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- 8. Drago-Severson, E. (2004) Becoming Adult Learners: Principles and Practices for Effective Development
- 9. Drago-Severson, E. (2004) Becoming Adult Learners: Principles and Practices for Effective Development Holding Environment: Special relationships in the psychosocial environment that are needed to support development (Winnicott, 1965).
- 11. Brown, Jester, Corr and Kowalski (2008)
Editor's Notes
- Four Approaches to Adult Development Biological Acknowledges the role of nature in our development. Refers to the physical and biological changes that occur over the life span. Change is driven by natural aging, environment, our own health habits, by accident or disease. Deterioration/changes in sight and hearing, as well as effects of age on the central nervous system, can, in some cases, be addressed by advances in modern medical technology but has an impact/implications on adult learning. Racial and ethnic health disparities have an impact on longevity. Changes in appearance at 40-50 yrs; most notable changes are in appearance Effects on our capacity to learn are largely unknown (except if linked to underlying disease processes). Psychological Most of the work in adult development has been driven by the psychological tradition and focuses on the individual ’ s internal process of development (Merriam et all, 2007). Focuses on how we develop as individuals and examines primarily internal development process. Explores the internal experiences of the individual. In this view, little attention is paid to society ’ s influence on the person ’ s development. Underlies the models used to explain race identity development (Helms, 1990), gay identity development (Cass, 1979) and biracial identity development (Henriksen & Trusty, 2004). Models of psychological development fall into two main categories: Stage theories : a stepwise upward movement, not necessarily tied to chronological age. Stages are hierarchical in nature and built on one another. Disagreement about what causes movement between stages and whether this movement is upward only to a higher stage or back and forth across stages. Age-graded models: tie specific ages to particular tasks. Includes faith development (Fowler 1981), moral development (Kohlberg1976), identity development (Erikson, 1968; Loevinger 1976) and intellectual development (Perry 1999. Erikson ’ s model of psychosocial development. Stage related view of development. Considered the most influential view of adult development proposed thus far (Bee & Bjorkland, 2003, p. 33). Erikson ’ s theory consists of eight stages of development, each representing a series of crisises or issues to be dealt with over the life span. At each stage there is a choice between opposites (negative and positive) and its imperative that persons achieve ea favorable ratio of positive over negative prior to moving to the next stage. Erikson suggests that adults may revisit earlier stages to resolve or re resolve conflicts from earlier periods in different ways. In addition, vital involvement in old age and interdependence among people allow adults to complete the life cycle successfully and leave a positive legacy for the next generation (Erikson, Erikson, Kivnick 1986) Levinson ’ s model of personal development. An age-graded model, suggests that people evolve through an orderly sequence of stable and transitional periods correlated with chronological age. One ’ s life structure, the underlying pattern or design of a person ’ s life at any give time, tends to be established and maintained during stable periods and then questioned and changed during transitioned periods. Components of this changing life are marriage and family, occupation, friendships, religion, ethnicity, and community. The “ central components are those that have the greatest significance for the self and the life. They receive the greatest share of one ’ s time and energy, and they strongly influence the character of the other components ” (Levinson & Levinson, 1996, p.3). ｷ The early life transition occurs between the ages of 17 - 22. ｷ Entry to life structure at age 22 -28 ｷ Age 30 transition at 28-33 ｷ Culmination of life structure 33-40 ｷ Late adulthood 60 Men and women follow the alternating sequence of structure building and transitional periods, these periods operate differently in males and females, largely because of gender splitting , which refers to the creation of a rigid division between male and female, masculine and feminine Havighurst (1972) is one of the earliest writings to link these ideas into what he termed the teachable moment . Grounded in the concept of developmental tasks- that arises at a certain period in a person ’ s life, such as selecting a mate, starting a family, and getting started in an occupation. Time frame and tasks are considered dated but notion of teachable moment is not. Knowles (1980) viewed developmental tasks as producing a readiness to learn which is at its peak presents a teachable moment and outlines his own list of life tasks for young, old and middle aged adults. The exosystem is a larger social system in which the person may not function directly but which has an effect on his/her microsystem. Example: for a child this might be the relationship between the home and the parent ’ s workplace The macrosystem contains the cultural values, mores, and laws that affect the other systems noted. Example: if the cultural belief is that women should marry and raise children, opportunities for aspiring career women may be limited and affect their development and standing in society. The chronosystem refers to the influence of time as it relates to the person ’ s environment and subsequent development. Example: timing of historical events such as the Depression or personal events such as the timing of a parent ’ s death.
- The view of Personal Constructivism draws upon Piaget’s work and views learning as an individual or personal activity. This activity involves what Driver, Asoko, Leach, Mortimer and Scott (1993) deem as a “progressive adaptation of an individual’s cognitive schemes to the physical environment” (p. 6)