and use of norm- and criterion-referenced
tests. They are not immediately referred for special
education testing but are first provided with the necessary
academic and behavioral support needed to address noted
challenges. In his assessment model, Taylor (2009) explained
that the initial step is to determine teaching areas where a
learner will benefit from additional support through a
variety of means.

6. Very young students who are at-risk or suspected
to have additional needs may also be identified
through community-based screening. Child
development and social workers use developmental
screening tools such as the Early Childhood Care
and Development (ECCD) Checklist that covers
items expected for a child's typical development.

7. B. PRE- REFERRAL STRATEGIES
Essential in a prereferral intervention
is the use of pre-referral strategies that
are designed to provide immediate
instructional and/or Behavior
management support to a child.

8. Examples of pre-referral strategies are observation of
the child's behavior, including interactions with
parents, teachers, and peers, interview of parents and
teachers to gather more information about the child:
review of school records; and analysis of the child's
academic output through error analysis, portfolio
assessment, and criterion-referenced and curriculum-
based assessment (Taylor 2009).

9. INITIAL
IDENTIFICATION
DETERMINATION OF
TEACHING AREAS AND
STRATEGIES
EVALUATION OF
TEACHING PROGRAM
IMPLEMENTATION OF
TEACHING PROGRAMS
Recognition of parental problems
Parent or Teacher observation
Review of school records, classroom observation
Small- group instruction
Direct instruction
Additional in- class or after- school support
Modification of classroom environment and behavior
Modification of instruction to address potential needs
Determine effectiveness of programs on learning and
behavior

10. Carl's Pre-Referral Process
Ms. Reyes, a 3rd Grade teacher, has always been baffled by one of her students, Carl. She has
observed that Carl is very creative. He loves to draw and is quite good at it. He is fluent and
conversant in English and can create such imaginative stories. She noted, however, that unlike his
peers who can already read short stories for Grade 3 and write paragraphs well, Carl is still struggling
at the word level. Although he can create his own stories through oral narration, he can't seem to
write them down without having spelling errors. He gets very frustrated in such tasks that when he
needs to answer essay questions in a test. he just scribbles a word or two and stops trying altogether.
Ms. Reyes, together with the other subject teachers and the Guidance Counselor, discussed Carl's
behavior and performance in terms of his strengths, needs, and strategies that have worked in the
past. They have noted that giving him a list of high-frequency words and sight words has been helpful.
They suggested to pair him up with a classmate, who is an able reader to help him during writing
tasks. They had a meeting with his parents and informed them that he will be given supplementary
reading and writing practice worksheets to be answered at home to build automaticity in reading. And
finally, he was recommended to join an after-school English remedial class to address his reading and
spelling difficulties.
Ms. Reyes decided to refer Carl to the school's Guidance Team to determine reasons to account for
his difficulties. The team advised Ms. Reyes on what she needed to do in the pre-referral process. Ms.
Reyes collected his sample works across subject areas, reviewed his report cards from the previous
grade levels, and had a sit-down meeting with the rest of his teachers.

11. II. ASSESSMENT
Assessment is the process of collecting information
about a child's strengths and needs. It uses a problem-
solving process that involves a systematic collection as
well as interpretation of data gathered (Salvia et al.
2013). Teachers and administrators make
instructional decisions based
on the assessment results.

12. A. ASSESSMENT PURPOSES
Assessment has a variety of purpose in special and inclusive
education. It begins with initial identification that was explained in
the previous section in Child Find and the pre-referral process. The
results of an assessment are used to decide on a child's educational
placement and to plan instructional programs for a child identified to
have additional needs. Progress monitoring and evaluation of
teaching programs and services is another, the purpose of which is to
determine how effective programs are to assist the inclusive teacher
and the special education teacher (Giuliani & Pierangelo 2012).

13. There are a variety of assessment methods that
regular and special education teachers can use.
This section covers the following:
(4) tests
(1) interviews (2) observations
(3) checklists or rating scales

14. B. METHODS OF ASSESSMENT
Tests. School psychologists, educational diagnosticians,
and other related professionals use a variety of assessment
tools to ensure that results are valid and reliable. Norm-
referenced tests are standardized assessments that compare
a child's performance with a representative sample of
students of the same chronological age. Such tests are
rigorously made by a team. Results are reported as
percentile ranks and age and grade equivalent scores, which
makes it easier for professionals to determine class and
individual performance. While such quantitative reporting
makes it easier to compare the test performance of children
in a class, it has its limitations in terms of use in
instructional planning.

15. Intelligence Tests (e.g., Wechsler
Intelligence Scale for Students and
Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale) and
Achievement Tests (Wide Range
Achievement Tests and Kaufman Test of
Educational Achievement) are examples
of norm-referenced assessments.

16. On the other hand, criterion-referenced
tests compare a child's performance based
on established standards and competencies
and can be used to describe student
performance (Jennings et al. 2006 as cited
in Spinelli 2012).

17. Informal Assessment.
Professionals also use informal or non-
standardized assessments, which are considered
more authentic and thus can be used primarily to
describe performance and informal instruction.
Such assessments can be curriculum-based or
performance-based, such as the teacher-made
instruments used in classrooms and portfolio
assessments.

18. Authentic Assessment.
Authentic assessments provide students the
opportunity to apply knowledge and skills in
meaningful, real-world settings (e.g., classroom,
playground, etc.) rather than in an artificial and
contrived setting (Dennis et al. 2013).
Assessment tasks that are more real-life are
considered more authentic.

19. An example of authentic assessment is observation of young
students as they interact with family members, peers, and objects
in naturally occurring activities across settings (e.g., home,
school, playground, etc.), and routines. During observations,
teachers and specialists can use running records which focuses on
the occurrence of behaviors as they happen sequentially. Clay
(2000 as cited in Dennis et al. 2013) identified essential
information to be included in a running record:
Date and time of the observation
Names of children involved
Location of the incident
Verbatim recording of what the children said
Actual events that occurred

20. Anecdotal records contain shorter descriptions of
incidents or anecdotes that teachers and specialists
can use to analyze a student's behavior and plan
strategies for a specific child or group of children.
Other examples of authentic assessment for young
children are play-based assessment and portfolio
assessment.
The different assessment methods and tools used
to assess Carl after the pre-referral process are
discussed in the following.

21. C. ASSESSMENT PRINCIPLES
Assessment practices should be anchored on principles as provided
by the Division for Early Childhood of the Council for Exceptional
Student (DEC) (2014). Child- and family-centered practices, a team-
based approach, application of individualized and appropriate
process, and use of genuine and meaningful communication that
adhere to ethical and legal practices are the recommendations
provided by the DEC.
Thus, a variety of assessment methods and tools, use of authentic
measures, as well as involvement of the family are necessary to make
decisions for placement and instructional planning (DEC 2014).

22. III. PLACEMENT
Assessment results are used to decide a
child's appropriate education placement
within a continuum from the least to the
most restrictive settings.

23. Inclusive education espouses that all students,
to the maximum extent possible, is provided
access to general education classroom with the
provision of support to remove barriers to
enable success. Figure 4.2 presents this
continuum of educational placement options
(Spinelli 2012).

24. HOME/ HOSPITAL PROGRAM
RESIDENTIAL FACILITY
SPECIAL EDUCATION CLASS IN A SPECIAL EDUCATION
SELF-CONTAINED SPECIAL EDUCATION CLASS IN A
GENERAL EDUCATION
GENERAL EDUCATION CLASS WITH RESOURCE CENTER
INSTRUCTION
GENERAL EDUCATION CLASS (INCLUSION OR CO-TAUGHT
WITH A SPECIAL EDUCATION TEACHER)
GENERAL EDUCATION CLASS WITH RELATED SERVICES
GENERAL EDUCATION CLASS WITH
MODIFICATIONS

25. IV. ACCOMMODATIONS AND CURRICULAR
MODIFICATIONS.
Students with disabilities and additional needs
who are studying in an inclusive general education
classroom may need accommodations in the form of
instructional support and other supplementary
services. Others who need more intensive support
are provided with curricular modifications.

26. A. Accommodations
Accommodations are supports
provided to students to help gain full
access to class content and instruction,
without altering the curriculum
standards and competencies expected
and to demonstrate accurately what
they know.

27. Accommodations may be provided
both during assessment and
instruction, depending on the learning
profile and needs of a child and may
vary in terms of presentation, response,
setting, and scheduling (Beech 2010).

28. Children with disabilities may need specialized
presentation formats especially those with
sensory impairments so they can learn the same
content alongside typically developing peers.
1. PRESENTATION
ACCOMMODATIONS

29. LEARNING
NEEDS
EXAMPLES OF ACCOMMODATIONS
VISUAL
SUPPORT
MINIMIZE VISUAL DISTRACTION
VISUAL CUES ( e.g., use color- coded text,
highlighting)
USE OF LARGER PRINT MATERIALS ( font size,
illustrations)
USE OF SIGN LANGUAGE
VIDEOS WITH CLOSED CAPTIONING
TABLE 4.1 ACCOMMODATIONS IN PRESENTATION

30. LEARNING
NEEDS
EXAMPLES OF ACCOMMODATIONS
AUDITORY AND
COMPREHENSION
SUPPORT
READ ALOUD BY A PEER
AUDIO BOOKS
DIGITAL THAT READS ALOUD OR GIVES
DEFINITION OF WORDS
TEXT- TO- SPEECHH SOFTWARE
ADVANCE ORGANIZER OR STORY GUIDE
HIGHLIGHTING OR COLOR CODING
TABLE 4.1 ACCOMMODATIONS IN PRESENTATION

31. LEARNING
NEEDS
EXAMPLES OF ACCOMMODATIONS
LISTENING AND
FOCUSING
ADVANCE ORGANIZER
EXPLICIT VERBAL OR VISUAL CUES;
PHYSICAL PROMPTS
REPEAT/ CLARIFY DIRECTIONS AND
IMPORTANT INFORMATION
NOTE- TAKING SUPPORT
COPY OF DIRECTIONS
TABLE 4.1 ACCOMMODATIONS IN PRESENTATION

32. 2. RESPONSE ACCOMMODATIONS
Response accommodations allow students with
disabilities and additional needs a variety of ways
to complete assignments, written tests, performance
tasks, and other activities. Providing touch
instructional and assessment supports allows them
to access the same learning experiences as
other students in a general duration classroom.

33. Response accommodations allow students with disabilities
and additional needs a variety of ways to complete
assignments, written tests, performance tasks, and other
activities. Providing touch instructional and assessment
supports allows them to access the same learning experiences
as other students in a general duration classroom.
2. RESPONSE
ACCOMMODATIONS

34. LEARNING NEEDS EXAMPLES OF ACCOMMODATIONS
Writing difficulty
(e.g., errors in spacing,
visual-perceptual or
spatial-orientation,
illegible handwriting)
Different size/diameter of pencil, marker,
or crayon
Pencil or pen grip (triangular, pear-shaped)
Finger spacer
Scribe to record dictated responses
Handwriting template/guide on the
student's desk
Visual cues on paper
Different types and sizes of paper
TABLE 4.2. RESPONSE ACCOMMODATIONS

35. LEARNING NEEDS EXAMPLES OF ACCOMMODATIONS
WRITTEN
EXPRESSION
DIFFICULTY
Electronic dictionary with spell check
Online dictionary
Word processor with spelling and
grammar check
Writing cue cards
List of sight words
Writing templates, outlines, and graphic
organizers
TABLE 4.2. RESPONSE ACCOMMODATIONS

36. LEARNING NEEDS EXAMPLES OF ACCOMMODATIONS
MATH DIFFICULTY
Calculator
Concrete models and
manipulatives
Visual representation
Problem-solving guides
Graphic organizers
Special paper-graphing paper
for computation
TABLE 4.2 RESPONSE ACCOMMODATIONS I

37. Changes in the location or conditions of the
educational setting or environment may be
necessary for students who need support in terms
of behavior, attention, and organization of space
and materials.
3. SETTING
ACCOMMODATIONS

38. Changing time allotment, schedule of tasks and
assessments, and management of time are some
types of scheduling accommodations. Students
with slower ability in processing information
and directions well as with focusing issues may
need these types of accommodation.
4. SCHEDULING
ACCOMMODATIONS

39. Some examples of accommodation that can
modify scheduling are:
(1) extending time for assignments assessments;
(2) providing breaks in between asks;
(3) providing a visual schedule or a checklist of
individual responsibilities;
(4) providing predictable routines and
procedures; and
(5) providing an electronic device with alarms
and cues.

40. B. Modifications
Curriculum modifications are provided for students
with significant or severe disabilities where content
expectations are altered, and the performance outcomes
are changed in relation to what are expected of typically
developing students of the same age (DEC 2007). When
instruction and assessment are modified, a student with
disability is still given the right to access the same
learning opportunities as other students in the general
education class, but the tasks are more respectful and
appropriate to the student's abilities and needs.

41. Curricular modifications include
changes in instructional level, content
and performance criteria, as well as the
breadth and depth of content being
learned by students. Students with
disabilities or additional needs may be
given more, less, or different content
and resource materials altogether.

42. The microsystem, where the child and his/her
family belong, along with peers, school, and the
immediate community (i.e., neighborhood). Within
these microsystems, a child has direct interactions
with parents, teachers, peers, and others; while the
mesosystem refers to the linkages or relationships
between microsystems such as the connections
between family experiences and school experiences
and between family and peers (Santrock 2011).

44. The Division of Early Childhood of the Council
of Exceptional Children (DEC) espoused the use
of family-centered practices in the assessment
and instruction of young children. Turnbull and
Turnbull (2002 cited in Kirk et al. 2015)
provided the principles of a family-centered
model:

45. 1. honors the family choice by changing the power
relationship between professional and families,
2. abandons a pathology orientation and adopts a
strengths orientation, and
3. where the entire family becomes the unit of
support and not just the child with a disability and
the child's mother

46. A. Home-School Communication
Having established the critical role of parents in a student's
developmental and academic progress and achievement, it is
essential that there is a close home and school collaboration
and communication. To establish partnerships, problem-solving,
two-way communication, and shared decision making are some
of the practices needed. Communicating with parents may be
done in several ways.

47. Parent-teacher conferences are
face-to-face meetings held between
parents and teachers.
1. Parent-Teacher Conferences

48. Home-school communication may also be
conducted through written messages, such as the
use of a home-school communication notebook,
where teachers and parents write homework
assignments, the student's behavior in the
classroom, as well as progress on program goals.
2. Written Communication

49. With the influx of mobile devices, many
parents and families are more able to
communicate through electronic and digital
means such as email, text messages, and
social network messaging systems.
3. Digital communication

50. A home-school contract contains an
agreement between teachers and
parents regarding behavioral and/or
academic goals for a student with
disability.
4. Home-School Contracts

51. B. Other Ways to Involve Parents
Parents also have strengths, abilities, intuitive
knowledge, and the commitment to help their own child.
They become advocates of their own children. To
maximize their involvement, schools provide other
opportunities such as parent education training.
workshops, and parent support groups.

52. a.) Parent education may take the form
of providing seminars and workshops to
parents to equip them with a better
understanding of their child's disability
and accompanying strengths,
uniqueness, as well as specific
techniques and strategies that they can
practice at home.

53. b.) Parent support groups are also
helpful as parents are able to ask other
parents about tips and techniques to
work with their children. Parents
should be empowered so that they can
participate in planning and organizing
parent support groups

54. THANK YOU