The document discusses the field of engineering psychology and human factors. It provides an overview of the history and goals of the field, which aims to optimize interactions between humans and machines by considering human abilities and limitations in design. Some key topics covered include time-motion studies, principles of workspace and control design, and types of visual, auditory, and tactile displays. The overall purpose of engineering psychology is to apply psychological knowledge to improve safety, performance and satisfaction in person-machine systems.
This document discusses workplace stress and stress management. It describes stress as physiological and psychological responses to unpleasant stimulation or threatening events. Prolonged stress can lead to physical and mental health issues. The document outlines various stressors in the workplace like work overload, organizational change, and role ambiguity. It also discusses individual differences in stress responses and effective stress management programs and strategies.
This document discusses physical and temporal working conditions and their impact on employee satisfaction, productivity and absenteeism. It covers topics like office design, lighting, noise, temperature and different work schedules. Alternative schedules like flexible hours, part-time work and four-day workweeks can help employees balance work and family responsibilities and lead to improved satisfaction and productivity for some workers. Physical factors in the workplace like lighting, noise and temperature also significantly impact employee attitudes and performance.
This document provides an overview of motivation theories and concepts related to job satisfaction. It begins with definitions of motivation and discusses both content and process theories of motivation, including achievement motivation theory, Maslow's needs hierarchy theory, Herzberg's two-factor theory, job characteristics theory, expectancy theory, equity theory, and goal-setting theory. It also covers job satisfaction, its measurement, relationship to job performance, and impact of job loss.
This document discusses leadership theories and styles. It covers contingency theory, path-goal theory, and leader-member exchange theory. It also describes different leadership styles like transformational and transactional. Additionally, it discusses characteristics of successful and unsuccessful leaders, as well as challenges faced by women and minorities in management positions.
This document discusses various topics relating to workplace training programs, including:
- The scope and goals of organizational training programs. McDonald's Hamburger University is provided as an example.
- Common training methods used in workplaces like on-the-job training, computer-assisted instruction, and role playing.
- Factors that influence learning like trainee attributes, the pre-training environment, principles of learning theory, and the need for feedback.
- The importance of evaluating training programs to determine their effectiveness.
This document summarizes key aspects of performance appraisal systems. It defines performance appraisal as the formal evaluation of employee performance for career decisions. It describes guidelines to ensure appraisal systems comply with anti-discrimination laws and discusses common rating errors like halo effects. It also outlines techniques to measure performance, including objective and subjective methods, and ways to improve effectiveness, such as reducing rating errors through training and feedback.
This document provides an overview of psychological testing in the workplace. It discusses key characteristics of psychological tests like standardization, objectivity, reliability and validity. It describes different types of tests including cognitive ability, interests, aptitudes and personality tests. It also covers issues around fair employment practices, test administration, problems with psychological testing and ethics. The overall purpose is to explain how psychological testing is used to select and evaluate employees.
The document discusses the field of engineering psychology and human factors. It provides an overview of the history and goals of the field, which aims to optimize interactions between humans and machines by considering human abilities and limitations in design. Some key topics covered include time-motion studies, principles of workspace and control design, and types of visual, auditory, and tactile displays. The overall purpose of engineering psychology is to apply psychological knowledge to improve safety, performance and satisfaction in person-machine systems.
This document discusses workplace stress and stress management. It describes stress as physiological and psychological responses to unpleasant stimulation or threatening events. Prolonged stress can lead to physical and mental health issues. The document outlines various stressors in the workplace like work overload, organizational change, and role ambiguity. It also discusses individual differences in stress responses and effective stress management programs and strategies.
This document discusses physical and temporal working conditions and their impact on employee satisfaction, productivity and absenteeism. It covers topics like office design, lighting, noise, temperature and different work schedules. Alternative schedules like flexible hours, part-time work and four-day workweeks can help employees balance work and family responsibilities and lead to improved satisfaction and productivity for some workers. Physical factors in the workplace like lighting, noise and temperature also significantly impact employee attitudes and performance.
This document provides an overview of motivation theories and concepts related to job satisfaction. It begins with definitions of motivation and discusses both content and process theories of motivation, including achievement motivation theory, Maslow's needs hierarchy theory, Herzberg's two-factor theory, job characteristics theory, expectancy theory, equity theory, and goal-setting theory. It also covers job satisfaction, its measurement, relationship to job performance, and impact of job loss.
This document discusses leadership theories and styles. It covers contingency theory, path-goal theory, and leader-member exchange theory. It also describes different leadership styles like transformational and transactional. Additionally, it discusses characteristics of successful and unsuccessful leaders, as well as challenges faced by women and minorities in management positions.
This document discusses various topics relating to workplace training programs, including:
- The scope and goals of organizational training programs. McDonald's Hamburger University is provided as an example.
- Common training methods used in workplaces like on-the-job training, computer-assisted instruction, and role playing.
- Factors that influence learning like trainee attributes, the pre-training environment, principles of learning theory, and the need for feedback.
- The importance of evaluating training programs to determine their effectiveness.
This document summarizes key aspects of performance appraisal systems. It defines performance appraisal as the formal evaluation of employee performance for career decisions. It describes guidelines to ensure appraisal systems comply with anti-discrimination laws and discusses common rating errors like halo effects. It also outlines techniques to measure performance, including objective and subjective methods, and ways to improve effectiveness, such as reducing rating errors through training and feedback.
This document provides an overview of psychological testing in the workplace. It discusses key characteristics of psychological tests like standardization, objectivity, reliability and validity. It describes different types of tests including cognitive ability, interests, aptitudes and personality tests. It also covers issues around fair employment practices, test administration, problems with psychological testing and ethics. The overall purpose is to explain how psychological testing is used to select and evaluate employees.
This document discusses psychology and work. It covers topics like recruitment, selection processes, fair employment practices, job analysis, and influences on job preferences. The purpose is to explain important concepts in industrial and organizational psychology related to finding and selecting job applicants.
The document discusses research methods used in psychology and the workplace. It covers experimental and non-experimental methods like naturalistic observation, surveys, and web-based research. Experimental methods manipulate an independent variable to measure its effect on a dependent variable using control and experimental groups. Non-experimental methods observe behaviors without manipulation. The document also discusses research limitations, designing experiments, collecting and analyzing data through descriptive and inferential statistics, and meta-analysis.
The document is a chapter from an Industrial-Organizational (I-O) psychology textbook. It provides an overview of the field of I-O psychology, including its history, key topics, research methods, and contemporary challenges. Some of the major areas discussed include the origins of I-O psychology, the Hawthorne studies, psychological testing during World War I and II, common jobs and salaries for I-O psychologists, and problems faced in the field such as fraudulent practitioners.
This study examined career indecision among 397 managers and professionals at a large bank. The researchers developed a measure of career indecision and tested a model of its sources and outcomes. Through a factor analysis, they identified seven potential sources of career indecision. The model proposed that work/life experience, trait anxiety, and career assistance from the employer would indirectly influence career indecision through their effects on its sources. Sources like lack of self-knowledge were expected to directly impact career indecision status. Potential outcomes included negative work attitudes, life stress, and intentions to explore career options further. The study aimed to advance understanding of career indecision among employed adults versus student populations.
This document provides a proposal for a stress management group for single parents. It will focus on cognitive thinking, stress coping skills, and building a mutual support network. The number of single parents in Hong Kong has increased significantly in recent decades. Single parents face many stressors related to finances, parenting responsibilities, and emotional well-being after becoming a single parent. The group aims to help members reduce stress and improve their quality of life by learning skills like cognitive restructuring based on cognitive behavioral therapy principles.
This document discusses defining and measuring the trait of superstition. It begins by reviewing different definitions of superstition in the literature and outlines the goals of developing a clear definition and measurement scale. An exploratory qualitative study led the researchers to define superstition as unfounded half-beliefs that certain events or objects can bring good or bad luck. Several data collections were then used to develop a 27-item, 5-dimension scale to measure superstition. The scale dimensions are popular beliefs about good and bad fortune, belief in destiny, magical thinking, and defensive pessimism.
The Motivational Structure Questionnaire (MSQ) identifies problem drinkers' maladaptive motivational patterns that underlie their motivations for drinking alcohol. It does so by having respondents name their current concerns in major life areas and characterize each concern along dimensions that reveal the structure of their motivation. A computer program then generates quantitative indices and a motivational profile depicting the respondent's significant motivational features and problem areas. Administration takes 2-3 hours on average. The MSQ can help pinpoint problem drinkers' motivational issues to provide a basis for motivational counseling to change maladaptive patterns. It has been used in research concerned with motivational and volitional factors.
The document describes the development of the Belief in Good Luck (BIGL) Scale. Three studies provided evidence that there are reliable individual differences in beliefs about luck. Some people view luck as a stable force that influences events in their favor, while others see luck as random and unreliable. Belief in good luck was related to beliefs about chance but distinct from other constructs like optimism or self-esteem. The scale predicted positive expectations for outcomes associated with luck, suggesting irrational beliefs about luck can influence expectations of future success.
This document discusses social exchange theory and interdependence theory as they relate to relationships. It covers:
- People seek relationships that provide maximum rewards with minimum costs, and stay only if outcomes remain profitable. Satisfaction depends on outcomes exceeding our expectations.
- Comparison levels (CL) are the standards we use to judge relationship satisfaction, based on past relationship rewards. Comparison levels for alternatives (CLalt) are the best outcomes available elsewhere, determining how dependent we are on the current relationship.
- As time passes in a relationship, CL may rise while outcomes remain the same, risking taking the relationship for granted. CLalt increasing, such as from women's rights, can make relationships unhappier and less
This document discusses evidence-based approaches to facilitating career choices through decision theory. It presents several key aspects of career decision making, including the large amount of information and options to consider, the uncertainty involved, and non-cognitive influences. Several tools are proposed to help structure the complex career decision process, including the Career Decision-Making Difficulties Questionnaire (CDDQ) to assess an individual's challenges, and a three-stage model (PIC) to guide their decision making. The document also discusses developing and validating computer-assisted career guidance systems using theoretical knowledge and empirical methods.
This document discusses interdependence theory and its application to personal relationships. It contains the following key points:
1) Interdependence theory analyzes how people in relationships coordinate outcomes to maximize benefits for both partners, taking into account rewards, costs, comparisons to alternatives, and issues of fairness.
2) Relationships are most satisfying when rewards outweigh costs, outcomes meet or exceed expectations, and the relationship is perceived as fair. Commitment increases with satisfaction but people may stay in dissatisfying relationships due to investments, lack of alternatives, or moral commitments.
3) Self-disclosure, intimacy, power balances, conflict resolution styles, and accommodation versus neglect during dissatisfaction all impact relationship satisfaction and commitment over time according
This chapter discusses interdependence and roles in organizations. It covers types of interdependence like pooled, sequential, reciprocal, and comprehensive interdependence. It also discusses role taking and making, norms and role episodes, communication processes, socialization to new roles, and maintaining quality interpersonal relationships through concepts like equity theory. The key topics covered are types of interdependence, roles and norms, communication barriers, socialization goals and tactics, and responses to inequity.
This document discusses several theories of career development: trait-factor theories which match individuals' abilities to vocations; sociology of career choice which emphasizes social factors beyond an individual's control; developmental/self-concept theory where career choices reflect one's evolving self-image; personality theories linking career satisfaction to personality traits; and behavioral approaches observing environmental influences on career decisions. It also covers needs-based theories arguing occupational choices satisfy psychological needs.
Here are some key points about open world cafe:
- It's a structured conversational process for knowledge sharing in a relaxed, informal setting.
- Participants discuss questions or topics at tables in rounds of conversation. They can stay at their table or move to new ones.
- Having questions or topics helps guide discussion. The questions should be open-ended to allow for diverse perspectives.
- One person stays at the table as the "host" while others move, allowing ideas to build from round to round.
- Ambiance matters - cafe setting with music, food and drinks helps set the tone for open sharing.
- Effective facilitation is key - someone welcomes people and explains the process to maximize engagement
This document summarizes key topics in close relationships from a psychology textbook, including:
- Attachment styles developed in childhood influence relationships. Those securely attached do best.
- Family bonds provide the basis for other relationships. Siblings' interactions impact social skills.
- Friendships involve self-disclosure and support, though men and women differ in topics discussed.
- Romantic love combines passion, intimacy, and commitment. Cultural norms shape partner selection.
- Marital success relies on similarity, secure attachment, and minimizing costs and conflicts over time.
Systems theory provides a framework for viewing organizations as complex systems with interdependent parts. It recognizes that organizations are open systems that import and export resources with their environment. An organization's structure and functions depend on its environment and ability to adapt through feedback. The learning organization applies systems principles by continually expanding its capacity to learn from its environment through open communication between interdependent parts.
Nonparametric tests between subjects SPSS - D. Boduszek.pdfJoshuaLau29
This document provides an overview of non-parametric tests in SPSS, specifically the Mann-Whitney U test and Kruskal-Wallis H test. It describes when to use non-parametric tests, the SPSS procedures for the Mann-Whitney U and Kruskal-Wallis tests, and how to interpret and report the outputs of these tests. Examples are given of using these tests to compare criminal thinking between violent and non-violent offenders and to compare psychoticism between prisoner age groups.
1. A multiple regression analysis was conducted to predict problems related to drug use from self-efficacy, marijuana use, self-control, peer norms, and two dummy coded variables for race while controlling for other variables. The regression model accounted for 14% of the variance in drug problems.
2. Marijuana use and self-efficacy significantly predicted drug problems, with more marijuana use and lower self-efficacy associated with greater problems. Assumption checks found no significant violations.
3. A stepwise regression selected a two-predictor model with marijuana use and self-efficacy as significant predictors of drug problems.
- Mediation analysis seeks to understand how or why a predictor (X) influences an outcome (Y) through an intervening variable (M). Interest in mediation has grown significantly since the 1980s.
- Early work on mediation was done by Sewall Wright, Ronald Fisher, and Herbert Hyman. In the 1980s, Judd & Kenny, James & Brett, and Baron & Kenny proposed steps for testing mediation that became widely used.
- A key development was defining the indirect effect (the product of paths a and b) as the measure of mediation and ways to statistically test it, like the Sobel test. Mediation analysis has since been extended to more complex models.
-
1) Employees at Salomon Brothers felt relief, joy, or anger when learning about their bonuses. Their reactions showed that bonuses signaled their status and self-worth, not just material rewards.
2) Workplace environments often elicit social comparisons that can lead to envy, such as promotions, pay increases, and performance recognition. While comparisons sometimes occur privately, they often happen publicly in ways that impact employees' reputations.
3) Limited research has explored organizational antecedents that elicit envy. Theories point to social comparisons seeking self-evaluation and enhancement, which are common in uncertain and competitive workplaces. Research has examined individual cognitions, organizational factors, and supervisor-subordinate dynamics that may trigger envy.
This document discusses psychology and work. It covers topics like recruitment, selection processes, fair employment practices, job analysis, and influences on job preferences. The purpose is to explain important concepts in industrial and organizational psychology related to finding and selecting job applicants.
The document discusses research methods used in psychology and the workplace. It covers experimental and non-experimental methods like naturalistic observation, surveys, and web-based research. Experimental methods manipulate an independent variable to measure its effect on a dependent variable using control and experimental groups. Non-experimental methods observe behaviors without manipulation. The document also discusses research limitations, designing experiments, collecting and analyzing data through descriptive and inferential statistics, and meta-analysis.
The document is a chapter from an Industrial-Organizational (I-O) psychology textbook. It provides an overview of the field of I-O psychology, including its history, key topics, research methods, and contemporary challenges. Some of the major areas discussed include the origins of I-O psychology, the Hawthorne studies, psychological testing during World War I and II, common jobs and salaries for I-O psychologists, and problems faced in the field such as fraudulent practitioners.
This study examined career indecision among 397 managers and professionals at a large bank. The researchers developed a measure of career indecision and tested a model of its sources and outcomes. Through a factor analysis, they identified seven potential sources of career indecision. The model proposed that work/life experience, trait anxiety, and career assistance from the employer would indirectly influence career indecision through their effects on its sources. Sources like lack of self-knowledge were expected to directly impact career indecision status. Potential outcomes included negative work attitudes, life stress, and intentions to explore career options further. The study aimed to advance understanding of career indecision among employed adults versus student populations.
This document provides a proposal for a stress management group for single parents. It will focus on cognitive thinking, stress coping skills, and building a mutual support network. The number of single parents in Hong Kong has increased significantly in recent decades. Single parents face many stressors related to finances, parenting responsibilities, and emotional well-being after becoming a single parent. The group aims to help members reduce stress and improve their quality of life by learning skills like cognitive restructuring based on cognitive behavioral therapy principles.
This document discusses defining and measuring the trait of superstition. It begins by reviewing different definitions of superstition in the literature and outlines the goals of developing a clear definition and measurement scale. An exploratory qualitative study led the researchers to define superstition as unfounded half-beliefs that certain events or objects can bring good or bad luck. Several data collections were then used to develop a 27-item, 5-dimension scale to measure superstition. The scale dimensions are popular beliefs about good and bad fortune, belief in destiny, magical thinking, and defensive pessimism.
The Motivational Structure Questionnaire (MSQ) identifies problem drinkers' maladaptive motivational patterns that underlie their motivations for drinking alcohol. It does so by having respondents name their current concerns in major life areas and characterize each concern along dimensions that reveal the structure of their motivation. A computer program then generates quantitative indices and a motivational profile depicting the respondent's significant motivational features and problem areas. Administration takes 2-3 hours on average. The MSQ can help pinpoint problem drinkers' motivational issues to provide a basis for motivational counseling to change maladaptive patterns. It has been used in research concerned with motivational and volitional factors.
The document describes the development of the Belief in Good Luck (BIGL) Scale. Three studies provided evidence that there are reliable individual differences in beliefs about luck. Some people view luck as a stable force that influences events in their favor, while others see luck as random and unreliable. Belief in good luck was related to beliefs about chance but distinct from other constructs like optimism or self-esteem. The scale predicted positive expectations for outcomes associated with luck, suggesting irrational beliefs about luck can influence expectations of future success.
This document discusses social exchange theory and interdependence theory as they relate to relationships. It covers:
- People seek relationships that provide maximum rewards with minimum costs, and stay only if outcomes remain profitable. Satisfaction depends on outcomes exceeding our expectations.
- Comparison levels (CL) are the standards we use to judge relationship satisfaction, based on past relationship rewards. Comparison levels for alternatives (CLalt) are the best outcomes available elsewhere, determining how dependent we are on the current relationship.
- As time passes in a relationship, CL may rise while outcomes remain the same, risking taking the relationship for granted. CLalt increasing, such as from women's rights, can make relationships unhappier and less
This document discusses evidence-based approaches to facilitating career choices through decision theory. It presents several key aspects of career decision making, including the large amount of information and options to consider, the uncertainty involved, and non-cognitive influences. Several tools are proposed to help structure the complex career decision process, including the Career Decision-Making Difficulties Questionnaire (CDDQ) to assess an individual's challenges, and a three-stage model (PIC) to guide their decision making. The document also discusses developing and validating computer-assisted career guidance systems using theoretical knowledge and empirical methods.
This document discusses interdependence theory and its application to personal relationships. It contains the following key points:
1) Interdependence theory analyzes how people in relationships coordinate outcomes to maximize benefits for both partners, taking into account rewards, costs, comparisons to alternatives, and issues of fairness.
2) Relationships are most satisfying when rewards outweigh costs, outcomes meet or exceed expectations, and the relationship is perceived as fair. Commitment increases with satisfaction but people may stay in dissatisfying relationships due to investments, lack of alternatives, or moral commitments.
3) Self-disclosure, intimacy, power balances, conflict resolution styles, and accommodation versus neglect during dissatisfaction all impact relationship satisfaction and commitment over time according
This chapter discusses interdependence and roles in organizations. It covers types of interdependence like pooled, sequential, reciprocal, and comprehensive interdependence. It also discusses role taking and making, norms and role episodes, communication processes, socialization to new roles, and maintaining quality interpersonal relationships through concepts like equity theory. The key topics covered are types of interdependence, roles and norms, communication barriers, socialization goals and tactics, and responses to inequity.
This document discusses several theories of career development: trait-factor theories which match individuals' abilities to vocations; sociology of career choice which emphasizes social factors beyond an individual's control; developmental/self-concept theory where career choices reflect one's evolving self-image; personality theories linking career satisfaction to personality traits; and behavioral approaches observing environmental influences on career decisions. It also covers needs-based theories arguing occupational choices satisfy psychological needs.
Here are some key points about open world cafe:
- It's a structured conversational process for knowledge sharing in a relaxed, informal setting.
- Participants discuss questions or topics at tables in rounds of conversation. They can stay at their table or move to new ones.
- Having questions or topics helps guide discussion. The questions should be open-ended to allow for diverse perspectives.
- One person stays at the table as the "host" while others move, allowing ideas to build from round to round.
- Ambiance matters - cafe setting with music, food and drinks helps set the tone for open sharing.
- Effective facilitation is key - someone welcomes people and explains the process to maximize engagement
This document summarizes key topics in close relationships from a psychology textbook, including:
- Attachment styles developed in childhood influence relationships. Those securely attached do best.
- Family bonds provide the basis for other relationships. Siblings' interactions impact social skills.
- Friendships involve self-disclosure and support, though men and women differ in topics discussed.
- Romantic love combines passion, intimacy, and commitment. Cultural norms shape partner selection.
- Marital success relies on similarity, secure attachment, and minimizing costs and conflicts over time.
Systems theory provides a framework for viewing organizations as complex systems with interdependent parts. It recognizes that organizations are open systems that import and export resources with their environment. An organization's structure and functions depend on its environment and ability to adapt through feedback. The learning organization applies systems principles by continually expanding its capacity to learn from its environment through open communication between interdependent parts.
Nonparametric tests between subjects SPSS - D. Boduszek.pdfJoshuaLau29
This document provides an overview of non-parametric tests in SPSS, specifically the Mann-Whitney U test and Kruskal-Wallis H test. It describes when to use non-parametric tests, the SPSS procedures for the Mann-Whitney U and Kruskal-Wallis tests, and how to interpret and report the outputs of these tests. Examples are given of using these tests to compare criminal thinking between violent and non-violent offenders and to compare psychoticism between prisoner age groups.
1. A multiple regression analysis was conducted to predict problems related to drug use from self-efficacy, marijuana use, self-control, peer norms, and two dummy coded variables for race while controlling for other variables. The regression model accounted for 14% of the variance in drug problems.
2. Marijuana use and self-efficacy significantly predicted drug problems, with more marijuana use and lower self-efficacy associated with greater problems. Assumption checks found no significant violations.
3. A stepwise regression selected a two-predictor model with marijuana use and self-efficacy as significant predictors of drug problems.
- Mediation analysis seeks to understand how or why a predictor (X) influences an outcome (Y) through an intervening variable (M). Interest in mediation has grown significantly since the 1980s.
- Early work on mediation was done by Sewall Wright, Ronald Fisher, and Herbert Hyman. In the 1980s, Judd & Kenny, James & Brett, and Baron & Kenny proposed steps for testing mediation that became widely used.
- A key development was defining the indirect effect (the product of paths a and b) as the measure of mediation and ways to statistically test it, like the Sobel test. Mediation analysis has since been extended to more complex models.
-
1) Employees at Salomon Brothers felt relief, joy, or anger when learning about their bonuses. Their reactions showed that bonuses signaled their status and self-worth, not just material rewards.
2) Workplace environments often elicit social comparisons that can lead to envy, such as promotions, pay increases, and performance recognition. While comparisons sometimes occur privately, they often happen publicly in ways that impact employees' reputations.
3) Limited research has explored organizational antecedents that elicit envy. Theories point to social comparisons seeking self-evaluation and enhancement, which are common in uncertain and competitive workplaces. Research has examined individual cognitions, organizational factors, and supervisor-subordinate dynamics that may trigger envy.
2. Social Activity and the “Third Places”:
The Sociability Issues of Online Role Playing Games
Student: Chih-Hsien Chen Advisor: Jim Jiunde Lee, Ph. D.
Institute of Communication Studies
National Chiao Tung University
Abstract
Game is a significant cultural form in human history, and players can play
together in an common computer environment online now as the progress of
technology. Since many scholars and game designers emphasis the importance of
factors such as community and social interaction for games, there are few study
explore the relationship between “environment” and player’s interaction.
Accordingly, this study explores the sociability issues of online games from the
standpoint of the ”Third Places”, and use activity theory as the main analysis structure
after taking diary study and interviewing 12 players of online role playing games.
The results indicate that there are three main interaction forms of online game
players: “cooperation”, “social interaction” and “competition”, and the “Third Places”
are not only composed of spatial factors in online games. Each interaction form has
different relationship with the “Third Places”, and influences players’ needs of
sociability. In addition, interaction forms of players are more crucial for exploring
sociability issues of online games than the “Third Places” concept.
Keywords: activity theory, online role playing games, sociability, social interaction,
the “Third Places”.
II
11. 第一章 緒論
一、 背景與研究動機
遊戲自古以來即為人類歷史中重要的文化形式之一。學者 Tomasello 與
Donald 指出,遊戲在人類心智發展及文化生成的過程中扮演重要角色(Donald,
1991, Tomasello,2000;轉引自 Murray, 2006, p.185)。一方面,遊戲拓展並保存
了人類的文化模式;另一方面,遊戲也促進人們進行象徵性思考的能力,擴展
了媒介符號的表達力與可能性(Murray, 2006)。
文化人類學者 Mead(1962)也指出,人之所以相異於其他動物,在於人除
了透過姿勢互動外,還會藉由符號的使用來溝通,而社會便是建立於符號系統
所形成的客觀化規則之中。在兒童玩遊戲的過程中,藉著角色扮演學會遵守規
則,習得進入成人世界所需的基本價值規範,進而逐漸社會化,對兒童的認知
發展與社會關係具有深遠影響,此過程也成為社會能持續穩定的重要條件(翟
本瑞,2003)
。
而隨著電腦科技與網際網路的發展,遊戲也逐漸延伸至電腦此一媒介平
台,並讓玩家得以透過網路連線方式,無遠弗屆地與他人一同在遊戲環境中追
求娛樂,而與他人的互動經驗也構成遊戲樂趣來源之一。許多學者便指出,線
上遊戲受到如此歡迎,主要原因在於其相較於單機電腦遊戲,玩家在遊戲過程
中能經歷社交經驗(Brown & Bell, 2004; Jang, 2006; Wadley, Gibbs, Hew &
Graham, 2003)。
ACM 期刊《Crossroads》於 1996 年的 Computer game 專題中便提到:
「在網際網路出現後,原本分隔在世界各地的人們將可以經由網路在同一
遊戲世界中互動,而這也將是未來遊戲發展最重要的趨勢。至此,遊戲將具有
社會化的情境與影響力,在遊戲中我們不僅有機會,也能很有效率的與無數朋
友或陌生人進行互動…。
1
」
Brown & Bell(2004)認為,大型多人線上遊戲具有強烈合作性,且這些合
作行為大多發生於彼此陌生的玩家間。Griffiths, Davies & Chappell(2003)研究
也發現,有 41%的線上遊戲玩家最喜歡的遊戲面向為社會互動。從業界實務觀
點而言,Mulligan & Patrovsky(2003)指出,在遊戲設計上應秉持「玩家為遊戲
1
原文“With the aid of the Internet, people from all over the world are already able to participate
together in games, and this trend will continue. Computer games will have sociological impacts as well.
We will be able to meet vast numbers of people efficiently. It is not to hard to imagine tournaments of
computer games with thousands of players from all over the world competing against each other.”
(John, 1996;轉引自陳祈年,2005)
1
19. 「社交性」此一概念最早源自於社會學,首先為社會學家Simmel(1949)
提出。他將「社交性」定義為:
「一種從社會現實生活中萃取出的一種獨特
連結關係,且此連結過程本身就是價值與滿足來源…社交性為從生活中抽離
出的一種純粹的同在感(togetherness)
,一種因他人陪伴而產生的愉悅。9
」
(Simmel, 1949; Ducheneaut, Moore & Nickell, 2007)
Rutter & Smith(n.d.;轉引自潘育絜,2008)認為,Simmel 的「社交
性」概念為一種純粹的特質,一種重要的生活本質,也就是「共在感」
(togetherness)
,一種因為有他人的陪伴而產生之純粹愉悅。個人會因為彼
此的能力、興趣和吸引力而在一社交環境中形成連結關係,此環境不但具有
民主之特質,人和人彼此相連,同時個人情緒會受他人牽引,個人快樂是因
為感染了他人的快樂而產生的感受。
而根據牛津英語大辭典對「社交性」之解釋,將其定義為人的一種特
質和傾向,包含有意願與他人交往、陪伴,並以一種愉快、友善的態度和他
人溝通(陳祈年,2005)
。綜上述可知,從社會文化的觀點而言,
「社交性」
意謂一種因互動而產生的共同、平等的陪伴關係,且此關係是由參與者彼此
因愉悅互動產生的連結而成,代表一種人與人相處時互動的特質和傾向,是
一種友善、傾向與他人相處以及親密和睦之關係。此與「社會互動」在概念
上有其相通處,且「社交性」可說是「社會互動」最終欲達成的目標。
然而,當人機互動領域談及「社交性」時,則代表系統設計時的一種
概念準則
(潘育絜,2008)
。
「社交性」
和人機互動領域中
「使用性」
(usability)
為彼此緊密相關,卻關注介面設計中不同面向之概念。
「使用性」主要關注
於人與電腦系統介面間的互動,而「社交性」主要關注人如何透過電腦系統
介面與他人進行互動(Preece, 2000; 2001)。
在人機互動領域的社交性定義上,Preece & Maloney(2003)指出,所謂
社交性主要以關注計劃與開發社會性措施(social policies),並支持線上社群
之社會互動為目的。因此在定義層次上,人機互動領域與社會學不同,主要
關注在支持使用者社群互動以達成共同目標的技術層次上。
Preece(2001; 2000)認為,社交性主要包含三個構成面向,分別為「目
標」(purpose)、
「人群」(people)和「策略措施」(policies)。
「目標」指能讓社
群產生歸屬感所需的共享利益、需求、資訊和支援等;
「人群」則是指在一
社群中與他人互動,具有個人和社會需求的個體;
「策略措施」則包含各種
指引人們互動行為之規範、協定等。
9
原文”a distinct social form that distills out of the realities of social life the pure essence of
association, of the associative process as a value and a satisfaction[…]Sociability extracts the serious
substance of life leaving only “togetherness", the sheer pleasure of the company of
others."(Simmel, 1949, p.254-255)
9