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![excellent compound sauce of the added ingredient is immediately
obtained.
Sauces, American. White vinegar, 15 gall.; walnut ketchup, 10
gall.; Madeira wine, 5 gall.; mushroom ketchup, 10 gall,; table salt,
25 lbs. (troy); Canton soy, 4 gall.; powdered capsicum 2 lbs. (troy);
allspice, powdered, coriander powder, of each 1 lb. (troy); cloves,
mace, cinnamon, of each 1⁄2 lb. (troy); assafœtida, 1⁄4 lb. (troy);
dissolved in brandy, 1 gall.; 20 lbs. of hog’s liver is boiled for 12
hours with 10 gall. of water, renewing the water from time to time.
Take out the liver, chop it, mix it with water, and work it through a
sieve; mix with the sauce.
2. White vinegar, 240 gall.; Canton soy, 36 gall.; sugar-house
syrup, 30 gall.; walnut ketchup, 50 gall.; mushroom ketchup, 50
gall.; table salt, 120 lbs. (troy); powdered capsicum, 15 lbs. (troy);
allspice, coriander, of each 7 lbs. (troy); cloves, mace, cinnamon, of
each 4 lbs. (troy); assafœtida, 21⁄2 lbs. (troy), dissolved in St Croix
rum, 1 gall.
3. White vinegar, 1 gall. Canton soy, molasses, of each 1 pint;
walnut ketchup, 11⁄2 pint; table salt, 4 oz.; powdered capsicum,
allspice, of each 1 oz.; coriander, 1⁄2 oz.; cloves, mace, of each 1⁄2
oz.; cinnamon, 6 dr., assafœtida 1⁄4 oz. in 4 oz. of rum.
SAUERKRAUT. [Ger.] Prep. Clean white cabbages, cut them
into small pieces, and stratify them in a cask along with culinary salt
and a few juniper berries and caraway seeds, observing to pack
them down as hard as possible, without crushing them, and to cover
them with a lid pressed down with a heavy weight. The cask should
be placed in a cold situation as soon as a sour smell is perceived.
Used by the Germans and other northern nations of Europe, like our
‘pickled cabbage,’ but more extensively.
SAU′SAGES. From the fat and lean of pork (PORK SAUSAGES), or
of beef (BEEF SAUSAGES), chopped small, flavoured with spice, and
put into gut skins, or pressed into pots or balls (SAUSAGE MEAT). Crum](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/21442579-250527055034-42e560f7/85/Our-Pasts-3-Part-2-History-Class-8-Various-46-320.jpg)
![of bread is also added. Their quality is proportionate to that of the
ingredients, and to the care and cleanliness employed in preparing
them.
A pea sausage, composed of pea flour, fat pork, and a little salt,
was largely consumed by the German soldiers during the Franco-
German campaign. Dr Parkes found 100 parts of this sausage to
consist of—16·2 parts of water, 7·19 of salts, 12·297 of albuminates,
33·65 of fat, and 30·663 of carbohydrates. It is ready cooked, but
can be made into soup, although much relished for a few days. The
soldiers soon became tired of it. In some cases it gave rise to
flatulence and diarrhœa. See Meat.
SAV′ELOYS. Pork sausages made in such a way that they keep
good for a considerable time. Prep. (Mrs Rundell.) Take of young
pork, free from bone and skin, 3 lbs.; salt it with 1 oz. of saltpetre,
and 1⁄2 lb. of common salt, for 2 days; then chop it fine, add, 3
teaspoonfuls of pepper, 1 doz. sage leaves, chopped fine, and 1 lb.
of grated bread; mix well, fill the skins, and steam them or bake
them half an hour in a slack oven. They are said to be good either
hot or cold.
SAV′INE. Syn. Savin; Folia sabinæ, Sabina (Ph. L., E., & D.), L.
“The recent and dried tops of Juniperis sabina, Linn.,” or common
savine. (Ph. L.) It is a powerful stimulant, diaphoretic,
emmenagogue, and anthelmintic; and, externally, rubefacient,
escharotic and vesicant. In large doses it is apt to occasion abortion,
and acts as a poison. Savine powder mixed with verdigris is often
applied to corns and warts. It is now chiefly used in the form of
ointment.—Dose, 5 to 15 gr., twice or thrice daily (with care), in
amenorrhœa and worms. See Cerate.
SAVONETTES. [Fr.] Syn. Wash balls. These are made of any of
the mild toilet soaps, scented at will, generally with the addition of
some powdered starch or farina, and sometimes sand. The spherical
or spheroidal form is given to them by pressure in moulds, or by first
roughly forming them with the hands, and, when quite hard, turning](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/21442579-250527055034-42e560f7/85/Our-Pasts-3-Part-2-History-Class-8-Various-47-320.jpg)
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- 6. vii Contents Foreword iii 7. Weavers,Iron Smelters and Factory Owners 79 8. Civilising the “Native”, Educating the Nation 95 9. Women, Caste and Reform 108 10. The Changing World of Visual Arts 123 11. The Making of the National Movement: 1870s--1947 141 12. India After Independence 160
- 7. 79 Weavers, Iron Smeltersand Factory Owners 7 Fig. 1 – Trading ships on the port of Surat in the seventeenth century Surat in Gujarat on the west coast of India was one of the most important ports of the Indian Ocean trade. Dutch and English trading ships began using the port from the early seventeenth century. Its importance declined in the eighteenth century. This chapter tells the story of the crafts and industries of India during British rule by focusing on two industries, namely, textiles and iron and steel. Both these industries were crucial for the industrial revolution in the modern world. Mechanised production of cotton textiles made Britain the foremost industrial nation in the nineteenth century. And when its iron and steel industry started growing from the 1850s, Britain came to be known as the “workshop of the world”. The industrialisation of Britain had a close connection with the conquest and colonisation of India. You have seen (Chapter 2) how the English East India Company’s interest in trade led to occupation of territory, and how the pattern of trade changed over the decades. In the late eighteenth century the Company was buying goods in India and exporting them to England and Europe, making profit through this sale. With the growth of industrial production, British industrialists began to see India as a vast market for their industrial products, and over time manufactured goods from Britain began flooding India. How did this affect Indian crafts and industries? This is the question we will explore in this chapter.
- 8. OUR PASTS –III 80 Fig. 2 – Patola weave, mid-nineteenth century Patola was woven in Surat, Ahmedabad and Patan. Highly valued in Indonesia, it became part of the local weaving tradition there. Indian Textiles and the World Market Let us first look at textile production. Around 1750, before the British conquered Bengal, India was by far the world’s largest producer of cotton textiles. Indian textiles had long been renowned both for their fine quality and exquisite craftsmanship. They were extensively traded in Southeast Asia (Java, Sumatra and Penang) and West and Central Asia. From the sixteenth century European trading companies began buying Indian textiles for sale in Europe. Memories of this flourishing trade and the craftsmanship of Indian weavers is preserved in many words still current in English and other languages. It is interesting to trace the origin of such words, and see what they tell us. Words tell us histories European traders first encountered fine cotton cloth from India carried by Arab merchants in Mosul in present-day Iraq. So they began referring to all finely woven textiles as “muslin” – a word that acquired wide currency. When the Portuguese first came to India in search of spices they landed in Calicut on the Kerala coast in south-west India. The cotton textiles which they took back to Europe, along with the spices, came to be called “calico” (derived from Calicut), and subsequently calico became the general name for all cotton textiles. There are many other words which point to the popularity of Indian textiles in Western markets. In Fig. 3 you can see a page of an order book that the English East India Company sent to its representatives in Calcutta in 1730. The order that year was for 5,89,000 pieces of cloth. Browsing through the order book you would have seen a list of 98 varieties of cotton and silk cloths. These were known by their common name in the European trade as piece goods – usually woven cloth pieces that were 20 yards long and 1 yard wide.
- 9. 81 WEAVERS, IRON SMELTERSAND FACTORY OWNERS Fig. 3 – A page from an order book of the East India Company, 1730 Notice how each item in the order book was carefully priced in London. These orders had to be placed two years in advance because this was the time required to send orders to India, get the specific cloths woven and shipped to Britain. Once the cloth pieces arrived in London they were put up for auction and sold. Now look at the names of the different varieties of cloth in the book. Amongst the pieces ordered in bulk were printed cotton cloths called chintz, cossaes (or khassa) and bandanna. Do you know where the English term chintz comes from? It is derived from the Hindi word chhint, a cloth with small and colourful flowery designs. From the 1680s there started a craze for printed Indian cotton textiles in England and Europe mainly for their exquisite floral designs, fine texture and relative cheapness. Rich people of England including the Queen herself wore clothes of Indian fabric. Similarly, the word bandanna now refers to any brightly coloured and printed scarf for the neck or head. Originally, the term derived from the word Fig. 4 – Jamdani weave, early twentieth century Jamdani is a fine muslin on which decorative motifs are woven on the loom, typically in grey and white. Often a mixture of cotton and gold thread was used, as in the cloth in this picture. The most important centres of jamdani weaving were Dacca in Bengal and Lucknow in the United Provinces.
- 10. OUR PASTS –III 82 Fig. 5 – Printed design on fine cloth (chintz) produced in Masulipatnam, Andhra Pradesh, mid-nineteenth century This is a fine example of the type of chintz produced for export to Iran and Europe. Fig. 6 – Bandanna design, early twentieth century Notice the line that runs through the middle. Do you know why? In this odhni, two tie-and-dye silk pieces are seamed together with gold thread embroidery. Bandanna patterns were mostly produced in Rajasthan and Gujarat. “bandhna” (Hindi for tying), and referred to a variety of brightly coloured cloth produced through a method of tying and dying. There were other cloths in the order book that were noted by their place of origin: Kasimbazar, Patna, Calcutta, Orissa, Charpoore. The widespread use of such words shows how popular Indian textiles had become in different parts of the world.
- 11. 83 Activity Why do youthink the Act was called the Calico Act? What does the name tell us about the kind of textiles the Act wanted to ban? h WEAVERS, IRON SMELTERS AND FACTORY OWNERS Spinning Jenny – A machine by which a single worker could operate several spindles on to which thread was spun. When the wheel was turned all the spindles rotated. Indian textiles in European markets By the early eighteenth century, worried by the popularity of Indian textiles, wool and silk makers in England began protesting against the import of Indian cotton textiles. In 1720, the British government enacted a legislation banning the use of printed cotton textiles – chintz – in England. Interestingly, this Act was known as the Calico Act. At this time textile industries had just begun to develop in England. Unable to compete with Indian textiles, English producers wanted a secure market within the country by preventing the entry of Indian textiles. The first to grow under government protection was the calico printing industry. Indian designs were now imitated and printed in England on white muslin or plain unbleached Indian cloth. Competition with Indian textiles also led to a search for technological innovation in England. In 1764, the spinning jenny was invented by John Kaye which increased the productivity of the traditional spindles. The invention of the steam engine by Richard Arkwright in 1786 revolutionised cotton textile weaving. Cloth could now be woven in immense quantities and cheaply too. However, Indian textiles continued to dominate world trade till the end of the eighteenth century. European trading companies – the Dutch, the French and the English – made enormous profits out of this flourishing trade. These companies purchased cotton and silk textiles in India by importing silver. But as you know (Chapter 2), when the English East India Company gained political power in Bengal, it no longer had to import precious metal to buy Indian goods. Instead, they collected revenues from peasants and zamindars in India, and used this revenue to buy Indian textiles. Fig. 7 – A sea view of the Dutch settlement in Cochin, seventeenth century As European trade expanded, trading settlements were established at various ports. The Dutch settlements in Cochin came up in the seventeenth century. Notice the fortification around the settlement.
- 12. OUR PASTS –III 84 Fig. 8 – Weaving centres: 1500-1750 If you look at the map you will notice that textile production was concentrated in four regions in the early nineteenth century. Bengal was one of the most important centres. Located along the numerous rivers in the delta, the production centres in Bengal could easily transport goods to distant places. Do not forget that in the early nineteenth century railways had not developed and roads were only just beginning to be laid on an extensive scale. Dacca in Eastern Bengal (now Bangladesh) was the foremost textile centre in the eighteenth century. It was famous for its mulmul and jamdani weaving. If you look at the southern part of India in the map you will see a second cluster of cotton weaving centres along the Coromandel coast stretching from Madras to northern Andhra Pradesh. On the western coast there were important weaving centres in Gujarat. Where were the major centres of weaving in the late eighteenth century?
- 13. 85 Who were theweavers? Weavers often belonged to communities that specialised in weaving. Their skills were passed on from one generation to the next. The tanti weavers of Bengal, the julahas or momin weavers of north India, sale and kaikollar and devangs of south India are some of the communities famous for weaving. The first stage of production was spinning – a work done mostly by women. The charkha and the takli were household spinning instruments. The thread was spun on the charkha and rolled on the takli. When the spinning was over the thread was woven into cloth by the weaver. In most communities weaving was a task done by men. For coloured textiles, the thread was dyed by the dyer, known as rangrez. For printed cloth the weavers needed the help of specialist block printers known as chhipigars. Handloom weaving and the occupations associated with it provided livelihood for millions of Indians. The decline of Indian textiles The development of cotton industries in Britain affected textile producers in India in several ways. First: Indian textiles now had to compete with British textiles in the European and American markets. Second: exporting textiles to England also became increasingly difficult since very high duties were imposed on Indian textiles imported into Britain. By the beginning of the nineteenth century, English- made cotton textiles successfully ousted Indian goods from their traditional markets in Africa, America and Europe. Thousands of weavers in India were now thrown out of employment. Bengal weavers were the worst hit. English and European companies stopped buying Indian goods and their agents no longer gave out WEAVERS, IRON SMELTERS AND FACTORY OWNERS Fig. 9 – A tanti weaver of Bengal, painted by the Belgian painter Solvyns in the 1790s The tanti weaver here is at work in the pit loom. Do you know what a pit loom is? “We must starve for food” In 1823 the Company government in India received a petition from 12,000 weavers stating: Our ancestors and we used to receive advances from the Company and maintain ourselves and our respective families by weaving Company’s superior assortments. Owing to our misfortune, the aurangs have been abolished ever since because of which we and our families are distressed for want of the means of livelihood. We are weavers and do not know any other business. We must starve for food, if the Board of Trade do not cast a look of kindness towards us and give orders for clothes. Proceedings of the Board of Trade, 3 February 1824 Source 1 Aurang – A Persian term for a warehouse – a place where goods are collected before being sold; also refers to a workshop
- 14. OUR PASTS –III 86 “Please publish this in your paper” One widowed spinner wrote in 1828 to a Bengali newspaper, Samachar Darpan, detailing her plight: To the Editor, Samachar, I am a spinner. After having suffered a great deal, I am writing this letter. Please publish this in your paper ... When my age was … 22, I became a widow with three daughters. My husband left nothing at the time of his death … I sold my jewellery for his shraddha ceremony. When we were on the verge of starvation God showed me a way by which we could save ourselves. I began to spin on takli and charkha ... The weavers used to visit our houses and buy the charkha yarn at three tolas per rupee. Whatever amount I wanted as advance from the weavers, I could get for the asking. This saved us from cares about food and cloth. In a few years’ time I got together … Rs. 28. With this I married one daughter. And in the same way all three daughters ... Now for 3 years, we two women, mother-in-law and me, are in want of food. The weavers do not call at the house for buying yarn. Not only this, if the yarn is sent to market it is still not sold even at one-fourth the old prices. I do not know how it happened. I asked many about it. They say that Bilati 2 yarn is being imported on a large scale. The weavers buy that yarn and weave … People cannot use the cloth out of this yarn even for two months; it rots away. A representation from a suffering spinner Source 2 Activity Read Sources 1 and 2. What reasons do the petition writers give for their condition of starvation? h advances to weavers to secure supplies. Distressed weavers wrote petitions to the government to help them. But worse was still to come. By the 1830s British cotton cloth flooded Indian markets. In fact, by the 1880s two-thirds of all the cotton clothes worn by Indians were made of cloth produced in Britain. This affected not only specialist weavers but also spinners. Thousands of rural women who made a living by spinning cotton thread were rendered jobless. Handloom weaving did not completely die in India. This was because some types of cloths could not be supplied by machines. How could machines produce saris with intricate borders or cloths with traditional woven patterns? These had a wide demand not only amongst the rich but also amongst the middle classes. Nor did the textile manufacturers in Britain produce the very coarse cloths used by the poor people in India.
- 15. Another Random Documenton Scribd Without Any Related Topics
- 16. Simple Chalybeate Water.Water freed from air by boiling, 1 pint; sulphate of iron, 1⁄2 gr. Aerated Chalybeate Water. Sulphate of iron, 1 gr.; carbonate of soda, 4 gr.; water (deprived of air and charged with carbonic-acid gas), a pint. Dr Pereira recommends 10 gr. each of sulphate of iron and bicarbonate of soda to be taken in a bottle of ordinary soda water. This is equivalent to 4 gr. of carbonate of iron. Brighton Chalybeate. Sulphate of iron, chloride of sodium, chloride of calcium, of each 2 gr.; carbonate of soda, 3 gr.; carbonated water, 1 pint. Bussang, Forges, Provins, and other similar waters, may be imitated by dissolving from 1⁄2 to 2⁄3rds of a grain of sulphate of iron, 2 or 3 gr. of carbonate of soda, 1 gr. of sulphate of magnesia, and 1 of chloride of sodium, in a pint of aerated water. Mont d’Or Water. Bicarbonate of soda, 70 gr.; sulphate of iron, 2⁄3 gr.; chloride of sodium, 12 gr.; sulphate of soda, 1⁄2 gr.; chloride of calcium, 4 gr.; chloride of magnesium, 2 gr.; aerated water, a pint. Passy Water. Sulphate of iron, 2 gr.; chloride of sodium, 3 gr.; carbonate of soda, 4 gr.; chloride of magnesium, 2 gr.; aerated water, a pint. Pyrmont Water. Sulphate of magnesia, 20 gr.; chloride of magnesium, 4 gr.; chloride of sodium, 2 gr.; bicarbonate of soda, 16 gr.; sulphate of iron, 2 gr.; Carrara water, a pint. Various Aerated Medicinal Waters not resembling any Natural Spring. Mialhe’s Aerated Chalybeate Water. Water, a pint; citric acid, 1 dr.; citrate of iron, 15 gr.; dissolve, and add 75 gr. of bicarbonate of soda. Trosseau’s Martial Aerated Water. Potassio-tartrate of iron, 10 gr.; artificial Seltzer water, a pint.
- 17. Bouchardat’s Gaseous Purgative.Phosphate of soda, 11⁄2 oz.; carbonated water, a pint. Mialhe’s Ioduretted Gaseous Water. Iodide of potassium, 15 gr.; bicarbonate of soda, 75 gr.; water, a pint; dissolve and add sulphuric acid, diluted with its weight of water, 75 gr. Cork immediately. Dupasquier’s Gaseous Water of Iodide of Iron. Solution of iodide of iron (containing 1⁄10th of dry iodide), 30 gr.; syrup of gum, 21⁄2 oz.; aerated water, 171⁄2 oz. SALTS (Smelling). Syn. Sal volatilis oleosus, L. Sesquicarbonate of ammonia commonly passes under the name of ‘SMELLING SALTS,’ and, with the addition of a few drops of essential oil, is frequently employed to fill ‘SMELLING BOTTLES,’ but when a strong and durable pungency is desired, the carbonate should alone be used, as in one or other of the following formulæ:— 1. Carbonate (not sesquicarbonate) of ammonia, 1 lb.; oil of lavender (Mitcham), 2 oz.; essence of bergamot, 1 oz.; oil of cloves, 1⁄4 oz.; rub them together, and sublime; keep the product in well- stopped bottles. 2. Carbonate of ammonia, 1 lb.; oil of lavender, 2 oz.; oils of bergamot and lemon, of each 1 oz.; as the last. 3. Carbonate of ammonia, 1⁄2 lb.; essence of bergamot, 1 oz.; oil of verbena, 1⁄4 oz.; otto of roses, 1 dr.; as before. 4. Carbonate of ammonia, 3⁄4 lb.; essences of bergamot and lemon, of each 1⁄2 oz.; essence de petit grain, 1⁄4 oz.; oil of cloves, 1 dr.; as before. 5. (Extemporaneous.)—a. From sal ammoniac, 1 dr.; pure potassa, 3 dr.; grind them together, and add, of essence of lemons, 15 drops; oil of cloves, 3 or 4 drops.—b. From carbonate or sesquicarbonate of ammonia (bruised), q. s.; volatile ammoniacal essence, a few drops.
- 18. According to DrParis, Godfrey’s Smelling Salts are made by resubliming volatile salt with subcarbonate of potassa and a little spirits of wine (and essential oil). SALVE. A name indiscriminately applied by the vulgar to any consistent, greasy preparation used in medicine. Salve, Lip-. Syn. Ceratum labiale, L. Prep. 1. (Red or Peruvian.) From spermaceti ointment, 1⁄2 lb.; alkanet root, 1⁄2 oz.; melt them together until sufficiently coloured, strain, and, when the strained fat has cooled a little, add of balsam of Peru, 3 dr.; stir well, and in a few minutes pour off the clear portion from the dregs; lastly, stir in of oil of cloves, 20 or 30 drops. This never gets rancid. 2. (Rose.) See Cerate. 3. (White.) From the finest spermaceti ointment or cerate, 3 oz.; finely powdered white sugar, 1 oz.; neroli or essence de petit grain, 10 or 12 drops, or q. s. Obs. Numerous formulæ are extant for lip-salves, as for other like articles, but the preceding are those generally employed in trade. The perfumes may be varied at will and the salve named after them. A very small quantity of finely powdered borax is occasionally added. French lip-salve is said to contain alum, in fine powder; and German lip-salve is said to be made of cacao butter. See Cerate, Pommade, and Ointment. SAND. Syn. Arena, L. River and sea sand consist chiefly of finely divided siliceous matter, mixed, occasionally, with carbonate of lime. That of Lynn and Alum Bay is nearly purely silica, and is, therefore, selected for the manufacture of glass. Sand is used by moulders in metal, and as a manure for heavy land. It is a large and necessary portion of every fertile soil. SAND PAPER. The ‘American Builder’ gives the following process for making sand-paper of superior quality, at almost nominal
- 19. cost: “The device formaking sand-paper is simple and at hand to any one who has occasion to use the paper. A quantity of ordinary window glass is taken (that having a green colour is said to be the best) and pounded fine, after which it is passed through one or more sieves of different degrees of fineness, to secure the glass for coarse or fine paper. Then any tough paper is covered evenly with glue, having about one third more water than is generally employed for wood work. The glass is sifted upon the paper, allowed a day or two in which to become fixed in the glue, when the refuse glue is shaken off, and the paper is fit for use.” SAN′DAL WOOD. 1. (Red sanders wood, R. saunders w.; Lignum santali rubri, Lignum santalinum rubrum, Pterocarpus—Ph. L. & E.) The wood of Pterocarpus santilinus. It is used in medicine as a colouring matter. It is also employed in dyeing, and to stain varnishes. Wool may be dyed a carmine red by dipping it alternately into an infusion of this wood and an acidulous bath, (Trommsdorff.) Prepared with a mordant of alum and tartar, and then dyed in a bath of sandal wood and sumach, it takes a reddish-yellow. (Bancroft.) See Santalin. 2. (White sandal wood, White sanders; Santalum album.) The young timber, or, according to others, the outside wood of Santalum album. (Linn.) 3. (Yellow sandal wood; Santalum citrinum, S. flavum.) The old timber, or, according to others, the heart of the same tree. Both the latter are much esteemed on account of their fragrance, and yield a valuable essential oil. SAN′DARACH. Syn. Sandrac, Gums. A resin obtained from Thuja articulata, and Juniperus communis (in warm climates). It is slightly fragrant, is freely soluble in rectified spirit, and has a sp. gr. of 1·05 to 1·09. It is used as incense, pounce, in varnishes, &c. SAN′DERS WOOD. See Sandal Wood.
- 20. SAN′DIVER. Syn. Glassgall; Fell vitri, Sal vitri, L. The saline scum that swims on glass when first made. It is occasionally used in tooth powders. SANGUINA′RINE. Syn. Sanguinarina, L. Obtained from the root of Sanguinaria Canadensis (Linn.), or blood-root, by digesting it in anhydrous alcohol; exhausting it with weak sulphuric acid; precipitating by liquor of ammonia; dissolving out by ether, and precipitating sulphate of sanguinarine by the addition of sulphuric acid. The sulphate may be decomposed by ammonia, which precipitates the alkaloid as a white pearly substance, of an acrid taste, very soluble in alcohol, also soluble in ether and volatile oils. With acids it forms soluble salts, remarkable for their beautiful red, crimson, and scarlet colours. These salts are used in medicine as expectorants, in doses of fractions of a grain. The ‘sanguinarin’ of the American ‘Eclectics’ is prepared by precipitating a saturated tincture of blood-root by water. It contains an uncertain proportion of the alkaloid, and is of a deep reddish- brown colour. See Resinoids. SANITARY AUTHORITIES AND SANITARY DISTRICTS. With the exception of the metropolis, the whole of England and Ireland is divided into urban and rural sanitary districts, which are respectively governed by urban and rural authorities. The Public Health Act (sec. 6) thus defines an urban district, and an urban authority in England:—
- 21. Urban Districts. UrbanAuthority. Borough, constituted such either before or after the passing of this Act. The mayor, aldermen, and burgesses, acting by the council. Improvement act district, constituted such before the passing of the Public Health Act, 1872, and having no part of its area situated within a borough or local government district. The improvement commissioners. Local government district constituted such either before or after the passing of this Act, having no part of its area situated within a borough, and not coincident in area with a borough or improvement act district. The local board. Provided that— 1. Any borough the whole of which is included in and forms part of a local government district or improvement act district, and any improvement act district which is included in and forms part of a local government district, and any local government district which is included in and forms part of an improvement act district, shall, for the purposes of this Act, be deemed to be absorbed in the larger district in which it is included, or of which it forms part; and the Improvement commissioners, or local board, as the case may be, of such larger district, shall be the urban authority therein; and 2. Where an improvement act district is coincident in area with a local government district, the improvement commissioners, and not a local board, shall be the urban authority there; and 3. Where any part of an improvement act district is situated within a borough or local act district, or where any part of a local government district is situated within a borough, the remaining part
- 22. of such improvementact district or of such local government district so partly situated within a borough, shall for the purposes of this Act continue subject to the like jurisdiction as it would have been subject to if this Act had not been passed, unless and until the Local Government Board by provisional order otherwise directs. For the purposes of the Public Health Act, the boroughs of Oxford, Cambridge, Blandford, Calne, Wenlock, Folkestone, and Newport, Isle of Wight, are not to be deemed boroughs. The borough of Cambridge is to be deemed an improvement act district, the borough of Oxford is to be included in the local government district of Oxford, and there is a special provision in the case of the borough of Folkestone. An English rural sanitary district and authority are thus defined by the Public Health Act (sec. 9):— “The area of any union which is not coincident in area with an urban district, nor wholly included in an urban district (in this section called a rural union), with the exception of those portions (if any) of the area which are included in any urban district, shall be a rural district, and the guardians of the union shall form the rural authority of such district, provided that— “1. An ex officio guardian resident in any parish or part of a parish belonging to such union, which parish or part of a parish forms or is situated in an urban district, shall not act or vote in any case in which guardians of such union act or vote as members of the rural authority, unless he is the owner or occupier of property situated in the rural district of a value sufficient to qualify him as an elective guardian for the union. “2. An elective guardian of any parish belonging to such union, and forming or being included within an urban district, shall not act or vote in any case in which guardians of such union act or vote as members of the rural authority.
- 23. “3. Where partof a parish belonging to a rural union forms or is situated in an urban district, the Local Government Board may by order divide such parish into separate wards, and determine the number of guardians to be elected by such wards respectively, in such manner as to provide for the due representation of the part of the parish situated within the rural district; but until such order has been made, the guardian or guardians of such parish may act and vote as members of the rural authority in the same manner as if no part of such parish formed part of, or was situated in, the urban district.” Where the number of elective guardians, who are not by this section disqualified from acting and voting as members of the rural authority, is less than five, the Local Government Board may from time to time by order nominate such number of persons as may be necessary to make up that number, from owners or occupiers of property situated in the rural district of a value sufficient to qualify them as elective guardians for the union; and the persons so nominated shall be entitled to act and vote as members of the rural authority, but not further or otherwise. Subject to the provisions of this Act, all statutes, orders, and legal provisions applicable to any board of guardians shall apply to them in their capacity of rural authority under this Act for the purposes of this Act; and it is hereby declared that the rural authority are the same body as the guardians of the union or parish for or within which such authority act. Sanitary districts in Ireland are:—The City of Dublin, other corporate towns above 6000, and towns or townships having commissioners under local Acts. And urban authorities are:— In the City of Dublin, the Right Hon. the Lord Mayor, Aldermen, and Burgesses acting by the town council. In towns corporate, the town council.
- 24. In towns exceeding6000, having commissioners under the Lighting, Cleaning, and Watching Act of George IV; or having municipal commissioners under 3 and 4 Vict., c. 108; or town commissioners under the Towns Improvement (Ireland) Act (17 and 18 Vict., c. 103), the said commissioners, municipal, or town councillors respectively. In towns or townships having commissioners under local Acts, the town or township commissioners (37 and 38 Vict. c. 98, s. 3). The Irish rural sanitary districts and authorities are exactly analogous to the English. In Scotland, sanitary powers are exercised by town councils, police commissioners, and parochial boards, controlled and supervised by a board of supervision; but the names of urban and rural sanitary authorities have not yet been applied to them. Under the English Public Health Act, there may also be formed united districts; for example: Where, on the application of any local authority of any district, it appears to the Local Government Board that it would be for the advantage of the districts, or any of them, or any parts thereof, or of any contributory places, in any rural district or districts, to be formed into a united district for all or any of the purposes following:— 1. The procuring a common supply of water; or 2. The making a main sewer, or carrying into effect a system of sewerage for the use of all such districts, or contributory places; or 3. For any other purposes of this Act, the Local Government Board may, by provisional order, form such districts or contributory places into a united district. All costs, charges, and expenses of and incidental to the formation of a united district are, in the event of the united district
- 25. being formed, tobe a first charge on the rates leviable in the united district in pursuance section 279 of the Public Health Act. Notice of the provisional order must be made public in the locality; and should the union be carried out, the incidental expenses thereto are a first charge on the sanitary rates of the united district. A united district is governed by a joint board consisting of such ex officio, and of such number of elective members as the provisional order determines. The business arrangements of the joint board differ little from those of a sanitary authority. The joint board is a body corporate having a name—determined by the provisional order—a perpetual succession, and a common seal, and having power to acquire and hold lands without any licence in mortmain. The joint board has only business and power in matters for which it has been formed. With the exception of these special objects, the component districts continue as before to exercise independent powers. Nevertheless, the joint board may delegate to the sanitary authority of any component district the exercise of any of its powers, or the performance of any of its duties (Public Health Act, sec. 281). Sanitary authorities and districts may be also combined for the execution and maintenance of works, for the prevention of epidemic diseases, as well as for the purpose of appointing a medical officer of health. Districts when once formed are not fixed and unvariable, the Local Government Board having the most extensive powers over the alterations of areas. 1. The Local Government Board, by provisional order, may dissolve any local government district, and may merge any such district in some other district, or may declare the whole or any portion of a local government or a rural district immediately adjoining a local government district to be included in such last mentioned district, or may declare any portion of a local government
- 26. district immediately adjoininga rural district to be included in such last-mentioned district; and thereupon the included area shall, for the purposes of the Public Health Act, be deemed to form part of the district in which it is included in such order; and the remaining part (if any) of such local government district or rural district affected by such order, shall continue subject to the like jurisdiction as it would have been subject to if such order had not been made, unless and until the Local Government Board by provisional order otherwise directs. 2. In the case of a borough comprising within its area the whole of an improvement act district, or having an area coextensive with such district, the Local Government Board, by provisional order, may dissolve such district, and transfer to the council of the borough, all or any of the jurisdiction and powers of the improvement commissioners of such district, remaining vested in them at the time of the passing of the Public Health Act. 3. The Local Government Board may, by order, dissolve any special drainage district constituted either before or after the passing of the Public Health Act in which a loan for the execution of works has not been raised, and merge it into the parish or parishes in which it is situated; but in the cases where a loan has been raised the Local Government Board can only do this by provisional order (Public Health Act, sec. 271). Disputes with regard to the boundaries of districts are to be settled by the Local Government Board after local inquiry (Public Health Act, sec. 278). Where districts also are constituted for the purposes of main sewerage only, in pursuance of the Public Health Act of 1848, or where a district has been formed subject to the jurisdiction of a joint sewerage board, in pursuance of the Sewage Utilisation Act of 1867, such districts or district may be dissolved by provisional order, and the Local Government Board may constitute it a united district,
- 27. subject to thejurisdiction of a joint board (Public Health Act, sec. 323). The Local Government Board may also declare by provisional order any rural district to be a local government district. The Local Government Board has also the important power of investing a rural authority with urban powers as follows: “The Local Government Board may, on the application of the authority of any rural district, or of persons rated to the relief of the poor, the assessment of whose hereditaments amounts at the least to one tenth of the net rateable value of such district, or of any contributory place therein, by order to be published in the ‘London Gazette,’ or in such other manner as the Local Government Board may direct, declare any provisions of this Act in force in urban districts to be in force in such rural district or contributory place, and may invest such authority with all or any of the powers, rights, duties, capacities, liabilities, and obligations of an urban authority under this Act, and such investment may be made either unconditionally or subject to any conditions to be specified by the board as to the time, portion of its district, or manner during, at, and in which such powers, rights, duties, liabilities, capacities, and obligations are to be exercised and attach, provided that an order of the Local Government Board made on the application of one tenth of the persons rated to the relief of the poor in any contributory place shall not invest the rural authority with any new powers beyond the limits of such contributory places” (Public Health Act, sec. 276). Powers and Duties of Sanitary Authorities. In England urban sanitary authorities have very extensive powers and duties under the Public Health Act of 1875, and in addition they have to carry out the Bakehouse Regulation Act, and the Artisans’ and Labourers’ Dwellings Act. They also have power to adopt the Baths and Wash- houses Acts, and the Labouring Classes’ Lodging Houses Acts; but where adopted or in force, the powers, rights, duties, &c., of these Acts belong to the urban authority. The powers of any local act for
- 28. sanitary purposes (excepta River Conservancy Act) are transferred to the urban authority. The powers of an English rural authority are exercised principally under the Public Health Act, but they have also to carry out the Bakehouse Regulation Act. The powers given by the Irish Public Health Act to Irish Sanitary Authorities are similar. The Local Government Act is not in force there, and equal powers are given without distinction to urban and rural sanitary authorities. The duties of sanitary authorities are to carry out the Acts which apply to them, and appoint certain officers, such as medical officers of health, inspectors of nuisances, clerk, treasurer, &c. Speaking generally, it may be affirmed that all sanitary authorities are invested with ample powers for enforcing sanitary measures. Their duty consists in perfecting drainage, sewerage, and water supply. In towns they have the control of streets and houses, both private and public, and in all localities they possess ample powers to cause every species of nuisance to be abated, which is in the least inimical to health. The Public Health Act contains a proviso for dealing with an authority which fails in its duty. Under these circumstances, the Local Government Board is invested with compulsory powers, and may compel the due performance of whatever it may deem necessary. SANITARY HERBAL BITTERS—Gesundheitskräuter- Bitter. An indispensable household remedy for every family, for colic, stomach-ache, cramp in the bladder, flatulence, loss of appetite, nausea, chronic liver diseases, constipation, and diarrhœa; also as a soothing agent for infants (Gottschlich). The fluid contains in 100 grammes the soluble portion of about ·8 gramme opium. (Hager.)
- 29. SANITARY LIQUEUR—Gesundheits Liqueur.Swedish elixir of life, with rhubarb in place of the aloes, made into a liqueur with sugar and spirit. (Hager.) SANITARY, POPULAR, ERRORS. It is a popular sanitary error to think that the more a man eats the fatter and stronger he will become. To believe that the more hours children study the faster they learn. To conclude that, if exercise is good, the more violent the more good is done. To imagine that every hour taken from sleep is an hour gained. To act on the presumption that the smallest room in the house is large enough to sleep in. To imagine that whatever remedy causes one to feel immediately better is good for the system, without regard to the ulterior effects. To eat without an appetite; or to continue after it has been satisfied, merely to gratify the taste. To eat a hearty supper at the expense of a whole night of disturbed sleep and weary waking in the morning (‘Sanitary Record’). SANITARY RATAFIA—Gesundheits Ratafia. For removing all stomach, chest, and bowel complaints, indigestion, colic, diarrhœa, vomiting, flatulence, dysuria, and affections caused by chills. A clear brown schnapps containing, in 250 grammes by weight, 75 grammes sugar, 105 grammes water, 100 grammes strong spirit, 40 grammes each of tincture of orange peel and tincture of orange berries, 2·5 grammes each tincture of cloves and tincture of wormwood, 1 drop oil of peppermint, 5 drops acetic ether, and some drops of caramel. (Dr Horn.) SANITARY SOUL, Flowers of.—Gesundheitsblumengeist. A mixture of spirit, 500 parts; tinct. aromatica, 5 parts; oils of bergamot, lavender, and rosemary, of each 2 parts; oil of thyme, 3 parts; oil of spearmint, 1 part. (Hager.) SANITATION, DOMESTIC. Not one of the least creditable or important benefits conferred of late years, by the efforts of philanthropic and enlightened enterprise upon the poorer classes of this country, has been the erection—in cities and large towns more
- 30. particularly—of healthy housesfor them to dwell in. In the construction of these habitations the architects and designers have for the most part been guided by sound sanitary principles, the carrying out of which has been effected by means of legislative supervision, and if needful, of legislative action. The result of these measures has, in most cases, been to provide residences for our poorer brethren, wherein, amongst other advantages, they enjoy the two primary ones of pure air and water. That the richer, upper, and middle classes, whilst devising and achieving so much in the way of comfort and health for those beneath them, should themselves in so many cases live in houses notoriously unhealthy, and should fail to recognise the advantages of the compulsory enforcement of necessary hygienic arrangements, are anomalies so amazing as to be, at first sight, scarcely credible. Yet a little piece of statistics may serve to discomfit those who are incredulous on this point. The average mortality in London is 24 persons in a 1000. In the improved dwellings of the poor it is only 14 in the 1000. This subject was ventilated in a very earnest and valuable paper read before the Social Science Congress at Brighton in 1875 by Mr H. H. Collins. In this paper Mr Collins refers only to the houses of the metropolis and its suburbs, and maintains that, as far as regards the enforcement of sanitary precautions in house building, London and its suburbs are infinitely worse provided for than many second-rate provincial towns, most of which, he says, have the construction of their buildings and streets regulated by bye-laws issued under the powers of the Public Health Act, and sanctioned by the Home Secretary, whereas in London the various Acts of Parliament for this purpose have been inoperative. Mr Collins describes the insanitary condition of some of the high-rented houses he examined and says the descriptions which follow equally apply to many others situated in the most aristocratic quarters of London. Imagine one of our legislators who, perhaps, had been voting for the passing of the “Nuisance Removals Act,” returning from his
- 31. parliamentary duties tosuch a mansion as is portrayed by Mr Collins in the following extract:—“I have recently purchased on behalf of a client the lease of a mansion in Portland Place from a well-known nobleman, who had spent, as I was informed, a fortune in providing new drainage; indeed, I found the principal water-closet built out of the house altogether; the soil-pipe of it, however, was carried through the basement, where it was supposed to be connected with the drain. Upon removing the floor-boards to examine it, I found the ground surrounding the connection literally one mass of black sewage, the soil oozing through the point even at the time of the examination, and the connection with the main-drain laid in it at right angles. The 9-inch drain-pipes ran through the centre of the house, having a very slight gradient, and had evidently not been laid in many years, yet they were nearly full of consolidated sewage, and but little space was left for the passage of the fluid. With but a slightly increased pressure the joints would have given way, and the sewage would have flowed under the boards instead of into the sewer. The sinks, water-closets, and cisterns were all badly situated, and all more or less defective in sanitary arrangement. In the butler’s pantry the sink was placed next to the turn-up bedstead of the butler, who must have inhaled draughts of impure atmosphere at every inspiration. The soil-pipes of the closets had indeed been ventilated with a zinc rectangular tube, but, as this had been so placed as to let the sewer-gas through an adjacent skylight into the house, and the odour being extremely disagreeable, it had been by his lordship’s directions (as I am told) closed. Here was evidence that it had at all events been doing some service, and probably had only poisoned a few of the domestics. I found the bends of soil-pipes likewise riddled with holes, as described by Dr Leargus. There happened to be a housemaids’ sink situated close to a bedroom, the waste from which had been carefully connected with the soil-pipe, so that probably had the closets been satisfactorily ventilated, this arrangement would have defeated the object in view. I should also mention that the best water-closet was situated on the bedroom floor under the stairs, and was lighted and ventilated through a small shaft formed of wood boarding and carried to the roof; it also
- 32. opened by awindow to the main or principal staircase. The gutter of the roof ran through the bedrooms and under the floors; at the time of examination it was full of black slimy filth. This is a fair specimen of the sanitary arrangements of a nobleman’s town house, situated in one of the best streets of this great metropolis in the year of grace 1875.” Let us take another example:—“A few years ago a client of mine, who resided in a large house in a wealthy suburb, informed me that his wife and two daughters had suffered in health ever since they had occupied their house, that he had consulted several medical men without beneficial result, and that he wished me to make a survey of the premises. He paid a rental of about £200 per annum. I found that the drainage was in every way defective, although he told me that he had spent a large sum of money in making it ‘perfect,’ the gradients were bad, the pipes choked, and the joints unsound. The servants’ water-closet was adjacent to the scullery, which was in communication with the kitchen, the sink being directly opposite the kitchen range. The water-closet was supplied direct from the cistern, the waste from which entered the drain, although it was said to be trapped. The waste of the sink was simply connected with the drains and trapped with an ordinary bell- trap, the cover or trap of which I found broken. Under the kitchen range hot-water tap I found a trapped opening, also leading into the drain. The domestics complained of frequent headaches and general depression, and I need not add that it excited no surprise, seeing that the kitchen fire was continuously drawing in from the sewers and house drains a steady supply of sewer-gas to the house and drinking-water cistern. In addition I found the basement walls damp, owing to the absence of a damp-proof course and the want of dry areas. The upper water-closets, house-closets, and cisterns were situated over each other, off the first-floor landing, and directly opposite the bedroom doors. The bath and lavatory were fixed in the dressing-room, communicating with the best bedroom, the wastes from which were carried into the soil-pipe of closets. This latter was unventilated, but was trapped with an S pipe at bottom. The water-
- 33. closets were panclosets, and were trapped by D traps. The upper closet periodically untrapped the lower closet, and both traps leaving the impure air free access to the house and cistern, which latter was also in communication by means of its waste-pipe with the house- drains. The overflows from safes of the water-closets were practically untrapped. The peculiar nauseating odour of sewer-gas was distinctly perceptible, and I had but little doubt but that atonic disease was rapidly making its inroads on the occupants. The landlord refused to recognise the truth of my report. My client, acting on my advice, relinquished his lease, took another house, the sanitation of which was carefully attended to, and his wife and children have had no recurrence of illness.” Mr Collins mentions a very alarming and unsuspected source of aerial poisoning in many town-houses to be the existence of old disused cesspools in the centre of the buildings. These receptacles, which are frequently nearly filled with decaying fæcal substances, are very often found to be insecurely covered over with tiles, stones, or boarding. To ensure the construction of a healthy dwelling-house, Mr Collins regards attention to the following conditions as essential: —“All subsoil should be properly drained, proper thickness of the concrete should be applied to the foundations, damp-proof courses should be inserted over footings, earth should be kept back from walls by dry areas properly drained and ventilated, external walls should be built of good hard well-burnt stock brickwork, of graduated thicknesses, and never less than 14 inches thick; internal divisions should be of brick in cement. The mortar and cement should be of good quality. All basement floors should have a concrete or cement bottom, with air flowing under the same, and the boarding thereof should be tongued so as to prevent draught and exhalation penetrating through the joints of the same. Ample areas back and front should be insisted on, the divisional or party fence walls of which should never be allowed to exceed 7 feet in height, to allow free circulation and to prevent the areas becoming wells or shafts for stagnant air. The main drains should be carried through the back yards, and, to prevent inconvenience to adjoining
- 34. owners from anyobstruction, they should be laid in subways, so that the sewer inspector could gain ready access thereto without entering any of the premises or causing any annoyance to the tenants. No basement should on any account be allowed to be constructed at such a level as will not permit of the pipes having good steep gradients to the sewer. All sinks should be placed next external walls, having windows over the same, and removed from the influence of the fire-grates. All wastes should discharge exteriorly over and not into trapped cess- pits, all of which should be provided with splashing stones fixed round the same. The basement cisternage should be placed in convenient and accessible positions, protected from dirt and guarded from the effects of alternations of temperature. They should be of slate and galvanised iron, and never of lead or zinc. They should be fitted with overflows discharging over the sink, or over trapped cesses as just mentioned. They should be supplied with stout lead encased, block-tin pipe, the services therefrom for all drinking purposes should be of the same description, and should be attached to an ascending filter, so that water may be delivered free from lead or organic impurities. Lead poisoning is more frequent than is generally believed. Cupboards under stairs, under sinks, under dressers, or out-of-the-way places should be avoided, and when fitted up should always be well ventilated. All passages should be well lighted and ventilated. Borrowed lights are better than none at all. Every room should be furnished with a fireplace, and Comyn and Chingo ventilators over doors and windows should be freely disposed. It would conduce to the health of the house, without adding one shilling to its cost, to build next the kitchen flue a separate ventilating flue, and to conduct the products of combustion from gas and other impure or soiled air, &c., into the same, from ventilators placed in the centre of or close to the ceilings, as may be found most convenient. By carefully proportioning the inlet and outlet ventilation, the air will be kept moving without draught, and preserved in a pure and sweet condition for respiration. The windows and doors will then serve only their legitimate objects of
- 35. admitting light, andof affording ingress and egress to the various apartments. The staircase should be made the main ventilator of the house, and it is essentially necessary to preserve the air surrounding the same, uncontaminated, pure, and undefiled. It will be better to light and ventilate it from the top; and to prevent the Ethiopians or blacks of London finding their way into the house, an invisible gauze net may be placed under it, which can periodically be easily removed and cleansed, or it may be furnished with a movable inner, ornamental flat light. Under no circumstances must lavatories or sinks be brought in connection with the drains. Most people desire the bath-room to be in proximity to the bedrooms; whether so placed or not, all connection with main drainage must be studiously avoided. The hot and cold pipes, known as the flow and return pipes, should be of galvanised iron, with junctions carefully made with running joints in red lead; on no account should these be in contact with any other pipes. The wastes from the bath safe (and lavatories if any) should be carried through the front wall of the house, and should turn over and into rain-water head, covered with domical wire grating to prevent birds building their nests therein, and carried down to the basement area, where they must discharge over a trapped cess-pit, as before described, surrounded with a splash-stone or curve to obviate the nuisance of the soap-suds flowing over the pavement. A brush passed up and down these waters now and then will effectually remove any soapy sediment which may cling to their surfaces. The waste from bath, &c., into heads should be furnished with a ground valve flap and collar to prevent draught, and the bath should be fitted with india-rubber seatings between the metal and wood framing. Mansarde or sloping roofs should be avoided; they are injurious to the health of the domestics, whose sleeping chambers they are generally appropriated to; they are unhealthy, hot in summer, and prejudicially cold in winter, laying the basis for future disease for those least able to bear it. Gutters taken through roofs, known as ‘trough,’ should never be permitted; they congregate putrescent filth, which remains in them for years to taint
- 36. and poison theatmosphere.” Consult also, as supplementing this subject, the articles Drains, Dustbins, Cesspools, Tanks, Traps, Water- closets. SAN′TALIN. The colouring principle of red sanders wood. SAN′TONIN. C15H18O3. Syn. Santonic acid; Santoninum, L. The crystalline and characteristic principle of the seed of several varieties of Artemisia. Prep. (Ph. Baden, 1841.) Take of worm-seed, 4 parts; hydrate of lime, 11⁄2 part; mix, and exhaust them with alcohol of 90%; distil, off 3-4ths of the spirit, and evaporate the remainder to one half, which, at the boiling temperature, is to be mixed with acetic acid in excess, and afterwards with water; on repose, impure santonin subsides; wash this with a little weak spirit, then dissolve it in rectified spirit, 10 parts, decolour by ebullition for a few minutes with animal charcoal, and filter; the filtrate deposits colourless crystals of santonin as it cools; these are to be dried, and kept in opaque bottles. Mr W. G. Smith, M.B., states that two singular effects are known to result from the administration of santonin in moderate doses, viz. visual derangements and a peculiar alteration in the colour of the urine. He adds that three hours after taking 5 gr. of pure white santonin, he became conscious, while reading, of a yellowish tint on the paper, and a yellow haze in the air. His own hands, and the complexions of others, appeared of a sallow unhealthy colour; and the evening sky, which was really of a pale lavender colour, seemed to be light green. Vision was not perfectly distinct for some hours, and was accompanied by a certain vagueness of definition. Mr Smith endorses the observations of previous observers who had noticed that the urine of persons under the influence of santonin is tinged of a saffron yellow or greenish colour. The coloured urine resembles that of a person slightly jaundiced, and like this permanently stains linen of a light yellow colour.
- 37. The best testfor santonin in the urine is an alkali, upon the addition of which the urine immediately assumes a fine cherry-red colour, varying in depth according to the amount of santonin present. Potash was found to be the preferable alkali. Prop., &c. Prismatic or tubular crystals; inodorous; tasteless, or only slightly bitter; fusible; volatilisable; soluble in 4500 parts of cold and about 250 parts of boiling water; soluble in cold alcohol and ether; freely soluble in hot alcohol. It is much esteemed as a tasteless worm medicine, and is especially adapted to remove lumbricales (large round worms).—Dose, 6 to 18 or 20 gr., repeated night and morning, followed by a brisk purge. (Ph. B.) Boil 1 lb. of santonico, bruised, with 1 gall. of distilled water, and 5 oz. of slaked lime, in a copper or tinned iron vessel for an hour, strain through a stout cloth and express strongly. Mix the residue with 1⁄2 gall. of distilled water and 2 oz. of lime, boil for half an hour, strain and express as before. Mix the strained liquors, let them settle, decant the fluid from the deposit, evaporate to the bulk of 21⁄2 pints. To the liquor while hot add, with diligent stirring, hydrochloric acid, until the fluid has become slightly and permanently acid, and set it aside for five days that the precipitate may subside. Remove, by skimming, any oily matter which floats on the surface, and carefully decant the greater part of the fluid from the precipitate. Collect this on a paper filter, wash it first with cold distilled water, till the washings pass colourless and nearly free from acid reaction, then with 1⁄2 fl. oz. of solution of ammonia, previously diluted with 5 oz. of distilled water, and, lastly, with cold distilled water, till the washings pass colourless. Press the filter containing the precipitate between folds of filtering paper, and dry it with a gentle heat. Scrape the dry precipitate from the filter, and mix it with 60 gr. of purified animal charcoal. Pour on them 9 fl. oz. of rectified spirit, digest for half an hour, and boil for ten minutes. Filter while hot, wash the charcoal with 1 fl. oz. of boiling spirit, and set the filtrate aside for two days in a cool dark place to crystallise. Separate the mother liquor from the crystals, and concentrate to obtain a
- 38. further product. Collectthe crystals, let them drain, redissolve them in 4 fl. oz. of boiling spirit, and let the solution crystallise as before. Lastly, dry the crystals on filtering paper in the dark and preserve them in a bottle protected from the light. SAP GREEN. See Green pigments. SAPONIFICA′TION. See Soap. SAP′ONIN. Syn. Saponinum, L. A white, non-crystallisable substance, obtained by the action of hot diluted alcohol on the root of Saponaria officinalis (Linn.), or soapwort. Prop., &c. Saponin is soluble in hot water, and the solution froths strongly on agitation. The smallest quantity of the powder causes violent sneezing. SARCOCOL′LA. A gum-resin supposed to be derived from one or more plants of the natural order Renæaceæ, growing in Arabia and Persia. It somewhat resembles gum Arabic, except in being soluble in both water and alcohol, and in having a bitter-sweet taste. It was formerly used in surgery. SAR′COSINE. C3H7O2N. A feebly basic substance, obtained by boiling kreatine for some time with a solution of pure baryta. It forms colourless, transparent plates, freely soluble in water, sparingly so in alcohol, and insoluble in ether; it may be fused and volatilised. SARSAPARIL′LA. Syn. Sarsæ radix (B. P.), Radix sarzæ, Radix sarsaparillæ, Sarza (Ph. L. & E.), Sarsaparilla (Ph. D. & U. S.), L. “Jamaica sarza. The root of Smilax officinalis, Kunth” (Ph. L.); “and probably of other species.” (Ph. E.) The sarsaparillas of commerce are divided by Dr Pereira into two classes:—‘Mealy sarsaparilla’ and ‘non-mealy sarsaparillas.’ In the first are placed Brazilian or Lisbon, Caraccas or gouty Vera Cruz, and Honduras; the second includes Jamaica, Lima, and true Vera Cruz.
- 39. The mealy sarsaparillasare distinguished by “the mealy character of the inner cortical layers, which are white or pale- coloured. The meal or starch is sometimes so abundant, that a shower of it, in the form of white dust, falls when we fracture the roots.” The medulla or pith is also frequently very amylaceous. The non-mealy sarsaparillas “are characterised by a deeply coloured (red or brown), usually non-mealy, cortex. The cortex is red, and much thinner than in the mealy sorts.” “If a drop of oil of vitriol be applied to a transverse section of the root of the non-mealy sarsaparillas, both cortex and wood acquire a dark-red or purplish tint;” whilst in the preceding varieties, the mealy coat, and, sometimes, the pith, is but little altered in colour. “The decoction of non-mealy sarsaparilla, when cold, is somewhat darkened, but does not yield a blue colour when a solution of iodine is added to it.” The aqueous extract, when rubbed down with a little cold distilled water in a mortar, does not yield a turbid liquid, nor become blue on the addition of iodine. The reverse is the case with the decoction and extract of the mealy varieties. The Jamaica, Red Jamaica, or Red-bearded sarsaparilla (Sarza Jamaicensis—Ph. D.), is the variety which should alone be used in medicine. This kind yields from 33 to 44% of its weight of extract (Battley, Hennell, Pope), and contains less starchy matter than the other varieties. It is distinguished by exhibiting the above peculiarities in a marked degree, by the dirty reddish colour of its bark, which “is not mealy,” and by being “beset very plentifully with rootlets” (fibres).—Ph. L. Its powder has also a pale reddish-brown colour. The other varieties of sarsaparilla, viz. the Lisbon, Lima, Vera Cruz, and Honduras, are frequently substituted for the Jamaica by the druggists in the preparations of the decoctions and extracts of this drug; but the products are vastly inferior in quantity, colour, taste, and medicinal virtue, to those prepared from the officinal sarsaparilla. Decoction of sarsaparilla, when made with the Honduras root, is very liable to ferment, even by a few hours’ exposure, in hot weather. We have seen hogsheads of the strong decoction, after
- 40. exposure for asingle night, in as active a state of fermentation as a gyle of beer, with a frothy head, and evolving a most disagreeable odour, that was not wholly removed by several hours’ boiling. When this occurs the decoction suffers in density, and the product in extract is, consequently, considerably lessened. Yet this is frequently allowed to occur in the wholesale laboratory, where the rule should be—always begin a ‘bath of sarza’ (as it is called), and, indeed, of other perishable articles, early in the morning, and finish it, completely and entirely, the same day. Sarsaparilla has been recommended as a mild but efficacious alterative, diaphoretic and tonic. It has long been a popular remedy in chronic rheumatism, rheumatic and gouty pains, scurvy, scrofula, syphilis, secondary syphilis, lepra, psoriasis, and several other skin diseases; and, especially, in cachexia, or a general bad habit of body, and to remove the symptoms arising from the injudicious use of mercurials, often falsely called ‘secondary syphilis.’ During its use the skin should be kept warm, and diluents should be freely taken. Its efficacy has been greatly exaggerated. It is, however, much more effective in warm than in northern climates.—Dose. In substance, 1⁄2 to 1 dr., three or four times daily; but, preferably, made into a decoction or infusion. The articles so much puffed under the names of American or United States sarsaparilla and extract of sarsaparilla are “nothing more than the decoction of a common herb, a sort of ‘aralia,’ inhabiting the swamps and marshes of the United States. When cut up it has the appearance of chaff, but not the slightest resemblance in character, colour, or taste, to even the most inferior species of smilax (or sarza). The decoction is sweetened with a little sugar, flavoured with benzoin and sassafras, and, finally, preserved from decomposition by means of the bichloride of mercury.” “I have heard of several cases of deadly sickness, and other dangerous symptoms, following its use.” “We do not believe that a particle of real sarsaparilla ever entered into the composition of either of the articles referred to.” (‘Med. Circ.,’ ii, 227.) See Decoction and Extract.
- 41. SARSAPARIL′LIN. Syn. Pariglin,Parillic acid, Salsaparin, Smilacin. A white, crystallisable, odourless, and nearly tasteless substance, discovered by Pallotta and Folchi, in sarsaparilla. Prep. The bark of Jamaica sarsaparilla is treated with hot rectified spirit, and the resulting tincture reduced to about one third by distilling off the spirit; the residual liquid is then filtered, whilst boiling, slightly concentrated by evaporation, and set aside to crystallise; the crystalline deposit is redissolved in either hot rectified spirit or boiling water, and decoloured by agitation with a little animal charcoal; the filtrate deposits crystals of nearly pure smilacin as it cools. It may also be extracted by boiling water. Prop., &c. A non-nitrogenised neutral body. Water holding a very small quantity of it in solution froths considerably on agitation. This is especially the case with infusion of Jamaica sarsaparilla, and this property has consequently been proposed as a test of the quality of sarsaparilla root. Its medicinal properties are similar to those of sarsaparilla. According to Pallotta, it is a powerful sedative, and diminishes the vital energies in proportion to the quantity taken.— Dose, 2 to 10 gr.; in the usual cases in which the root is given. SAS′SAFRAS. Syn. Sassafras radix (B. P.), Sassafras radix, Sassafras (Ph. L., E., & D.), L. “The root of Sassafras officinale, Nees. Laurus sassafras, Linn.”—Ph. L. It has a fragrant odour, and a sweetish aromatic taste. It has long been reputed a stimulating, alterative, diaphoretic, diuretic, and tonic; and an infusion of the chips (sassafras chips), under the name of sassafras tea, has been a popular ‘diet drink’ in various cutaneous affections, gout, chronic rheumatism, &c. SATURA′TION. The state in which a body has taken its full dose, or chemical proportion, of any other substance with which it can combine, or which it can dissolve; as water with sugar or a salt, or an alkali with an acid, when the properties of both are neutralised.
- 42. SAUCERS (for Dyeing).Prep. 1. (Blue.) From blue carmine, made into a paste with gum water, which is then spread over the inside of the saucers, and dried. 2. (Pink.)—a. From pure rouge mixed with a little carbonate of soda, then made into a paste with thin gum water, and applied as the last. b. Well-washed safflower, 8 oz.; carbonate of soda, 2 oz.; water, 2 gall.; infuse, strain, add of French chalk (scraped fine with Dutch rushes), 2 lbs.; mix well, and precipitate the colour by adding a solution of tartaric acid; collect the red powder, drain it, add a very small quantity of gum, and apply the paste to the saucers. Inferior. Both the above are used to tinge silk stockings, gloves, &c. SAUCE. A liquid or semi-liquid condiment or seasoning for food. The following receipts for sauces may be useful to the reader: Sauce, Ancho′vy. 1. (Extemporaneous.) From 3 or 4 anchovies, chopped small; butter, 3 oz.; water, a wine-glassful; vinegar, 2 tablespoonfuls; flour, 1 do.; stir the mixture over the fire till it thickens, then rub it through a coarse hair sleeve. 2. (Wholesale.) As essence of anchovies. Other fish sauces may be made in the same manner. Sauce, Apple. From sharp apples, cored, sliced, stewed with a spoonful or two of water, and then beaten, to a perfectly smooth pulp with a little good moist sugar. Tomato, and many other like sauces, may be made in the same manner. Sauce, Aristocratique. From green-walnut juice and anchovies, equal parts; cloves, mace, and pimento, of each, bruised, 1 dr. to every lb. of juice; boil and strain, and then add to every pint, 1 pint of vinegar, 1⁄2 pint of port wine, 1⁄4 pint of soy, and a few shallots; let the whole stand for a few days, and decant the clear liquor.
- 43. Bech′amel. A speciesof fine white broth or consommée, thickened with cream, and used as ‘white sauce.’ Sauce, Caper. Put twelve table-spoonfuls of melted butter into a stewpan, place it on the fire, and, when on the point of boiling, add 1 oz. of fresh butter and 1 table-spoonful of capers; shake the stewpan round over the fire until the butter is melted, add a little pepper and salt, and serve where directed. Also as mint sauce. Sauce, Chut′ney. 1. From sour apples (pared and cored), tomatoes, brown sugar, and sultana raisins, of each 3 oz.; common salt, 4 oz.; red chillies and powdered ginger, of each 29 oz.; garlic and shallots, of each 1 oz.; pound the whole well, add, of strong vinegar, 3 quarts; lemon juice, 1 do.; and digest, with frequent agitation, for a month; then pour off nearly all the liquor, and bottle it. Used for fish or meat, either hot or cold, or to flavour stews, &c. The residue is the ‘Chutney,’ ‘Chetney,’ or ‘Chitni,’ which must be ground to a smooth paste with a stone and muller, and then put into pots or jars. It is used like mustard. 2. (Bengal chitni.) As the last, but using tamarinds instead of apples, and only sufficient vinegar and lemon juice to form a paste. Cor′atch. From good mushroom ketchup, 1⁄2 gal.; walnut ketchup, 3⁄4 pint; India soy and chillie vinegar, of each 1⁄2 pint; essence of anchovies, 5 or 6 oz.; macerate for a fortnight. Sauce, Epicurienne. To the last add of walnut ketchup and port wine, of each 1 quart; garlic and white pepper, of each (bruised) 4 oz.; chillies (bruised), 1 oz.; mace and cloves, of each 1⁄2 oz. Sauce, Fish. From port wine 1 gall.; mountain do., 1 quart; walnut ketchup, 2 quarts; anchovies (with the liquor), 2 lbs.; 8 lemons, 48 shallots, scraped horseradish, 11⁄2 lb.; flour of mustard, 8 oz.; mace, 1 oz.; cayenne, q. s.; boil the whole up gently, strain, and bottle.
- 44. Ketchup. See underthat name. Sauce, Kitchener’s. Syn. Kitchener’s relish. From salt, 3 oz.; black pepper, 2 oz.; allspice, horseradish, and shallots, of each 1 oz.; burnt-sugar colouring, a wine-glassful; mushroom ketchup, 1 quart (all bruised or scraped); macerate for 3 weeks, strain, and bottle. Lem′on Pickle. From lemon juice and vinegar, of each 3 gall.; bruised ginger, 1 lb.; allspice, pepper, and grated lemon peel, of each 8 oz.; salt, 31⁄2 lbs.; cayenne, 2 oz.; mace and nutmegs, of each 1 oz.; digest for 14 days. Sauce, Lobs′ter. From lobsters, as ANCHOVY SAUCE. Sauce, Mint. From garden mint, chopped small, and then beaten up with vinegar, some moist sugar, and a little salt and pepper. Sauce, On′ion. From onions boiled to a pulp and then beaten up with melted butter and a little warm milk. Sauce, Oys′ter. From about 12 oysters, and 6 or 7 oz. of melted butter, with a little cayenne pepper, and 2 or 3 spoonfuls of cream, stirred together over a slow fire, then brought to a boil, and served. Sauce, Piquante. From soy and cayenne pepper, of each 4 oz.; port wine, 1⁄2 pint; brown pickling vinegar, 11⁄2 pint; mix, and let them stand for 7 or 8 days before bottling. Sauce, Quin’s. From walnut pickle and port wine, of each 1 pint; mushroom ketchup, 1 quart; anchovies and shallots (chopped fine), of each 2 dozen; soy, 1⁄2 pint; cayenne, 1⁄4 oz.; simmer gently for 10 minutes, and in a fortnight strain, and bottle. Sauce au Roi. From brown vinegar (good), 3 quarts; soy and walnut ketchup, of each 1⁄2 pint; cloves and shallots, of each 1 doz.; cayenne pepper, 11⁄2 oz.; mix, and digest for 14 days.
- 45. Sauce, Shrimp. Fromshrimps or prawns, as ANCHOVY SAUCE. Soy. See that article. Sauce, Superlative. From port wine, and mushroom ketchup, of each 1 quart; walnut pickle, 1 pint; soy, 1⁄2 pint; powdered anchovies, 1⁄2 lb.; fresh lemon peel, minced shallots, and scraped horseradish, of each 2 oz.; allspice and black pepper (bruised), of each 1 oz.; cayenne pepper and bruised celery seed, of each 1⁄4 oz. (or currie powder, 3⁄4 oz.); digest for 14 days, strain, and bottle. Very relishing. Sauce, Toma′to. From bruised tomatoes, 1 gall.; good salt, 1⁄2 lb.; mix, in 3 days press out the juice, to each quart of which add of shallots, 2 oz.; black pepper, 1 dr.; simmer very gently for 20 to 30 minutes, strain, and add to the strained liquor, mace, allspice, ginger, nutmegs, and cochineal, of each 1⁄4 oz.; coriander seed, 1 dr.; simmer gently for 10 minutes, strain, cool, and in a week put it into bottles. Sauce, Waterloo. From strong vinegar (nearly boiling), 1 quart, port wine, 3⁄4 pint; mushroom ketchup, 1⁄2 pint; walnut ketchup, 1⁄4 pint; essence of anchovies, 4 oz.; 8 cloves of garlic; cochineal (powdered), 1⁄2 oz. (or red beet, sliced, 3 oz.); let them stand together for a fortnight or longer, occasionally shaking the bottle. Sauce, White. Syn. Butter sauce, Melted butter. From good butter, 4 oz.; cream, 21⁄2 oz.; salt (in very fine powder), 1⁄2 teaspoonful; put them into a pot or basin, set this in hot water, and beat the whole with a bone, wooden, or silver spoon, until it forms a perfectly smooth, cream-like mixture, avoiding too much heat, which would make it run oily. A table-spoonful of sherry, marsala, lemon juice, or vinegar, is sometimes added; but the selection must depend on the dishes the sauce is intended for. Used either by itself, or as a basis for other sauces. Beaten up with any of the ‘bottled sauces,’ an
- 46. excellent compound sauceof the added ingredient is immediately obtained. Sauces, American. White vinegar, 15 gall.; walnut ketchup, 10 gall.; Madeira wine, 5 gall.; mushroom ketchup, 10 gall,; table salt, 25 lbs. (troy); Canton soy, 4 gall.; powdered capsicum 2 lbs. (troy); allspice, powdered, coriander powder, of each 1 lb. (troy); cloves, mace, cinnamon, of each 1⁄2 lb. (troy); assafœtida, 1⁄4 lb. (troy); dissolved in brandy, 1 gall.; 20 lbs. of hog’s liver is boiled for 12 hours with 10 gall. of water, renewing the water from time to time. Take out the liver, chop it, mix it with water, and work it through a sieve; mix with the sauce. 2. White vinegar, 240 gall.; Canton soy, 36 gall.; sugar-house syrup, 30 gall.; walnut ketchup, 50 gall.; mushroom ketchup, 50 gall.; table salt, 120 lbs. (troy); powdered capsicum, 15 lbs. (troy); allspice, coriander, of each 7 lbs. (troy); cloves, mace, cinnamon, of each 4 lbs. (troy); assafœtida, 21⁄2 lbs. (troy), dissolved in St Croix rum, 1 gall. 3. White vinegar, 1 gall. Canton soy, molasses, of each 1 pint; walnut ketchup, 11⁄2 pint; table salt, 4 oz.; powdered capsicum, allspice, of each 1 oz.; coriander, 1⁄2 oz.; cloves, mace, of each 1⁄2 oz.; cinnamon, 6 dr., assafœtida 1⁄4 oz. in 4 oz. of rum. SAUERKRAUT. [Ger.] Prep. Clean white cabbages, cut them into small pieces, and stratify them in a cask along with culinary salt and a few juniper berries and caraway seeds, observing to pack them down as hard as possible, without crushing them, and to cover them with a lid pressed down with a heavy weight. The cask should be placed in a cold situation as soon as a sour smell is perceived. Used by the Germans and other northern nations of Europe, like our ‘pickled cabbage,’ but more extensively. SAU′SAGES. From the fat and lean of pork (PORK SAUSAGES), or of beef (BEEF SAUSAGES), chopped small, flavoured with spice, and put into gut skins, or pressed into pots or balls (SAUSAGE MEAT). Crum
- 47. of bread isalso added. Their quality is proportionate to that of the ingredients, and to the care and cleanliness employed in preparing them. A pea sausage, composed of pea flour, fat pork, and a little salt, was largely consumed by the German soldiers during the Franco- German campaign. Dr Parkes found 100 parts of this sausage to consist of—16·2 parts of water, 7·19 of salts, 12·297 of albuminates, 33·65 of fat, and 30·663 of carbohydrates. It is ready cooked, but can be made into soup, although much relished for a few days. The soldiers soon became tired of it. In some cases it gave rise to flatulence and diarrhœa. See Meat. SAV′ELOYS. Pork sausages made in such a way that they keep good for a considerable time. Prep. (Mrs Rundell.) Take of young pork, free from bone and skin, 3 lbs.; salt it with 1 oz. of saltpetre, and 1⁄2 lb. of common salt, for 2 days; then chop it fine, add, 3 teaspoonfuls of pepper, 1 doz. sage leaves, chopped fine, and 1 lb. of grated bread; mix well, fill the skins, and steam them or bake them half an hour in a slack oven. They are said to be good either hot or cold. SAV′INE. Syn. Savin; Folia sabinæ, Sabina (Ph. L., E., & D.), L. “The recent and dried tops of Juniperis sabina, Linn.,” or common savine. (Ph. L.) It is a powerful stimulant, diaphoretic, emmenagogue, and anthelmintic; and, externally, rubefacient, escharotic and vesicant. In large doses it is apt to occasion abortion, and acts as a poison. Savine powder mixed with verdigris is often applied to corns and warts. It is now chiefly used in the form of ointment.—Dose, 5 to 15 gr., twice or thrice daily (with care), in amenorrhœa and worms. See Cerate. SAVONETTES. [Fr.] Syn. Wash balls. These are made of any of the mild toilet soaps, scented at will, generally with the addition of some powdered starch or farina, and sometimes sand. The spherical or spheroidal form is given to them by pressure in moulds, or by first roughly forming them with the hands, and, when quite hard, turning
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