This document describes a physics project on the Wheatstone bridge. It includes an introduction that discusses the history and development of the Wheatstone bridge by Samuel Hunter Christie and Charles Wheatstone. It also explains the basic construction and working principle of the Wheatstone bridge, which is to obtain a null deflection reading by balancing the bridge. The document further provides the theory behind the Wheatstone bridge, including its construction, principle of null deflection, and derivation of the formula to calculate unknown resistance using the bridge.
The document summarizes an investigatory project report on the Wheatstone bridge submitted by G.Priyadharsan for the AISSCE 2024 examination. It includes an introduction to the Wheatstone bridge, its history, theory of operation, experimental procedure used to measure unknown resistance, observations, conclusions, precautions taken, and bibliography cited. The project was conducted under the guidance of teacher Mrs. Amutha Rani and aims to understand the working and significance of the Wheatstone bridge, a device used to measure electrical resistance accurately.
The document describes an investigatory project report submitted by G.Priyadharsan on the topic of Wheatstone bridge. It includes an introduction to Wheatstone bridges, the history of its invention by Samuel Hunter Christie and popularization by Charles Wheatstone, the theory behind its working based on Kirchhoff's laws and Ohm's law, applications of the Wheatstone bridge, and details about the student's experimentation and observations. The aim of the project was to understand the significance and working of the Wheatstone bridge and use it to calculate an unknown resistance.
KITS OF VARIOUS TYPES OF BRIDGE CIRCUITSIRJET Journal
The document discusses various types of bridge circuits and kits that contain components for building different bridge circuits. It describes Wheatstone, Kelvin, Maxwell, and Wien bridge circuits. Each type of bridge circuit has a different configuration and is used to measure specific parameters such as resistance, inductance, or frequency. The availability of kits that contain components for these bridge circuits allows enthusiasts and professionals to experiment with different circuits and further electronics.
Vaibhav Pandey completed an investigatory project on the Wheatstone bridge under the guidance of his physics teacher Mr. Ramkesh Verma. The project studied the construction and working principle of the Wheatstone bridge, which uses a balanced bridge circuit to measure unknown resistances. It provided examples of calculating voltages to balance the bridge and applications such as temperature measurement. The document included an introduction, components, circuit construction, working principle, example calculations, applications, limitations and conclusions about the Wheatstone bridge.
This document provides information about memristors, including:
- Memristors were theorized in 1971 but were not physically realized until 2008 by HP Labs using a thin film of titanium dioxide. Memristors are fundamentally different from other circuit elements because they remember the amount of current that has previously flowed through them.
- Memristors have applications in memory storage and neuromorphic computing due to their nanoscale size and ability to mimic synaptic behavior. They can be used to build high density crossbar arrays for memory.
- Manufacturing memristors is possible using existing semiconductor fabrication facilities. HP Labs used nanoimprint lithography to fabricate a crossbar array with titanium dioxide memristors at the
This document describes a student project to verify Ohm's law by measuring the current (I) and potential difference (V) across resistors and plotting their relationship on a graph. The student expresses acknowledgement and thanks to teachers and parents for their support. The introduction explains Ohm's law and its mathematical equation relating current, voltage and resistance. The objective is to determine resistance by varying voltage across a resistor and recording current. Equipment, theory, procedure, observations and results are presented, verifying the direct proportionality between voltage and current as predicted by Ohm's law.
This document describes the construction and application of a Wheatstone bridge circuit. It begins by introducing Wheatstone bridges and their inventor. It then discusses the key components of a Wheatstone bridge, including four resistors where one has an unknown value. The working principle is explained, where balancing the resistor ratios results in no current through the galvanometer. Example circuits are provided. Applications include measuring light, pressure, strain and more. Limitations include inaccuracies under unbalanced conditions and limited resistance ranges.
This document is a project report by Samuel Kumar on electromagnetic induction. It includes an introduction discussing Faraday's discovery of electromagnetic induction and its importance. The aim is to determine Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction using a copper wire coil and magnet. The theory section discusses magnetic flux and Faraday's law, which states that the induced EMF is equal to the time rate of change of magnetic flux through the circuit. The required apparatus and Maxwell's equation are also described. The conclusion reinforces the significance of Faraday's law and its applications.
The document summarizes an investigatory project report on the Wheatstone bridge submitted by G.Priyadharsan for the AISSCE 2024 examination. It includes an introduction to the Wheatstone bridge, its history, theory of operation, experimental procedure used to measure unknown resistance, observations, conclusions, precautions taken, and bibliography cited. The project was conducted under the guidance of teacher Mrs. Amutha Rani and aims to understand the working and significance of the Wheatstone bridge, a device used to measure electrical resistance accurately.
The document describes an investigatory project report submitted by G.Priyadharsan on the topic of Wheatstone bridge. It includes an introduction to Wheatstone bridges, the history of its invention by Samuel Hunter Christie and popularization by Charles Wheatstone, the theory behind its working based on Kirchhoff's laws and Ohm's law, applications of the Wheatstone bridge, and details about the student's experimentation and observations. The aim of the project was to understand the significance and working of the Wheatstone bridge and use it to calculate an unknown resistance.
KITS OF VARIOUS TYPES OF BRIDGE CIRCUITSIRJET Journal
The document discusses various types of bridge circuits and kits that contain components for building different bridge circuits. It describes Wheatstone, Kelvin, Maxwell, and Wien bridge circuits. Each type of bridge circuit has a different configuration and is used to measure specific parameters such as resistance, inductance, or frequency. The availability of kits that contain components for these bridge circuits allows enthusiasts and professionals to experiment with different circuits and further electronics.
Vaibhav Pandey completed an investigatory project on the Wheatstone bridge under the guidance of his physics teacher Mr. Ramkesh Verma. The project studied the construction and working principle of the Wheatstone bridge, which uses a balanced bridge circuit to measure unknown resistances. It provided examples of calculating voltages to balance the bridge and applications such as temperature measurement. The document included an introduction, components, circuit construction, working principle, example calculations, applications, limitations and conclusions about the Wheatstone bridge.
This document provides information about memristors, including:
- Memristors were theorized in 1971 but were not physically realized until 2008 by HP Labs using a thin film of titanium dioxide. Memristors are fundamentally different from other circuit elements because they remember the amount of current that has previously flowed through them.
- Memristors have applications in memory storage and neuromorphic computing due to their nanoscale size and ability to mimic synaptic behavior. They can be used to build high density crossbar arrays for memory.
- Manufacturing memristors is possible using existing semiconductor fabrication facilities. HP Labs used nanoimprint lithography to fabricate a crossbar array with titanium dioxide memristors at the
This document describes a student project to verify Ohm's law by measuring the current (I) and potential difference (V) across resistors and plotting their relationship on a graph. The student expresses acknowledgement and thanks to teachers and parents for their support. The introduction explains Ohm's law and its mathematical equation relating current, voltage and resistance. The objective is to determine resistance by varying voltage across a resistor and recording current. Equipment, theory, procedure, observations and results are presented, verifying the direct proportionality between voltage and current as predicted by Ohm's law.
This document describes the construction and application of a Wheatstone bridge circuit. It begins by introducing Wheatstone bridges and their inventor. It then discusses the key components of a Wheatstone bridge, including four resistors where one has an unknown value. The working principle is explained, where balancing the resistor ratios results in no current through the galvanometer. Example circuits are provided. Applications include measuring light, pressure, strain and more. Limitations include inaccuracies under unbalanced conditions and limited resistance ranges.
This document is a project report by Samuel Kumar on electromagnetic induction. It includes an introduction discussing Faraday's discovery of electromagnetic induction and its importance. The aim is to determine Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction using a copper wire coil and magnet. The theory section discusses magnetic flux and Faraday's law, which states that the induced EMF is equal to the time rate of change of magnetic flux through the circuit. The required apparatus and Maxwell's equation are also described. The conclusion reinforces the significance of Faraday's law and its applications.
This document provides an overview of electric power systems, including their history and basic concepts. It discusses how electric power systems evolved from early experiments in the 18th century through the development of generators, transformers, and interconnected grids. The key concepts of voltage, current, power, energy, direct current, alternating current, frequency, and the three types of loads - resistive, inductive, and capacitive - are explained. Today's electric power systems generate power, transmit it over high-voltage lines, transform the voltage, and distribute power to homes and businesses in real-time as it is consumed.
The document provides an overview of the Carey Foster bridge circuit, which is a modification of the Wheatstone bridge used to measure low resistances more accurately. It works on the same principles as the Wheatstone bridge but increases the effective length of the bridge wire by adding resistances in series at each end, improving sensitivity. The document explains how to set up the circuit and calculate the resistance per unit length of the bridge wire to determine an unknown resistance value. Precautions for accurate measurements like using similar resistance values and gently operating the jockey are also outlined.
This document discusses the history and development of high voltage engineering. It begins with early experiments with static electricity by ancient Greeks. Key figures who contributed include Franklin, Faraday, Tesla, and Edison. Faraday's law established that a magnetic field can induce current in a wire. Advances allowed longer distance power transmission. Challenges included developing high voltage insulation. Numerical methods like finite element analysis are now used to model electric field distributions in complex high voltage components.
Physics investigatory project for class 12 on the topic " to estimate charge induced on two styro foam / pith balls separated by a distance "
Just change the name and cover page.
IRJET- Piezoelectric Energy Generation from Vehicle TrafficIRJET Journal
This document discusses a proposed system to generate electricity from road traffic using piezoelectric materials. Piezoelectric sensors would be placed on highways and connected serially. When vehicles pass over the sensors, they produce mechanical stress that generates AC voltage. This voltage would be rectified and stored in a battery. The stored energy could then be used to power street lights in rural areas where power sources are not available. The system was simulated, and experimental data showed it could generate enough voltage to charge a 12V battery to electrify street lights. This provides a renewable energy solution without needing other power infrastructure.
SOLAR IMPULSE - LAB WORK - BATTERIES (ENG)Solar Impulse
This document provides instructions for building simple batteries and fuel cells to illustrate how electrical energy is produced and stored. It includes directions for making a potato battery, aluminum-air cells, and a rechargeable Ritter cell. Chemical reactions in each battery are explained. The potato battery generates around 0.5 volts, while the dry aluminum-air cell produces 1.2 volts, enough to power small devices. The rechargeable Ritter cell uses copper disks and can be recharged and discharged multiple times.
This document contains notes from Physics 201 on electric current and DC circuits. It discusses key concepts like equipotential surfaces, capacitance, Ohm's law, resistance, and resistivity. It also covers how resistors behave in series and parallel circuits. Specifically, it states that for resistors in series, the equivalent resistance is the sum of the individual resistances, while for parallel circuits all components experience the same voltage.
This document is a student's physics investigatory project report on determining the resistivity of different metal wires using Ohm's Law. It includes an introduction to resistance and resistivity, the experimental procedure, observations recording current, voltage and calculating resistance of iron, aluminum, manganese and copper wires. The results show the resistivity increases in the order of copper, aluminum, iron and manganese wires. The conclusion states Ohm's Law relates voltage, current and resistance and is useful in electrical engineering.
Its a simple project for class 12th science students. This project is collected from various sources including Google, Wikipedia and Slideshare, Youtube and many more.
IRJET- Intricate Appraisal of Quantum ChromodynamicsIRJET Journal
1) Quantum chromodynamics (QCD) is the theory of the strong force that acts between quarks and gluons. It is a non-abelian gauge theory with symmetry group SU(3).
2) QCD exhibits two main properties - color confinement and asymptotic freedom. Color confinement means that as two quarks are separated, infinite energy is required to isolate them due to the constant force between them. Asymptotic freedom means that at short distances, the strong force is actually weak.
3) Experiments at the Stanford Linear Accelerator Center in the late 1960s provided evidence that protons have substructure, lending credence to Murray Gell-Mann's quark model of hadrons. This helped
physics project on electromagnetic inducionpranav1645
The document is a student project on electromagnetic induction that was submitted to their physics teacher. It includes an introduction to Faraday's law of induction, a theoretical section explaining concepts like magnetic flux and Lenz's law, and a list of devices that operate using electromagnetic induction principles such as generators, motors, transformers, and wireless chargers.
The document is a report on a moving coil galvanometer. It includes sections on the introduction, principle, construction, theory, advantages and disadvantages, sensitivity, accuracy, and bibliography. The moving coil galvanometer works by producing a rotational deflection in response to electric current flowing through a coil in a magnetic field. When current passes through the coil, it experiences a torque due to magnetic forces and rotates until balanced by an opposing restoring torque from its suspension. The current is directly proportional to the angle of deflection.
Fundamental of Electrical and Electronics Engineering.pdfVIT-AP University
The document provides an introduction to Dr. Neeraj Kumar Misra, an Associate Professor in the Department of SENSE at VIT-AP University. It lists his qualifications including a Ph.D, publications, awards, projects completed, and professional memberships. It also outlines the content to be covered in the course on Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering including topics like electric current, Ohm's law, circuit theory, and component symbols.
This document contains an investigatory physics project on determining the resistivity of different metal wires using Ohm's Law. It includes an introduction to resistance and resistivity, materials used, the procedure followed, observations recorded, calculations of resistivity for each metal, and a conclusion. The resistivity values obtained were 10.5 ×10^-8 Ωm for iron, 2.7×10^-8 Ωm for aluminium, 48.2×10^-8 Ωm for manganese, and 1.7×10^-8 Ωm for copper. The student concluded that Ohm's Law holds true and the relationship between potential drop and current is linear.
Van de graaff generator - class 12 investigatory projectbariktanmoy98
The Van de Graaff generator uses a moving belt to accumulate a very high electrical potential on a hollow metal sphere, producing voltages as high as 5 megavolts. It was invented in 1929 by Robert Van de Graaff and uses electrostatic induction to continually charge a hollow conductor. Applications include demonstrating electric fields and particle acceleration for nuclear physics experiments, though modern uses are largely limited to academic demonstrations due to other acceleration methods being developed. It works by corona discharge from sharp points on a moving belt transferring charge to a spherical conductor, with the process repeating to continually build up voltage on the sphere.
This document is a physics investigatory project on electromagnetic induction completed by Yash G. Desai for their 12th grade class. It includes an introduction on Michael Faraday and his discovery of electromagnetic induction. The aim of the experiment was to determine electromagnetic induction and the effect on current for increasing coil turns. Materials used included a wire, galvanometer, and magnet. Observations showed greater galvanometer deflection for more coil turns due to increased magnetic flux proportional to coil area. The conclusion is that magnetic flux increases with more coil loops.
This document contains the Report for a Synchronizing Panel that I made for Diploma main project. It carries the complete detail about parallel operation AC Generators aka Alternators.
Simplified Method for Substation Grounding System Designijtsrd
This paper focused 230 66 kV, substation grounding system and calculation results of required parameters at location of Kalay region. The grounding system is essential to protect people working or walking in the vicinity of earthed facilities and equipments against the danger of electric shock. It provides the floor surface either assures an effective insulation from earth potential or effectively equipment to a close mesh grid. Calculations of grounding grid system in the substation area where the top soil layer resistivity is less than the bottom layer resistivity can be less the number of ground rod used in the grid because the value of Ground Potential Rise GPR is insignificantly different. To get desired parameters such as touch and step voltage criteria for safety, earth resistance, grid resistance, maximum grid current, minimum conductor size and electrode size, maximum fault current level and resistivity of soil are designed in detail consideration. Aye Myo Thant | Cho Cho Win | Thant Zaw Oo "Simplified Method for Substation Grounding System Design" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-3 | Issue-5 , August 2019, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd26754.pdf Paper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/engineering/electrical-engineering/26754/simplified-method-for-substation-grounding-system-design/aye-myo-thant
What Could Be Behind Your Mercedes Sprinter's Power Loss on Uphill RoadsSprinter Gurus
Unlock the secrets behind your Mercedes Sprinter's uphill power loss with our comprehensive presentation. From fuel filter blockages to turbocharger troubles, we uncover the culprits and empower you to reclaim your vehicle's peak performance. Conquer every ascent with confidence and ensure a thrilling journey every time.
This document provides an overview of electric power systems, including their history and basic concepts. It discusses how electric power systems evolved from early experiments in the 18th century through the development of generators, transformers, and interconnected grids. The key concepts of voltage, current, power, energy, direct current, alternating current, frequency, and the three types of loads - resistive, inductive, and capacitive - are explained. Today's electric power systems generate power, transmit it over high-voltage lines, transform the voltage, and distribute power to homes and businesses in real-time as it is consumed.
The document provides an overview of the Carey Foster bridge circuit, which is a modification of the Wheatstone bridge used to measure low resistances more accurately. It works on the same principles as the Wheatstone bridge but increases the effective length of the bridge wire by adding resistances in series at each end, improving sensitivity. The document explains how to set up the circuit and calculate the resistance per unit length of the bridge wire to determine an unknown resistance value. Precautions for accurate measurements like using similar resistance values and gently operating the jockey are also outlined.
This document discusses the history and development of high voltage engineering. It begins with early experiments with static electricity by ancient Greeks. Key figures who contributed include Franklin, Faraday, Tesla, and Edison. Faraday's law established that a magnetic field can induce current in a wire. Advances allowed longer distance power transmission. Challenges included developing high voltage insulation. Numerical methods like finite element analysis are now used to model electric field distributions in complex high voltage components.
Physics investigatory project for class 12 on the topic " to estimate charge induced on two styro foam / pith balls separated by a distance "
Just change the name and cover page.
IRJET- Piezoelectric Energy Generation from Vehicle TrafficIRJET Journal
This document discusses a proposed system to generate electricity from road traffic using piezoelectric materials. Piezoelectric sensors would be placed on highways and connected serially. When vehicles pass over the sensors, they produce mechanical stress that generates AC voltage. This voltage would be rectified and stored in a battery. The stored energy could then be used to power street lights in rural areas where power sources are not available. The system was simulated, and experimental data showed it could generate enough voltage to charge a 12V battery to electrify street lights. This provides a renewable energy solution without needing other power infrastructure.
SOLAR IMPULSE - LAB WORK - BATTERIES (ENG)Solar Impulse
This document provides instructions for building simple batteries and fuel cells to illustrate how electrical energy is produced and stored. It includes directions for making a potato battery, aluminum-air cells, and a rechargeable Ritter cell. Chemical reactions in each battery are explained. The potato battery generates around 0.5 volts, while the dry aluminum-air cell produces 1.2 volts, enough to power small devices. The rechargeable Ritter cell uses copper disks and can be recharged and discharged multiple times.
This document contains notes from Physics 201 on electric current and DC circuits. It discusses key concepts like equipotential surfaces, capacitance, Ohm's law, resistance, and resistivity. It also covers how resistors behave in series and parallel circuits. Specifically, it states that for resistors in series, the equivalent resistance is the sum of the individual resistances, while for parallel circuits all components experience the same voltage.
This document is a student's physics investigatory project report on determining the resistivity of different metal wires using Ohm's Law. It includes an introduction to resistance and resistivity, the experimental procedure, observations recording current, voltage and calculating resistance of iron, aluminum, manganese and copper wires. The results show the resistivity increases in the order of copper, aluminum, iron and manganese wires. The conclusion states Ohm's Law relates voltage, current and resistance and is useful in electrical engineering.
Its a simple project for class 12th science students. This project is collected from various sources including Google, Wikipedia and Slideshare, Youtube and many more.
IRJET- Intricate Appraisal of Quantum ChromodynamicsIRJET Journal
1) Quantum chromodynamics (QCD) is the theory of the strong force that acts between quarks and gluons. It is a non-abelian gauge theory with symmetry group SU(3).
2) QCD exhibits two main properties - color confinement and asymptotic freedom. Color confinement means that as two quarks are separated, infinite energy is required to isolate them due to the constant force between them. Asymptotic freedom means that at short distances, the strong force is actually weak.
3) Experiments at the Stanford Linear Accelerator Center in the late 1960s provided evidence that protons have substructure, lending credence to Murray Gell-Mann's quark model of hadrons. This helped
physics project on electromagnetic inducionpranav1645
The document is a student project on electromagnetic induction that was submitted to their physics teacher. It includes an introduction to Faraday's law of induction, a theoretical section explaining concepts like magnetic flux and Lenz's law, and a list of devices that operate using electromagnetic induction principles such as generators, motors, transformers, and wireless chargers.
The document is a report on a moving coil galvanometer. It includes sections on the introduction, principle, construction, theory, advantages and disadvantages, sensitivity, accuracy, and bibliography. The moving coil galvanometer works by producing a rotational deflection in response to electric current flowing through a coil in a magnetic field. When current passes through the coil, it experiences a torque due to magnetic forces and rotates until balanced by an opposing restoring torque from its suspension. The current is directly proportional to the angle of deflection.
Fundamental of Electrical and Electronics Engineering.pdfVIT-AP University
The document provides an introduction to Dr. Neeraj Kumar Misra, an Associate Professor in the Department of SENSE at VIT-AP University. It lists his qualifications including a Ph.D, publications, awards, projects completed, and professional memberships. It also outlines the content to be covered in the course on Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering including topics like electric current, Ohm's law, circuit theory, and component symbols.
This document contains an investigatory physics project on determining the resistivity of different metal wires using Ohm's Law. It includes an introduction to resistance and resistivity, materials used, the procedure followed, observations recorded, calculations of resistivity for each metal, and a conclusion. The resistivity values obtained were 10.5 ×10^-8 Ωm for iron, 2.7×10^-8 Ωm for aluminium, 48.2×10^-8 Ωm for manganese, and 1.7×10^-8 Ωm for copper. The student concluded that Ohm's Law holds true and the relationship between potential drop and current is linear.
Van de graaff generator - class 12 investigatory projectbariktanmoy98
The Van de Graaff generator uses a moving belt to accumulate a very high electrical potential on a hollow metal sphere, producing voltages as high as 5 megavolts. It was invented in 1929 by Robert Van de Graaff and uses electrostatic induction to continually charge a hollow conductor. Applications include demonstrating electric fields and particle acceleration for nuclear physics experiments, though modern uses are largely limited to academic demonstrations due to other acceleration methods being developed. It works by corona discharge from sharp points on a moving belt transferring charge to a spherical conductor, with the process repeating to continually build up voltage on the sphere.
This document is a physics investigatory project on electromagnetic induction completed by Yash G. Desai for their 12th grade class. It includes an introduction on Michael Faraday and his discovery of electromagnetic induction. The aim of the experiment was to determine electromagnetic induction and the effect on current for increasing coil turns. Materials used included a wire, galvanometer, and magnet. Observations showed greater galvanometer deflection for more coil turns due to increased magnetic flux proportional to coil area. The conclusion is that magnetic flux increases with more coil loops.
This document contains the Report for a Synchronizing Panel that I made for Diploma main project. It carries the complete detail about parallel operation AC Generators aka Alternators.
Simplified Method for Substation Grounding System Designijtsrd
This paper focused 230 66 kV, substation grounding system and calculation results of required parameters at location of Kalay region. The grounding system is essential to protect people working or walking in the vicinity of earthed facilities and equipments against the danger of electric shock. It provides the floor surface either assures an effective insulation from earth potential or effectively equipment to a close mesh grid. Calculations of grounding grid system in the substation area where the top soil layer resistivity is less than the bottom layer resistivity can be less the number of ground rod used in the grid because the value of Ground Potential Rise GPR is insignificantly different. To get desired parameters such as touch and step voltage criteria for safety, earth resistance, grid resistance, maximum grid current, minimum conductor size and electrode size, maximum fault current level and resistivity of soil are designed in detail consideration. Aye Myo Thant | Cho Cho Win | Thant Zaw Oo "Simplified Method for Substation Grounding System Design" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-3 | Issue-5 , August 2019, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd26754.pdf Paper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/engineering/electrical-engineering/26754/simplified-method-for-substation-grounding-system-design/aye-myo-thant
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What Could Be Behind Your Mercedes Sprinter's Power Loss on Uphill RoadsSprinter Gurus
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physics-project-1-dsfdsgsgdfsg.pdf
1. Studocu is not sponsored or endorsed by any college or university
Physics Project 1 - DSFDSGSGDFSG
physics class 12 (Delhi Public School, Damanjodi)
Studocu is not sponsored or endorsed by any college or university
Physics Project 1 - DSFDSGSGDFSG
physics class 12 (Delhi Public School, Damanjodi)
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lOMoARcPSD|31179766
2. PREPARED BY ~ ABHISHEK SINGH
CLASS ~ XII-A
ROLL NO. ~ 05
PHYSICS
PROJECT
TOPIC : WHEATSTONE BRIDGE
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3. 1 | P a g e
INDEX
S.NO. TOPIC Page No.
1 Certificate Of Excellence 1
2 Acknowledgement 2
3 Aim Of The Project 3
4 Introduction 4-7
5 Theory 8-11
6 Experimentation 12-14
(i)Apparatus Required
12
(ii)Procedure Followed
13
(iii)Observation
13
(iv)Conclusion
13
(v)Precaution
14
7 Bibliography 15
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4. 2 | P a g e
LUCKNOW PUBLIC SCHOOL
A-BLOCK SOUTHCITY
DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS
CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that Abhishek Singh ,student of class
XII-A, has successfully completed the research on the
below mentioned project under the guidance of Mr.
Awadesh Kumar Srivastava (Subject Teacher) during
the year 2022-23 in partial fulfilment of Physics
Practical Examination conducted by AISSCE, New Delhi.
Signature Of External Examiner Signature Of Physics Teacher
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5. 3 | P a g e
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
In the accomplishment of this project successfully, many
people have bestowed upon me their blessings and their heart
pledged support; in response to which I would like to
acknowledge them for their selfless help and support.
Primarily, I would like to thank my Principal, Ms. Aparna
Tripathi, for being an idol and guiding us through much
needed moral support. Then I would like to thank our
honorable Physics Teacher, Mr. Awadhesh Kumar Srivastava,
for their constant efforts and support which played a major
part in the success of the project.
Moving on,I would like to thank my parents and friends who
have helped me with their valuable suggestions and guidance
which proved to be a great aid in completion of this project .
Last but not the least I would like to thank my classmates who
played an important role in bestowing me with their profound
ideas and knowledge. I am also thankful to all those whose
names are not mentioned above but helped encouraged and
inspired me knowing or unknowing in doing this work.
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6. 4 | P a g e
AIM OF THE PROJECT
The basic aim of the allotted project is to understand and
acknowledge the significance of the ‘Wheatstone Bridge’ in
the field of electricity and the advancements it unfolded
which resulted in direct or indirect progress in field of science
and engineering.
Moreover ,it aims at understanding the working of the
Wheatstone Bridge and the mechanism it follows; the project
also emphasises on the significance of Kirchoff’s Laws as well
as Ohm’s law in the Wheatstone Bridge and its derivation; it
also spotlights the efforts of brilliant scientists and physicists
whose constant efforts and hardwork led to the invention of
“Wheatstone Bridge”.
In the end, project discusses about the unignorable
importance wheatstone bridge plays in the social as well
engineering aspects. It also includes an experimentation with
the aim of calculating the unknown resistance using a
Wheatstone Bridge.
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7. 5 | P a g e
INTRODUCTION
A Wheatstone Bridge is an electrical circuit used to measure an
unknown electrical resistance by balancing two legs of a bridge
circuit, one leg of which includes the unknown resistance.
Its primary operation in a circuit is its property to provide extremely
accurate measurement. This characteristics of
a Wheatstone Bridge is often exploited to
calculate resistances of various electronic
devices with minimal uncertainities . It can
also measure inductance, capacitance, and
frequency with the proper combination and
arrangement of inductances and capacitances
in its arms. It is an DC bridge and requires
Direct Current for its working. At the balance condition the
deflection at the centre is null if and only if the product of the
diagnol resistances are found to be equal, that is :
or
➢ History Of Wheatstone Bridge :
Wheatstone bridge as reflected by the name was made popular by
Charles Wheatstone in 1843. However the actual credit of its
development goes to Samuel Hunter Christie. The following
excerpt discusses the contributions of both the scientists in
R2/R1 = Rx/R3
R2.R3= Rx.R1
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the development of the bridge and the reason behind
terming it as “Wheatstone Bridge” :
Samuel Hunter Christie
Samuel Hunter Christie was a British mathematician and physicist
born on 22 March,1784 in London. He was a Fellow Of The Royal
Society in 1826. His primary interests were in studying Earth’s
Magnetism and designing improvements to the magnetic compass.
He delivered his Bakerian Lecture in 1833 which was on ”
Experimental Determination of the Laws of Magneto-Electric Induction
in different masses of the same metal, and its intensity in
different metals.” and was awarded with Bakerian medal
for the same. Christie’s research paper was a printed
version of his Bakerian Lecture for 1833, it was 50 pages
long; christie used current pulses inplace of steady
currents obtained through magnetoelectric induction ,
which was discovered by Michael Faraday only 15
months earlier. Christie used long and tedious method
for deriving the relation and his research paper reflects that he was
unfamiliar with the ohm’s law. Moreover, it is evident from his work
that he was unknown to the idea of current running through the
closed loop and believed that the current is created independently in
different parts of the circuit. He also finds correctly that the
conducting power is proportional to the cross-sectional area.
In his paper he published the revolutionary ‘diamond ’ method , the
forerunner of Wheatstone bridge in a paper on magnetic and
electrical properties of metals as a method for comparing resistances
of wires of different thicknesses. He is credited with proposal of
Wheatstone Bridge , however his method went unrecognised until
1843 when Charles Wheatstone proposed it in the Royal Society as a
method for measuring resistances in electrical circuit. Though
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Charles proposed it as Samuel Hunter Christies’s invention the bridge
was titled after his name.
Charles Wheatstone
Charles Wheatstone was a English scientist born on 6 February,1802
in Barnwood ,England . He was member of Royal Society in 1836 and
was the inventor of many scientific breakthrough
during the Victorian era which include musical
instrument concertina, stereoscope , symphonium
,telegraph. He also measured the speed of electricity in
a conductor. However, Wheatstone is best known for
his contributions in the development of the
Wheatstone Bridge which was originally invented by
Samuel Hunter Christie.
He popularised the use of the wheatstone bridge and further
simplified it. Unlike Christie, Charles used the steady current and
came to the very same balancing equation. Moreover, from his
research paper it was evident that he had command over ohm’s law.
A parallel evaluation of the two research papers by Christie and
Wheatstone gives a strong impression of the overwhelming
importance of Ohm’s work; this inturn popularised ohm’s work on
electric current. Wheatstone’s paper was a breakthrough and soon
became popular as a result bridge got the title “Wheatstone Bridge”;
sooner or later his paper was translated into German and French as
“Annalen Der Physik” and “Annales de Chimie et de Physique”
respectively.
Later, the bridge was further worked upon by prominent scientists
like William Thomson ,Lord Kelvin and James Clerk Maxwell whose
efforts helped in extending the range of the device.
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THEORY
Wheatstone bridge is the name given to the combination of four
resistors connected in the form of diamond to give null deflection at
the centre. The four resistances of the circuit are referred to as arms
of the bridge.
➢ Construction Of Wheatstone Bridge :
A Wheatstone bridge circuit consists of four arms of which two
arms consist of known resistances while the other two consist
of an unknown resistance and a variable resistance or rheostat.
The circuit also consists of an electromotive force source and a
galvanometer which is connected at the centre of the bridge.
The overall construction of a simple Wheatstone bridge can be
illustrated as :
Where :
R1,R3 →Known Resistances
Rx→Unknown Resistances
R2→RheostatVariable Resistance
G→ Galvanometer
E→ Electromotive Force Source
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➢ Principle Of Wheatstone Bridge :
The Wheatstone bridge works upon the Principle Of Null
Deflection that is the ratio of their resistances is equal and no
current flows through the central circuit. Under normal
conditions ,the bridge is in an unbalanced condition where
current flows through the galvanometer connected at the
centre of the bridge. The bridge is said to be balanced when no
current flows though the galvanometer and it shows zero or
null deflection.
➢ Derivation of Formula For Wheatstone Bridge :
→Using Kirchoff’s Junction Rule in the loop
ABCD we get :
I3 -Ix+Ig=0 (i)
I1-I2-Ig=0 (ii)
→ Using Kirchoff’s Loop Law in the loop
ABD and BCD we get :
I3.R3-Ig.Rg-I1.R1=0 (iii)
Ix.Rx-I2.R2+Ig.Rg=0 (iv)
→When the bridge is balanced the galvanometer shows zero
deflection that is Ig=0 then :
For (iii) :
I3.R3-0-I1.R1=0 → I3.R3=I1.R1 (v)
For (iv) :
Ix.Rx-I2.R2+0=0 →Ix.Rx=I2.R2 (vi)
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Dividing (vi) by (v) :
Ix.Rx / I3.R3=I2.R2/I1.R1
Rx=I2.I3.R2.R3/I1.R1.Ix
From (i) when Ig=0 :
I3=Ix
From (ii) when Ig=0 :
I1=I2
Therefore :
Or
➢ Application Of Wheatstone Bridge :
• The Wheatstone bridge is used for the precise measurement of
low resistance.
• Wheatstone bridge and an operational amplifier are used to
measure physical parameters such as temperature, light, and
strain.
• Quantities such as impedance, inductance, and capacitance can
be measured using variations on the Wheatstone bridge with
much accuracy.
• Resistance of some of the materials, such as semiconductors,
tends to vary with the temperature. The variations are large in
comparison to the ordinary resistors. These are known as
R1.Rx=R2.R3
Rx=R2.R3/R1
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thermistors. A slight change in temperatures can be measured
using thermistors for the Wheatstone bridge setup.
• Wheatstone bridge can also be used for measuring strain and
pressure.
➢ Limitations Of Wheatstone Bridge :
• For low resistance measurement, the resistance of the leads
and contacts becomes significant and introduces an error.
• It is only accurate for measurements of low resistance. If the
unknown resistance has a huge value, then the galvanometer
becomes difficult to balance.
• When the resistance draws a huge current from the circuit, it
displays heating effect. This leads to an inaccurate reading.
• The Wheatstone bridge is a delicate device. In an off-balance
situation, measurements may not even be accurate.
• Wheatstone bridges are commonly used to measure the
resistance of a few ohms to those few kilo-ohms.
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EXPERIMENTATION
A bridge circuit in its simplest form consists of network of four
resistance arms forming a closed circuit,
with a dc source of current applied to two
opposite junctions and a current detector
connected to the other two junctions.
Wheatstone bridge is used for accurate
measurement of resistance. The circuit
diagram of a typical Wheatstone bridge is
given alongside.
Mentioned below is the experimentation to find the unknown
resistance using a Wheatstone bridge.
Aim Of The Experiment →
To study and perform a experiment to measure the unknown
resistance using Wheatstone bridge.
Apparatus Required →
(i)Three medium resistors
(ii) DC source
(iii)Galvanometer
(iv)Connecting wires
(v) Keỵ
(vi)Rheostat
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Procedure Followed →
→ Measure the resistance of the three known resistors and connect
them in the form of diamond.
→Connect the Galvanometer with the
terminals of two resistors and connect the
DC source with the terminals of the other
two resistors.
→ Connect the unknown resistance in
series with the rheostat.
→Connect key with the Electromotive
force source in the circuit.
→ Increase or Decrease the resistance of the rheostat until the
Galvanometer shows null deflection.
→Note down the rheostat’s resistance when galvanometer shows
null deflection.
Observation→
When the circuit is unbalanced a non null deflection is observed in
the galvanometer. However, on increasing or decreasing the
resistance of the rheostat in such a way that the circuit becomes
balanced ,a null deflection is observed.
Conclusions→
At balanced condition, the galvanometer shows null deflection ; this
infers that the net current through the galvanometer is zero and no
circulation of current through the galvanometer takes place.
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It also infers that the current through the R3 resistors equals the
current through the Rx resistor and the current through the R1
resistor equals current through the R2 resistor.
Thus, at balanced condition the unknown resistance can be
calculated by using the formula :
Precautions→
→ Make all the connections neat, clean and tight.
→Use a freshly charged battery so that its emf may remain constant
throughout the experiment.
→While making connections make sure to plug off the key or open
the key.
→Make sure the connecting wire is of uniform cross-section area.
→Make sure that short circuiting does not takes place.
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
* www.wikipedia.com
* www.britannica.com
* The Genesis Of Wheatstone Bridge By Stig Ekelof
* www.researchgate.net
*www.atomstalk.com
*https://nationalmaglab.org
*www.semiconductorsforu.com
*www.electrical4u.com
*www.electricaldeck.com
*www.cambridge.org
*www.thoughtco.com
*https://journals.sagepub.com
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