OSMOREGULATION AND EXCRETION .Human osmoregulation is the process of maintaining water and mineral balance in the body. Osmoregulation helps in maintaining a constant normal blood pressure It is an important component of life as it maintains water and mineral balance at the cellular level. Human excretory system The excretory system consists of a pair of kidneys, one pair of ureters, a urinary bladder and a urethra. Kidneys are reddish brown, bean-shaped structures situated between the levels of the last thoracic and third lumbar vertebra close to the dorsal inner wall of the abdominal cavity. Each kidney of an adult human measures 10-12 cm in length, 5-7 cm in width, 2-3 cm in thickness with an average weight of 120-170 g. Towards the center of the inner concave surface of the kidney is a notch called the hilum through which the ureter, blood vessels, and nerves enter.

2. LEARNING OBJECTIVE
01
03 04
02
OSMOREGULATION
REGULATION OF BODY
TEMPERATURE
WATER BALANCE EXCRETORY SYSTEM

3. LET’S RECALL
 Osmosis is the movement of water molecules from a solution with a high
concentration of water molecules to a solution with a lower concentration
of water molecules, through a cell’s partially permeable membrane.
 Electrolyte is a solute that dissociates into ions when dissolved in water. In
most animals, the most abundant solutes or electrolytes are sodium,
potassium chloride, and calcium ions. A non-electrolyte, in contrast,
doesn't dissociate into ions during water dissolution. Both electrolytes and
non-electrolytes contribute to the osmotic balance.

4. Osmoregulation is the active regulation of the
osmotic pressure of an organism's body fluids,
detected by osmoreceptors, to maintain the
homeostasis of the organism's water content; that
is, it maintains the fluid balance and the
concentration of electrolytes.

5. Significance of osmoregulation
 Human osmoregulation is the process of maintaining water and mineral
balance in the body.
 Osmoregulation helps in maintaining a constant normal blood pressure
 It is an important component of life as it maintains water and mineral
balance at the cellular level.

6. TONICITY
 The osmotic pressure of the solution outside the cells is
higher than the osmotic pressure inside the cells, the
solution is hypertonic. The water inside the cells exits
the cell to equalize the osmotic pressure, causing cells
to shrink.
 When the osmotic pressure outside cells is the same as
the pressure inside the cells, the solution is isotonic
This is the usual condition of red blood cells in plasma.
 When the solution outside of the cells has a lower
osmotic pressure than the cells, the solution is
hypotonic w.r.t to the cells The cells take in water in an
attempt to equalize the osmotic pressure, causing them
to swell and potentially burst.

11. REGULATION OF BODY TEMPERATURE
Normal body temperature in human an is 37'C (98.6 ' F) when measured by
placing the clinical thermometer in the mouth (oral temperature). It
varies between 35.8’ C and 37.3' C (96.4'F and 99.1’F)
Why regulation of body temperature is required?
 the enzymes of the bodywork in optimal temperature.
 speed of chemical reaction varies with temperature.
 very low temperature leads to cardiac fibrillation and failure
( lower lethal core temperature is 26°C).
 very high temperature leads to heat stroke
(upper lethal core temperature is 43.5°C ).

12. FACTORS AFFECTING BODY
TEMPERATURE
 Age
 Sex
 Diurnal variations
 After meals
 Exercise
 Sleep
 Emotion
 Menstrual cycle

14. CHANNELS OF HEAT LOSS
 Channels of heat loss- radiation,
conduction, and evaporation.
 Radiation: about 60 percent in the
form of infrared heat rays conduction:
about 3 percent, from the surface of the
body to solid objects and about 15
percent loss of heat by conduction to air.
 Evaporation: 0.58 Calorie of heat is lost for each gram of water that
evaporates and water evaporates from skin and lungs at the rate of about
600 to 700ml/day. This causes heat loss at the rate of 16 to 19
calories per hour.

15. CONTROL MECHANISMS OF
TEMPERATURE REGULATION
 Nervous Mechanisms
 Endocrine and Temperature Control
 Behavioural & Voluntary control

16. HYPOTHALAMUS CONTROL
 Receptors-warmth & cold receptors from skin, deep tissues, spinal cord, and
hypothalamus
 Heat loss center-Pre-optic & Anterior hypothalamic nuclei
 Heat gain center Posterior hypothalamus
 Stimulation of Posterior hypothalamus (Heat production)
 Direct action: When environmental temperature at high, warm blood flowing
through the hypothalamus causes HEAT LOSS responses.
 At low, cool blood causes heat PRODUCTION/CONSERVATION responses

17. ENDOCRINE CONTROL
Adrenal medulla-
 Immediate adrenaline release (Calongenic)
 Exposure to cold leads to Cutaneous vasoconstriction leads to heat loss
 Metabolic rate & heat production
Behavioral and Voluntary Control
 Animals move from warm to cold regions
 Curling up of the body in cold conditions
 Clothing in woolens in winter and thin cotton clothing in summer Fans, air
conditioners, heaters & central heating

18. CONTROL OF HEAT PRODUCTION
 Response to exposure to cold
 Shivering thermogenesis
 This contains rhythmical oscillatory muscle contractions.
 No external work is involved, all the energy liberated by the metabolic
machinery appears as internal heat.
Non shivering Thermogenesis:
 Increase in (metabolic rate) heat production not due to muscular activity
Increased epinephrine, sympathetic activity to adipose tissue & and
contribution of thyroid hormone.

19. HYPERTHERMIA
 Hyperthermia is an abnormally high body temperature — or overheating.
It's the opposite of hypothermia when your body is too cold.
Hyperthermia occurs when your body absorbs or generates more heat
than it can release
 Hyperthermia isn’t the same as a fever.
 Are dehydrated.Are over 65 or under 4 years old. Do strenuous physical
activity in hot weather. Excessively consume alcohol. Have an
electrolyte imbalance.

20.  Hypothermia is a medical emergency that occurs when your body loses
heat faster than it can produce heat, causing a dangerously low
body temperature.
 When your body temperature drops, your heart, nervous system and other
organs can't work normally. Left untreated, hypothermia can lead to
complete failure of your heart and respiratory system and
eventually to death.
,

21. FROSTBITE
 When the body is exposed to
extremely low temperatures,
surface areas can freeze; the
freezing is called frostbite.
 Especially in the lobes of the ears,
tip of the nose and in the digits of
the hands and feet. It is mainly
mountaineering hazards.

22. WATER BALANCE
 WATER BALANCE NORMAL
WATER CONTENT OF BODY75% AT
BIRTH 55-60% YOUNG ADULTS
 MEN SLIGHTLY HIGHER THAN
WOMEN
 (MORE FAT, LESS WATER)
 45% IN ELDERLY, OBESE

24. REGULATION OF WATER INTAKE
 Governed by thirst
 Provoked by increased plasma osmolarity provoked by blood loss
 The thirst center in hypothalamus
RESPONDS TO SIGNS OF DEHYDRATION
 Angiotensin ii
 Antidiuretic hormone (adh)
 Inhibits salivation

25. EFFECTS OF FLUID DEFICIENCY
 Fluid deficiency:
 Affects all fluid compartments
 Infants more vulnerable than adults
 Higher metabolism more wastes
 More wastes more urine volume
 Urine less concentrated
 Circulatory shock
 Due to loss of blood volume
 Neurological dysfunction
 Due to dehydration of brain cells

26. IMPORTANCE OF ELECTROLYTES
SALTS
 E.G. Nacl, ca3(po4)2, ETC.
 Include ions in the definition
 Many roles
 Involved in metabolism
 Determine electrical membrane potential affects the osmolarity of body
fluids and affects water content and distribution

27. SODIUM
 Principal extracellular cation90-95% of osmolarity from sodium salts roles
 Depolarization of muscles, nerves
 Affects total body water
 Affect water distribution
 Cotransport
 Glucose, amino acids, calcium, etc.
 0.5 g / day dietary requirement.
 Hypernatremia - when the sodium level is abnormally high in your blood
 Hyponatremia – when the sodium level is very low in our blood

28. POTASSIUM
 Principal intracellular cation
 Affects intracellular osmolarity
 Affects cell volume
 Roles
 Produces resting & action potentials
 Cotransport
 Thermogenesis
 Cofactor for protein synthesis
HYPOKALEMIA: is when the amount of potassium in your blood is too low
HYPERKALEMIA: the amount of potassium in your blood is too high

29. CHLORIDE
 Most abundant anion in ECF
 Major contribution to osmolarity
ROLES
 Formation of hcl
 Chloride shift co₂ loading/unloading
 Regulation of body ph
HYPERCHLOREMIA: an electrolyte disturbance in which there is an
elevated level of chloride ions in the blood.
HYPOCHLOREMIA: an electrolyte disturbance in which the serum
chloride concentration is abnormally low

30. CALCIUM
ROLES
 Strengthens bone
 Muscle contraction
 Second messenger for hormones
 Activates exocytosis
 Blood clotting
HYPOCALCEMIA: happens when the level of calcium in your blood (not
your bones) is too low.
HYPERCALCEMIA: is a condition in which the calcium level in your blood
is above normal. Too much calcium in your blood can weaken your bones,
create kidney stones, and interfere with how your heart and brain work

31. PHOSPHATES
 Relatively concentrated in icf
ROLES
 Components of bones
 Components of DNA & RNA
 Components of phospholipids
 Activate/deactivate enzymes
 Buffer pH of body fluids
 Hyperphosphatemia- greater than 4mgdl
 Hypophosphatemia-less than 2.8mgdl

32. What is excretion
 The process of elimination of
metabolic waste products and unused
waste material from
an organism's body.
 Excretion differs from defecation as
defecation involves in egestion of
feces consisting of undigested food
particles from the anus.
 Excretion and osmoregulation are life-
important processes for maintaining
the body's homeostasis

33. SIGNIFICANCE OF EXCRETION
 Eliminating waste products such as urea, uric acid ammonia, and
other chemicals via urine.
 Maintaining the osmotic level of blood and plasma.
 Maintaining the electrolyte balance in the body.
 Aiding the metabolism of drugs that do not get
metabolized in the liver.

36. PROTONEPHRIDIUM
 Protonephridium is an excretory tube that lacks
an internal opening.
 It is found in Platyhelminthes, Rotifers, and
some Chordates.
 The cells present in the tubules are called flame
cells because the cluster of cilia looks like a
flickering flame.
 The function is to propel the waste matter down the tubules
and out of the body through the excretory pores called nephridiopores.
 The cilia also draw water from the interstitial fluid allowing for
reabsorption and filtration and mainly perform osmoregulation

37. METANEPHRIDIUM
 Metanephridium is an excretory organ found in invertebrates like
arthropods, annelids and molluscs
 a [pair of metanephridia is present on each segment of the earthworm
they are similar to the flame cells
 It has ciliated funnel structures which open into the body cavity that is
attached to a duct.
 This structure finally opens to the invertebrate’s exterior. The excretory
product obtained by filtration of blood is later modified into the urine.
This modification happens due to the selective reabsorption in the cells
lining the metanephridium.

39. Malpighian Tubules
 Malpighian tubules are tubular epithelia that are
extension of the gut. The number of tubules varies between
species although most occur in multiples of two
 the tubules increase the surface area for Absorption as they are
lined up with microvilli for reabsorption and maintaining
the osmotic balance actin for structural support

40.  Urine is produced by tubular secretion mechanism by the cells
lining the Malpighian tubules that are bather in hemolymph which
is an of blood and interstitial fluid that is found in insects and other
arthropods as well as molluscs
 Due to this excretory organ, it doesn't allow the waste to mix in
water as they conserve water to survive dry environments
excretory organs

42. HUMAN EXCRETORY SYSTEM
 Human excretory system The excretory system consists of a pair of
kidneys, one pair of ureters, a urinary bladder and a urethra.
 Kidneys are reddish brown, bean-shaped structures situated between the
levels of the last thoracic and third lumbar vertebra close to the dorsal
inner wall of the abdominal cavity. Each kidney of an adult human
measures 10-12 cm in length, 5-7 cm in width, 2-3 cm in thickness with an
average weight of 120-170 g.
 Towards the center of the inner concave surface of the kidney is a notch
called the hilum through which the ureter, blood vessels, and nerves enter.

43.  Inner to the hilum is a broad funnel-shaped space called the renal pelvis
with projections called calyces.
 Inside the kidney, there are two zones, an outer
cortex and an inner medulla
 The medulla is divided into a few conical masses
(medullary pyramids)projecting into the calyces
 The cortex extends in between the medullary
pyramids as renal columns called columns of Bertini.

44.  Each kidney has nearly one million complex tubular structures called
nephrons which are the functional units
 Each nephron has two parts – the glomerulus and the renal tubule.
 The glomerulus is a tuft of capillaries formed by the afferent arteriole – a
fine branch of the renal artery. Blood from the glomerulus is carried by an
efferent arteriole
 The renal tubule begins with a double-walled cup-like structure called
Bowman's capsule, which encloses the glomerulus.
 Glomerulus along with Bowman’s capsule, is called the Malpighian body
or renal corpuscle
 The continues further to form a highly network – -proximal
convoluted tubule (PCT)

46.  A hairpin-shaped Henle’s loop is the next part of the tubule
which has a descending and an ascending limb.
 The ascending limb continues as another highly coiled tubular
region called distal convoluted tubule (DCT).
 The DCTs of many nephrons open into a straight tube called a
collecting duct, many of which converge and open into the renal
pelvis through medullary pyramids in the calyces.

47.  Types of nephron
The Malpighian corpuscle, PCT, and DCT of the nephron are situated in the
cortical region of the kidney whereas the loop of Henledips into the medulla.
 In the majority of nephrons, the loop of Henle is
short and extends only very little into the medulla.
Suchnephrons are called cortical nephrons.
 In some of the nephrons, the loop of Henle is very
long and runs deep into the medulla. These nephrons
are called juxtamedullary nephrons.
 The efferent arteriole emerging from the glomerulus forms a fine capillary
network around the renal tubule called the peritubular capillaries. A minute
vessel of this network runs parallel to the Henle’s forming a ‘U’ shaped vasa
recta. Vasa recta is absent or highly reduced in cortical nephrons.

48. FUNCTION OF THE TUBULES
 Proximal Convoluted Tubule (PCT): PCT is lined by simple cuboidal
brush border epithelium which increases the surface area for
reabsorption.
 Nearly all of the essential nutrients and 70-80 percent of electrolytes
and water are reabsorbed by this segment.
 PCT also helps to maintain the Ph and ionic balance of the body fluids
by selective secretion of hydrogen ions, ammonia, and potassium ions
into the filtrate and by absorption of HCO3

49. Henle’s Loop:
 Reabsorption is minimum in its ascending limb. However, this region
plays a significant role in the maintenance of high osmolarity of medullary
interstitial fluid. The descending limb of loop of Henle is permeable to
water but almost impermeable to electrolytes.
 This concentrates the filtrate as it moves down. The ascending limb is
permeable to water but allows transport of electrolytes actively or
passively. Therefore, as the concentrated filtrate passes upward, it gets
diluted due to the passage of electrolytes to the medullary fluid.
 Distal convoluted tubule (DCT): conditional reabsorption of na+ and
water takes place in this segment. DCT is also capable of reabsorption of
HCO3– and selective secretion of hydrogen and potassium ions andnh3 to
maintain the pH and sodium-potassium balance in blood.

50. Collecting Duct:
This long duct
extends from the cortex
of the Kidney to the
inner parts of the
medulla.

51. HORMONAL REGULATION
 The functioning of the kidneys is efficiently monitored and regulated by
hormonal feedback mechanisms involving the hypothalamus, JGA and to a
certain extent, the heart.
 JGA is a special sensitive region formed by cellular modifications in the
distal convoluted tubule and the afferent arteriole at the location
of their contact.
 Osmoreceptors in the body are activated by changes in blood volume, body
fluid volume and ionic concentration.An excessive loss of fluid from the
body can activate these receptors which stimulate the hypothalamus to
release antidiuretic hormone (ADH) or vasopressin from the
neurohypophysis.
 ADH facilitates water reabsorption from latter parts of the tubule, thereby
preventing diuresis.

52.  ADH facilitates water reabsorption from latter parts ofthe tubule, thereby
preventing diuresis.
 An increase in body fluid volume can switch off the osmoreceptors and
suppress the ADH release to complete the feedback.
 The JGA plays a complex regulatory role. A fall in glomerular blood
flow/glomerular blood pressure/GFR can activate the JG cells to release
renin which converts angiotensinogen in blood to angiotensin I and further to
angiotensin II. Angiotensin II, being a powerful vasoconstrictor, increases
the glomerular blood pressure and therebyGFR.

53.  Angiotensin II also activates the adrenal cortex to release aldosterone.
Aldosterone causes the reabsorption of Na+ and water from the distal
parts of the tubule. This also leads to an increase in blood pressure and
GFR. This complex mechanism is generally known as the Renin-
Angiotensin mechanism.
 An increase in blood flow to the atria of the heart can cause the release
of Atrial Natriuretic Factor (ANF). ANF can cause vasodilation (dilation
of blood vessels) and thereby decrease the blood pressure. ANF
mechanism, therefore, acts as a check on the renin-
angiotensin mechanism.

54. ROLE OF OTHER ORGANS IN EXCRETION

55. Micturition
 Micturition or urination
is the process of
expelling urine from the
bladder. This act is also
known as voiding of the
bladder. The kidneys
filter the urine and it is
transported to the
urinary bladder via the
ureters where it is stored
till its expulsion.

56.  The process of micturition is regulated by the nervous system
and the muscles of the bladder and urethra. The urinary
bladder can store around 350-400ml of urine before it expels it
out.
 The micturition reflex process is self-regenerative
 It is an autonomical spinal cord reflex facilitated and inhibited
by higher brain centers

57. URINARY BLADDER
The musculature of the bladder plays a key role in the
storage and emptying of urine.In order to contract during
micturition, the bladder wall contains specialised smooth
muscle known as detrusor - muscle. Its fibres are orientated
in multiple directions, thus retaining structural integrity
when stretched. It receives innervation from both the
sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems.

59. MICTURITION REFLEX
The micturition reflex is a reflex
pathway by which urination or
micturition occurs. This reflex is
induced by the stimulation of stretch
receptors present on the wall of the
bladder and urethra. The intravesical
pressure increases when the bladder
collects about 300 to 400 mL of urine.

61. Micturition consists of two phases:
1.The storage phase: A relaxed bladder in which urine slowly fills the
bladder.
2. The voiding phase: A contracted bladder that forces the external sphincter
open and discharges urine through the urethra.› The muscles controlling
micturition are controlled by the autonomic and somatic nervous systems,
which open the two sphincters during the voiding phase of micturition.
3. During the storage phase, the internal urethral sphincter is tense and the
detrusor muscle is relaxed by sympathetic stimulation

62. During the voiding phase of micturition,
parasympathetic stimulation causes the internal
urethral sphincter to relax.› The external urethral
sphincter (sphincter urethrae) is under somatic
control and is consciously relaxed (and thus opened)
during micturition.

63. URINE
 Normally, human beings excrete out transparent, pale yellow,
acidic, hypertonic urine which has a specific gravity of 1.015-
1.025 and a characteristic unpleasant smell.
 The usual yellow color of the urine is due to urochrome
pigment but it can also become colored from various food
ingredients and drugs. The average pH of urine is 6.0 but it
becomes alkaline on standing (4.5 - 8.2).
 Bacterial degradation of urea into ammonia causes the
unpleasant smell of urine.

64.  On average, an adult human produces
about 1-1.5 liters of urine per day. The
amount of urine varies depending on the
consumption of diuretic substances like
tea, coffee, and alcohol, intake of excess
fluid, physical activity of a person, type
of food consumption, and environmental
temperature (less urination in summer
and more urination in winter).

66. URINE FORMATION
 The process of urine formation is also called as uropoeisis.
 It occurs in renal pyramid region where basically nephrons are found
(renal cortex + renal medulla) in kidney.
 It involves the following steps:
 Ultrafiltration -Glomerular filtration
 Tubular reabsorption
 Tubular secretion

69.  Certain changes in your urine or urine habits, either during or after
urination, may indicate that you have a medical condition. These signs
often include:
 Dark or discolored urine
 Cloudy urine
 Blood in urine
 Frequency of urination
 Pain during urination

70. CLOUDY URINE
What Causes Urine to Be Cloudy?
Cloudy urine can be an indication of a variety of medical conditions:
1. Dehydration: Cloudy urine can indicate that you are not getting enough
water and other fluids.
2. Urinary Tract Infection: Blood, pus, or excess white blood cells can cause
cloudy or milky urine and can indicate that you have a urinary
tract infection.
3. Sexually Transmitted Infections: STIs can produce an excess of white
blood cells, which can cause cloudy urine.
4. Kidney Stones: High levels of minerals in urine can cause cloudiness and
be a sign of kidney stones.

71. 4. Diabetes: Cloudy urine can indicate that uncontrolled diabetes has
damaged the kidneys. Prostate Issues An inflamed or infected prostate
can lead to an increase in the amount of white blood cells or other
discharge, which can cloud urine.
5. Prostate Issues An inflamed or infected prostate can lead to an
increase in the amount of white blood cells or other discharge, which can
cloud urine.
6.Vaginitis: a vaginal infection can increase the number of white blood
cells released in urine and cause cloudiness

72.  Frequent urination is not always a sign of a medical problem. As you
age, the bladder loses some of its holding capacity and you may have to
urinate more frequently. Frequent urination is also common during the
first and third trimesters of pregnancy. Sometimes frequent urination is
caused by increased fluid intake, especially drinking large amounts of
caffeine or alcohol.
 Blood in urine, also known as hematuria, occurs when red blood cells
leak from your urinary tract.
 Conditions that cause blood in urine can include Bladder or kidney
stones kidney disease or injury Enlarged prostate

73. .
Certain medications can also increase urine output, and diuretics such as
furosemide (Lasix), torsemide (Demadex), hydrochlorothiazide
(Microzide), hydrochlorothiazide and triamterene (Dyazide),
chlorthalidone (Hygroton), and spironolactone (Aldactone) are a
common culprit.

74. Leukocytes in Urine
1. Leukocytes are another name for white blood cells, which play
an important role in fighting off infection in the body.A small
number of leukocytes in urine is considered normal, as old
white blood cells will pass through the body.
2. But if a high number of leukocytes are present in the urine, it
can be a sign of potential damage to the kidneys, bladder,
ureters, or urethra.
3. Causes of high levels of leukocytes can include: Urinary tract
infection ,Waiting too long to urinate

75. KETONES IN URINE
 You can test for ketones in urine at home or at your doctor's office via
a dipstick test. People with diabetes are advised to test for ketones
more frequently when their blood glucose level is high, or when they
are sick with a cold or flu. If diabetes is left uncontrolled, people can
develop diabetic ketoacidosis, which can lead to coma and even death
 High levels of ketones in urine can also be a sign of an eating disorder,
chronic vomiting or diarrhea, hyperthyroidism, or other medical
conditions.
 Treatment for ketones in urine typically involves treating the
underlying issue.

76. How Long Do Marijuana, Alcohol,
and Other Substances Stay in
Urine?
1. Urine drug testing is often performed to test the presence of
illegal, mind-altering, or performance-enhancing substances in
the urine of employees, athletes, or people on probation or
parole.

77.  How long a substance can be detected in your urine
can depend on a number of factors
 The composition of the drug frequently you use it
 How much you use/ingestAge of user
 • Health condition of the user
 • Quality of urine drug test

78. How Does Your Urine Change When You're
Pregnant?
Urine changes throughout pregnancy, and monitoring your urine can help
your doctor ensure both you and your baby are healthy. A urine test can
detect pregnancy around two weeks after conception by measuring
increased levels of the hormone HCG (Human Chorionic Gonadotropin)
Urinating more frequently is an early sign of pregnancy and the occurs
throughout the first trimester. Frequent urination then returns during the
third trimester when the growing foetus and the uterus insert the increase
pressure in the urinary bladder.

79. Awareness ribbons are symbols meant to show
support or raise consciousness for a cause.
Different colors are associated with different
issues, often relating to health problems. The first
ribbon to gain familiarity for a health issue was
the red ribbon for HIV/AIDS, created in 1991.
The pink ribbon for breast cancer awareness is
probably the best known today. Do you know
what Among several other health problems, a
green ribbon is meant to show support or raise
awareness for kidney disorders.

80. DISORDERS
1. Malfunctioning of kidneys can lead to accumulation of urea in
blood,a condition called uremia, which is highly harmful and may
lead to kidney failure.
In such patients, urea can be removed by a process called
hemodialysis.
2. Nephrotic syndrome is a kidney disorder that causes your body to
pass too much protein in your urine.Nephrotic syndrome is usually
caused by damage to the clusters of small blood vessels in your
kidneys that filter waste and excess water from your blood

81. 3. Diabetic nephropathy is a common complication of type 1 and type 2
diabetes.Over time, diabetes that isn't well controlled can damage blood
vessels in the kidneys that filter waste from the blood. This can lead to
kidney damage and cause high blood pressure.
4. Polycystic kidney disease (PKD) is an inherited disorder in which
clusters of cysts develop primarily within your kidneys, causing your
kidneys to enlarge and lose function over time. Cysts are noncancerous
round sacs containing fluid

82. 5.Urinary incontinence - the loss of bladder control - is a
common and often embarrassing problem. The severity ranges
from occasionally leaking urine when you cough or sneeze to
having an urge to urinate that’s you don't get to a toilet in time.
6. Horseshoe kidney, also called renal fusion, is when two
kidneys are fused or joined together. They form a shape like a
horseshoe. A horseshoe kidney is also in a different location
compared to two typical kidneys. It's located lower in the pelvis
and closer to the front of your body.Horseshoe kidney occurs as a
baby develops before birth.

83. 6. Atonic Bladder: It is a condition where detrusor muscles in the
bladder loses its ability to contract
1. URINARY RETENTION : Making emptying the bladder
difficult
2. DYSURIA: painful or difficult urination
3. OLIGURIA: deficient secretion of the urine
4. POLYURIA: increased production of urine
1. POLLAKURIA: frequent inadequate production of urine

84. ACUTE KIDNEY FAILURE
 Acute kidney failure occurs when your kidneys suddenly
become unable to filter waste products from your blood.
 When your kidneys lose their filtering ability, dangerous
levels of wastes may accumulate, and your blood’s chemical
makeup may get out of balance.
 Acute kidney failure - also called acute renal failure or acute
kidney injury -develops rapidly, usually in less than a few
days. Acute kidney failure is most common in people who are
already hospitalized, particularly in critically ill people who
need intensive care.

85. DIALYSIS
1. Kidney failure is the last stage of long-term (chronic)
kidney disease. This is when your kidneys can no longer
support your body's needs. Your doctor will discuss
dialysis with you before you need it. Usually, you will go
on dialysis when you have only 10% to 15% of your
kidney function left
2. You also may need dialysis if your kidneys suddenly stop
working due to acute renal failure.

87. KIDNEY STONE
 Also known as RENAL CALCULI They form when
chemicals in the urine precipitate out and form crystals, The
most common crystals are from calcium oxalate, while others
could be from uric acid and cystine.
 Kidney stones are more common in men than women and can
reoccur at any time.
 Factors such as recurrent urinary bladder infections,
insufficient water intake and consumption, low levels of
physical activity, and too much Vitamin C and D intake can
lead to kidney stones one of the best ways to decrease the
occurrence of stones is to drink lots of water and to change
your dietary habits.

89. Glomerulonephritis is
inflammation of the tiny
filters in the kidneys
(glomeruli). The excess fluid
and waste that glomeruli
(remove from the
bloodstream exit the body as
urine. Glomerulonephritis can
come on suddenly (acute) or
gradually (chronic).
GLOMERULONEPHRITIS

90. A urinary tract infection (UTI) is an
infection in any part of your urinary system
- your kidneys, ureters, bladder and urethra.
Most infections involve the lower urinary
tract -the bladder and the urethra. Women
are at greater risk of developing a UTI than
are men. Among adults aged 20 to 50
years, UTIs are about 50-fold more
common in women.
UTI

91. MEDICAL TERMS
1. NEPHROLITH – KIDNEY STONE
2. NOCTURI -FREQUENTLY GETTING UP AND URINATING DURING
THE NIGHT
3. Enuresis- Involuntary release of urine
4. Cystoscopy- Looking into the urinary bladder with a fibroptic instrument
5. Lithotripsy- crushing kidney stone with sound waves
6. Cystitis- Inflammation of the bladder
7. Cystocele- The condition where the bladder where herniates into the vaginal
canal
8. Cystogram – Xray of bladder
9. Cystectomy-Surgical removal of bladder