Nagarmotha and Rasana (Pharmacognosy)

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This short document discusses Rasana, written by Sanchit Dhankhar. It is a 14 line document that introduces the topic of Rasana and thanks the reader at the end.

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Synonyms:- Vinca rosea, Catharanthus, Madagascar,periwinkle. Barmasi. Biological Source:- Vinca is the dried entire plant of Catharanthus roseus Linn .belonging to family Apocynaceae Geographical Source:- The plant is a native of Madagascar and is found in manytropical and subtropical countries especially in India, Australia,South Africa and North and South America. The plant is cultivated as garden plant in Europe and India.

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Unit III Body Fluids and Blood.pptx

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The branch of chemistry, which deals with the study of reaction rates and their mechanisms, called chemical kinetics. Thermodynamics tells only about the feasibility of a reaction whereas chemical kinetics tells about the rate of a reaction. For example, thermodynamic data indicate that diamond shall convert to graphite but in reality the conversion rate is so slow that the change is not perceptible at all.

Chemical kinetics- Physical Chemistry

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The state where the concentrations of all reactants and products remain constant with time. On the molecular level, there is frantic activity. Equilibrium is not static, but is a highly dynamic situation. law of mass action- jA + kB  lC + mD where A, B, C, and D represents chemical species and j, k, l, and m are their coefficient in the balanced equation. The law of mass action is represented by the equilibrium expression: The square brackets indicate the concentrations of the chemical species at equilibrium, and K is a constant called the equilibrium constant.

Chemical equilibrium- Physical Chemistry

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Introduction Basis Importance Classification Homogeneous catalysis Mechanism Example Heterogeneous catalysis Mechanism Examples Promoters Catalytic Poisoning Autocatalysis Enzyme catalysis Enzymes References Catalyst: - The substances that alter the rate of a reaction but itself remains chemically unchanged at the end of the reaction is called a Catalyst. The process is called Catalysis. prop- A catalyst cannot start the reaction by itself. Catalytic activity increases as surface area of catalyst increases. Catalysts are thermolabile, this effect is very well pronounced in enzymes. Catalytic activity is maximum at a catalyst’s optimum temperature. A catalyst does not alter the position of the equilibrium, instead it helps in achieving the equilibrium faster.

Catalysis- Physical Chemistry

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content- Chemistry & Chemical Engineering History of Catalysis Catalysis Recent trends in Catalysis Future trends in Catalysis Summary role- 24% of GDP from Products made using catalysts (Food, Fuels, Clothes, Polymers, Drug, Agro-chemicals) > 90 % of petro refining & petrochemicals processes use catalysts 90 % of processes & 60 % of products in the chemical industry > 95% of pollution control technologies Catalysis in the production/use of alternate fuels (NG,DME, H2, Fuel Cells, biofuels…)

Applications of catalysis- Physical Chemistry

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Adsorption Adsorption versus absorption, Desorption Types of adsorption: Physisorption and Chemisorption Factors affecting adsorption Adsorption isotherms: Freundlich and Langmuir Gibbs adsorption isotherm Bet equation and its use in surface area determination Applications ADSORPTION Adsorption is the process in which matter is extracted from one phase and concentrated at the surface of a second phase. (Interface accumulation). This is a surface phenomenon as opposed to absorption where matter changes solution phase, e.g. gas transfer. This is demonstrated in the following schematic.

Type of adsorption- Pharmaeutical Physical Chemistry

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Viruses of Prokaryotes: T4 phage M13 (General properties and structure,classification,reproduction) Viruses of Eukaryotes: Retrovirus Herpes simplex virus (Classification, reproduction ) Plant viruses: TMV (Morphology, taxonomy, and reproduction) Viroids and prions A virus is a non-cellular particle made up of genetic material and protein that can invade living cells.

Viruses- Pharmaceutical Microbiology

Sanchit Dhankhar

Killing or removing all forms of microbial life (including endospores) in a material or an object. Mainly due to: oxidation of cell component, denature proteins, nucleic acids, RNA and loss of membrane permeability. Procedures performed in a way to prevent contamination with infectious microorganisms Used to prevent contamination of surgical instruments, medical personnel, and the patient during surgery Sanitization: Lowering of microbial counts to prevent transmission in public setting (e.g., restaurants & public rest rooms) Degerming: Mechanical removal of microbes from limited area. e.g., Alcohol swab on skin, washing of hands with soap Sepsis: Bacterial contamination Antisepsis: Reduction or Inhibition of microbes found on LIVING TISSUE

Sterilization- Pharmaceutical Microbiology

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Sterilization and disinfection- Phrmaceutical Microbiology

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Smear preparation: A drop of water is placed in the centre of a slide One loopfuls of organisms is transferred to the centre of slide Spread the organisms over the slide The smear is allowed to dry Slide is passed through flame several times to heat-kill and fix organisms A bacterial stain is stained with crystal violet (fuchsin, methylene blue) 1 min Observe under microscope Basic Dyes Methylene Blue Crystal Violet Carbol Fuchsin Safranin Malachite Green Acidic Dyes Picric Acid Nigrosin India Ink Eosin differrential statining Two or more reagents Distinguish Bacterial groups Specific Structures Example Gram stain Acid Fast Stain

Staining- Pharmaceutical MIcrobiology

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Poliomyelitis, often called polio is an infectious disease caused by the poliovirus. In about 0.5% of cases there is muscle weakness resulting in an inability to move. It may also be spread by food or water containing infected human feces & less commonly from infected saliva. Enterovirus (RNA) Three serotypes: 1, 2, 3 Rapidly inactivated by heat, formaldehyde, chlorine, ultraviolet light. Polio vaccines are vaccines used to prevent poliomyelitis (polio). The World Health Organization recommends all children be vaccinated against polio. Polio vaccines are generally safe to give during pregnancy & in those cases who have HIV/AIDS .

Poliomyelitis vaccines- Pharmaceutical Microbiology

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Changes in the nucleotide sequence of DNA May occur in somatic cells (aren’t passed to offspring) May occur in gametes (eggs & sperm) and be passed to offspring Changes in the nucleotide sequence of DNA May occur in somatic cells (aren’t passed to offspring) May occur in gametes (eggs & sperm) and be passed to offspring Changes in the nucleotide sequence of DNA May occur in somatic cells (aren’t passed to offspring) May occur in gametes (eggs & sperm) and be passed to offspring Mutations happen regularly Almost all mutations are neutral Chemicals & UV radiation cause mutations Many mutations are repaired by enzymes Some type of skin cancers and leukemia result from somatic mutations Some mutations may improve an organism’s survival (beneficial) chromosome mutations= Five types exist: Deletion Inversion Translocation Nondisjunction Duplication

Mutations- Pharmaceutical Microbiology

Sanchit Dhankhar

The inhibition of growth under standardized conditions may be utilized for demonstrating the therapeutic efficacy of antibiotics. Any subtle change in the antibiotic molecule which may not be detected by chemical methods will be revealed by a change in the antimicrobial activity and hence microbiological assays are very useful for resolving doubts regarding possible change in potency of antibiotics and their preparations. principle; The microbiological assay is based upon a comparison of the inhibition of growth of micro-organisms by measured concentration of the antibiotics to be examined with that produced by known concentrations of a standard preparation of the antibiotic having a known activity. Two general method are usually employed:- The cylinder-plate (or cup-plate) method. The turbidimetric (or tube assay) method.

Microbiological assays- Pharmacuetical Microbiology

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The process of growing microorganisms in culture by taking bacteria from the infection site (in vivo or environment) and grow them in artificial environment in the laboratory (in vitro). Bacteria may require adequate nutrition, optimum pH, temperature and oxygen for growth and multiplication. Suitable artificial media containing sources of carbon, nitrogen, hydrogen, oxygen, phosphorous and other elements such as sodium, potassium, magnesium, iron and growth factor (Vitamins) in very small amounts have been used for cultivation of microorganism. When microorganisms are cultivated in the laboratory, a growth environment called a medium is used. The medium may be purely chemical (a chemically defined medium), or it may contain organic materials, or it may consist of living organisms such as fertilized eggs. Microorganisms growing in or on such a medium form a culture. A culture is considered a pure culture if only one type of organism is present and a mixed culture if populations of different organisms are present. When first used, the culture medium should be sterile, meaning that no form of life is present before inoculation with the microorganism.

Microbial cultivation- Pharmaceutical Microbiology

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Types of Pathogenic Organisms Viruses Bacteria Protozoan Fungi Animal Parasites mecahnism Utilization of host nutritional resources Physical damage to host tissues Production of toxic substances Chromosomal and gene damage Body cells behave abnormally Antigens Some chemical that creates immune response Most are proteins or large polysaccharides from a foreign organism. Microbes: Capsules, cell walls, toxins, viral capsids, flagella, etc. Nonmicrobes : Pollen,, serum proteins, and surface molecules from transplanted tissue. Antigens Some chemical that creates immune response Most are proteins or large polysaccharides from a foreign organism. Microbes: Capsules, cell walls, toxins, viral capsids, flagella, etc. Nonmicrobes : Pollen,, serum proteins, and surface molecules from transplanted tissue. Skin acts as barrier to microbes and viruses - sweat has a low pH Mucus traps foreign particles Tears - Lysozyme has antimicrobial action Gastric stomach acid 2nd line of defence Phagocytic cells (WBCs) Natural Killer (NK) Cells: attack virus infected cells Inflammatory Response Antimicrobial proteins Lysozyme Interferon Antibodies

Immunity- Pharmaceutical Microbiology

Sanchit Dhankhar

Scientific study of organisms (both eukaryotes and prokaryotes) and agents too small to be seen clearly by the unaided eye. Microbiology is the study of microorganisms / microbes which is visible only with a microscope. Derived from the Greek word “mikros” - ‘small’ and “bios” - ‘life’. The diverse group of organisms includes algae, archae, bacteria, cyanobacteria, fungi, protozoa, viruses. Most of the microorganisms are harmless. 99% are good. Eg: Cynobacteria (blue green algae) 1% are bad. Eg: Pathogens The belief in the spontaneous generation of life from nonliving matter was introduced by Aristotle, who lived around 350 BC. According to Aristotle, it was: “readily observable that aphids arise from the dew which falls on plants, fleas from putrid matter, mice from dirty hay.” This belief remained unchallenged for more than 2000 years. Formation of life from non living things- ABIOGENESIS. Aristotle suggested that flies and maggots developed from decaying organic matter. Epicuris suggested that worms and other animals originated from soil and manure by the action of sun and rain. Theory of Spontaneous generation was disproved by Francesco Redi,Lazzaro Spallanzani,Louis Pasteur and Theodore Schwann.They argued that life originated from “pre existing life only”-BIOGENESIS. Francesco Redi took 3 containers filled with meat particles.1st was kept unclosed,2nd covered with paper and 3rd was covered with cork or guaze.After inhibition the 1st container had maggot being produced because flies were attracted by the odour of the meat and they laid eggs after some days developed to maggots.2nd and 3rd container did not contain maggots. Theory of Spontaneous generation was disproved by Francesco Redi,Lazzaro Spallanzani,Louis Pasteur and Theodore Schwann.They argued that life originated from “pre existing life only”-BIOGENESIS. Francesco Redi took 3 containers filled with meat particles.1st was kept unclosed,2nd covered with paper and 3rd was covered with cork or guaze.After inhibition the 1st container had maggot being produced because flies were attracted by the odour of the meat and they laid eggs after some days developed to maggots.2nd and 3rd container did not contain maggots.

History of microbiology- Pharmaceutical Microbiology

Sanchit Dhankhar

DISINFECTANTS are chemical agents that inhibit or kill microorganisms (surgical apparatus, periphery of the patient, and the objects used by the patient). Disinfection It is the application of chemicals to destroy most pathogenic organisms on inanimate surfaces Can be accomplished by application of chemical agents, use of physical agents (ionizing radiation) dry or moist heat, superheated steam(autoclave, 120̊ C) idela surfactant effective at room temperature, noncorrosive and nontoxic, inexpensive, capable of killing the vegetative form of all pathogenic organisms, require limited time of exposure

Disinfectants- Pharmaceutical Microbiology

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It is an antibiotic that was the first drug to be successful against tuberculosis but now it is used with other drugs because of its toxic effects othere uses Anti TB drug Plaque Veterinary treatment against gram negative bacteria in horses , cattle , sheep Fermentation is defined as chemical transformation of organic compound brought about through agency of microorganisms Microorganisms useful in fementation can be either prokaryotes such as bacteria , virus or eukaryotes such as fungi; yeast Test Organism-Streptomyces griseus

Streptomycin- Pharmaceutical Microbiology

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Penicillin is a antibiotic having β-lactum thiazolidine ring. Penicillin G is the starting material for 6-amino penicillanic acid which is the key intermediate in the production of wide range of semi synthetic penicillins. Mold used for the production of penicillin is Penicillium chrysogenum Penicillin is a antibiotic having β-lactum thiazolidine ring. Penicillin G is the starting material for 6-amino penicillanic acid which is the key intermediate in the production of wide range of semi synthetic penicillins. Mold used for the production of penicillin is Penicillium chrysogenum types of fermentation Basically ,there are two methods of preparation of penicillin by fermentation: Surface Culture Method: In this method mold is grown on the surface of shallow layers of the fermentation medium. Submerged Culture Method: In this method mold is grown submerged in the fermentation medium. master stock culture It can be preserved by Freeze drying Fixing on soil sand mixtures Storage under liquid nitrogen Second method is the best method

Penicillin fermentation- Pharmaceutical Microbiology

Sanchit Dhankhar

The fermentation industry is composed of five major bio-ingredient categories. They are: - Proteins & amino acids. - Organic acids. - Antibiotics. - Enzymes. - Vitamins & hormones. Optimum balance of the media is mandatory for cells propagation and for the maximum production of target metabolite (end-product). Fermentation media Media compositions: - Carbon source. - Nitrogen source. - Minerals. - Growth factors. - Precursors (mutants). Types of fermentation Solid State fermentation (SSF). Liquid State fermentation (LSF) Surface culture & submerged culture

Microbial fermentation- Pharmaceutical Microbiology

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