Muscle forearm & hands By M Thiru murugan.pptx

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Muscles of Fore arm By,M. Thiru murugan Muscles of fore arm: superficial anterior & deep anterior The superficial anterior compartment are the flexor carpi ulnaris, flexor carpi radialis, palmaris longus, flexor digitorum superficialis & pronator teres Flexor carpi ulnaris: O – humerus & ulna ; I - metacarpal Flexor carpi radialis: O - humerus ; I - metacarpal Palmaris longus: O - humerus; I – palmar aponeurosis Flexor digitorum superficialis: O – humerus, ulna & radius ; I - middle phalanges Pronator teres: O - humerus & ulna ; I - radius Function or Action: Pronation of the forearm, Flexion and abduction at the wrist, Flexes the metacarpophalangeal joints and interphalangeal joints Muscles of fore arm: There are three muscles in the deep anterior forearm: flexor digitorum profundus, flexor pollicis longus, and pronator quadratus. Flexor digitorum profundus: O - ulna; I - distal phalanges (2-5) Flexor pollicis longus: O - radius ; I - distal phalanx of thumb Pronator quadratus: O - ulna; I - radius Function or Action: Flexes the interphalangeal joint and metacarpophalangeal joint, Pronates the forearm Posterior compartment of forearm: Muscles of hand and Fingers: Adductor pollicis Palmaris brevis Interossei Lumbricals, Thenar (includes Abductor Pollicis Brevis, Flexor Pollicis Brevis, Opponens Pollicis) Hypothenar muscles(includes Opponens Digiti Minimi, Abductor Digiti Minimi, Flexor Digiti Minimi Brevis) Origin - Upper extremity, I - Hand and fingers Functions: Fine movements of the thumb Medially rotating and flexing the metacarpal Abducts the thumb Flexes the metacarpophalangeal (MCP) joint Rotates the metacarpal Abducts the little finger Flexes the MCP joint of the little finger

Health & Medicine

Muscles of fore arm: superficial anterior & deep anterior
 The superficial anterior compartment are the flexor carpi ulnaris,
flexor carpi radialis, palmaris longus, flexor digitorum
superficialis & pronator teres
1. Flexor carpi ulnaris: O – humerus & ulna ; I - metacarpal
2. Flexor carpi radialis: O - humerus ; I - metacarpal
3. Palmaris longus: O - humerus; I – palmar aponeurosis
4. Flexor digitorum superficialis: O – humerus, ulna & radius ; I -
middle phalanges
5. Pronator teres: O - humerus & ulna ; I - radius
 Function or Action: Pronation of the forearm, Flexion and
abduction at the wrist, Flexes the metacarpophalangeal joints and
interphalangeal joints

Muscles of fore arm:
 There are three muscles in the deep anterior forearm:
flexor digitorum profundus, flexor pollicis longus,
and pronator quadratus.
 Flexor digitorum profundus: O - ulna; I - distal
phalanges (2-5)
 Flexor pollicis longus: O - radius ; I - distal phalanx of
thumb
 Pronator quadratus: O - ulna; I - radius
 Function or Action: Flexes the interphalangeal joint and
metacarpophalangeal joint, Pronates the forearm

Muscles of hand and Fingers:
• Adductor pollicis
• Palmaris brevis
• Interossei
• Lumbricals,
• Thenar (includes Abductor Pollicis Brevis, Flexor
Pollicis Brevis, Opponens Pollicis)
• Hypothenar muscles(includes Opponens Digiti
Minimi, Abductor Digiti Minimi, Flexor Digiti Minimi
Brevis)

• Origin - Upper extremity, I - Hand and fingers
• Functions:
• Fine movements of the thumb
• Medially rotating and flexing the metacarpal
• Abducts the thumb
• Flexes the metacarpophalangeal (MCP) joint
• Rotates the metacarpal
• Abducts the little finger
• Flexes the MCP joint of the little finger

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c. The triceps is the prime mover and the anconeus a weak auxistant in of the clbow. 1. When hammering a nail, the (bicops brachiti/ triceps brachii) concentrically contracts on the downswing. c. The (anteriot/posteriot) museles of the elbow are used to raise a water glass. Museles of the Forearm, Wrist, and Hand 1. Pronator Teres a. The proximal attachment of the pronator teres is on the epicondyle of the humerus and the distal attachment on the lateral surface of the (nitius / ulna)). b. As its name implies, this muscle will the pivot joints of the forcarm. 2. Flexor Carpi Radialis, Flexor Carpi Ulnaris, and Palmaris Longus a. These 3 muscles all take their proximal attachments on the (medial/lateral) epicondyle of the humerus and teminate distally just beyond the wrist. b. When these museles contract the hand will be pulied so as to (extend/flex) the radiocarpal joint. c. Located between the flexor carpi radialis and flexor carpi ulnaris is the 3. Flexor Digitorum Superficialis a. Located beneath the flexors of the wrist. Like those muscles, this musele arises from the epicondyle of the humerus and is also anchored to the middle portion of the (rudius / ulna) b. The tendon of the flexor digitorum superficialis divides into ( 2/3/4 ) segments. c. These tendons inset on the (distal / medial) phalanges of the four fingers. d. Thus far, we have noted that the muscles of the anterior forearm all have attachments on the of the humerus and acts as (cxtensors / flexors) of the wrist and fingers. 4. (Deep Anterior Muscles) Flexor Digitorum Profundus and Flexor Pollicus Longus a. The flexor digitorum profundus originates on the upper end of the (radius / ulna) and its lower tendons divides into four branches that pass to the (distal / proximal) phalanges of the four fingers. b. The obvious function of this musele is (extension / flexion) of the fingers. c. The flexor pollicus longus arises from the anterior surface of the (radrus/ ulna) d. When you see the term pollicis in the name of a muscle you will know that it attaches to the thumb The flexor pollicis longus inserts on the phalanx of the thumb. 5. Pronator Quadratus a. This four sided muscle is located on the anterior surface of the (distal / proximal) end of the forea b. When we pronate the forearm, the pronator teres pulls on the upper end of the radius and the pronator pulls on the lower end of that bone. c. The musculature of the anterior forearm will (extend / flex) the wrist and fingers. d. The long muscle that flexes the thumb is the.

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Identify both the synergist adn antagonist muscles that work at the following joints a. neck and spine b. hip c. knee d. ankle e. toes f. scapula g. shoulder h. elbow i. wrist j. fingers Solution ANTAGOINST ; Agonist and antagonist means that the muscle taht a contraction. Antagonist muscles causes special movement in body. it is not an intrinsic property. It helps to control the body, rotate the body, slow it down, returns the limbs to its initial position. SYNERGIST; synergist is a muscle that acts in concert with another to enhance its effect that is compare agonist 1, antagonist a. synergist and antagoist muscles that work at the following body joints like ; Flexion Extension Sternocleidomastoid (Bilateral) oblique capities rotations: Levator Scapula (To Same Side): Splenius Capitus (To Same Side):Splenius Cervicis (To Same Side):Rectus Capitis Major (To Same Side); Oblique Capitis Inferior (To Same Side) Lateral Flexion: Trapezius (Upper Fibers); Levator Scapula; Splenius Capitis; Splenius Cervicis; Sternocleidomastoi HIP; Flexion : Rectus Femoris; Gluteus Medius; Gluteus Minimus; Adductor Magnus; Adductor Longus Extension: Biceps Femoris; Semitendinosus; Semimembranosus; Gluteus Maximus; Gluteus Medius Medial Rotation: Semitendinosus; Semimembranosus; Gluteus Medius Lateral Rotation: Biceps Femoris; Gluteus Maximus; Gluteus Medius Abduction: Gluteus Maximus; Gluteus Medius; Gluteus Minimus Adduction: Adductor Magnus: Adductor Longus: Adductor Brevis KNEE: Flexion: Biceps Femoris: Semitenidnosus: Semimembranosus: Gracilis Extension : Rectus Femoris: Vastus Lateralis: Vastus Medialis: Vastus Intermedius Medial Rotation Of Flexed Knee : Semitendinosus: Semimembranosus: Sartorius: Gracilis Lateral Rotation Of Flexed Knee : Biceps Femoris ANKLE: Plantar Flexion: Gastrocnemius: Soleus: Tibialis Posterior: Flexor Digitorum Longus: Flexor Hallucis Longus. Dorsiflexion: Tibialis Anterior: Extensor Digitorum Longus: Extensor Hallucis Longus. TOES: Inversion: Tibialis Anterior: Tibialis Posterior: Flexor Digitorum Longus: Flexor Hallucis Longus Eversion: Peroneus Longus: Peroneus Brevis: Extensor Digitorum Longus Flexion - 2nd Thru 5th Toes: Flexor Digitorum Longus: Flexor Digitorum Brevis (2nd Thru 4th): Abductor Digiti Minimi (5th) Extension - 2nd Thru 5th Toes: Extensor Digitorum Longus: Extensor Digitorum Brevis (1st Thru 4th). Flexion Of First Toe: Flexor Hallucis Longus: Abductor Hallucis Extension Of First Toe: Extensor Hallucis Longus Abduction Of The First Toe: Abductor Hallucis Abduction Of The Fifth Toe: Abductor Digit Minimi SCAPLUA: Elevation: Trapezius (Upper Fibers): Rhomboid Major: Rhomboid Minor Depression: Trapezius (Lower Fibers): Serratus Anterior: Pectoralis Minor Abduction: Serratus Anterior: Pectoralis Minor Adduction: Trapezius (Middle Fibers): Rhomboid Major: Rhomboid Minor ELBOW: Flexion: Biceps Brachii: Brachialis: Brachioradialis: Flexor Carpi Radialis Extension: Triceps Brachii: Anconeus WRIST: Flexion : Flexor Carpi R.

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thiru murugan

Community Health Nursing ICommunity organizations to promote environmental health By, Thiru murugan ENVIRONMENTAL HYGIENE: UNIT - 3:Community organizations to promote environmental health Levels and types of agencies: National, state, local - Government, voluntary and social agencies. Legislations and acts regulating the environmental hygiene. Community organizations to promote environmental health: Environmental organizations are working for improvement and betterment of surrounding includes pollution, waste, resource depletion, human overpopulation and climate change. It can be global, national, regional or local. The organization may be a charity, a trust, a non-governmental organization or a government organization NATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL ORGANIZATIONS Ministry of Environment Forests and climate change (MoEFCC) For planning, promoting, coordinating and overseeing the implementation of environmental and forestry programmes in the country. The main activities : Conservation and survey of the environment, forests and other wilderness areas Prevention and control of pollution Deforestation and reducing land degradation. It is responsible for the administration of the national parks of India Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB): To promote cleanliness of streams & wells in different areas of the States by prevention, control of water pollution. To improve the quality of air & to prevent, control air pollution in the country Functions of CPCB: Advise the Central Government on any matter concerning prevention & control of water & air pollution and improvement of the quality of air. Plan a nation-wide programme for the prevention, control of water & air pollution; Co- ordinate the activities of the State Board & resolve environmental problems Sponsor investigation and research relating to problems of water and air pollution, Plan and organize training on the prevention, control of water and air pollution; Environmental non-governmental organizations: To develop civic & environmental consequences among the public , To educate the students about the pollution problem and the harmful effect of pollution, To describe and discuss the common characteristics of environmental issues & To act as a catalyst in bringing about local initiative and community participation Bombay Natural History Society (BNHS) Largest NGO in the Indian sub-continent engaged in nature conservation research & spreads awareness about the need to protect the environment and sustainable use of natural resources Centre for Science & Environment (CSE) Environmental NGO specializing in sustainable nature resource management in New Delhi; believes in knowledge-based activism to cope with India's environmental threats - ecological poverty, land degradation, toxic degradation etc. Greenpeace India: Indian wing of the international non-profit organization; activities, discouraging genetic engineering, promoting peace, saving the environment from pollution (eliminating toxic

6. 1st GNM Community H Nsg - unit- 3 - Environmental Hygien - Community organ...

thiru murugan

Community Health Nursing IEnvironmental Factors Contributing to Health By, Thiru murugan Environmental Hygiene: Unit II: Environmental Factors Contributing to Health a)Water: Sources and characteristics of safe and wholesome water, Uses of water, Rain water harvesting, Water pollution, Water borne diseases & Water purification-small and large scale b)Air: Composition of air, Airborne diseases, Air pollution and its effect on health & Control of air pollution and use of safety measures. c)Waste: Refuse, garbage, excreta and sewage, Health hazards, Waste management: collection, transportation and disposal. d)Housing: Location, Type , Characteristics of good housing, Basic amenities, Town planning e)Ventilation: Types and standards of ventilation f)Lighting: Requirements of good lighting, Natural and artificial lighting & Use of solar energy g)Noise: Sources of noise, Community noise levels, Effects of noise pollution & Noise Control measures h)Arthropods: Mosquitoes, housefly, sand fly, human louse, rat fleas, rodents, ticks etc. and Control measures a)Water: Water is a essential basic need of human and all living things Water is made of hydrogen and oxygen. The water is very important for life, because it is vital. The animals or humans drink water because the body needs 75% water Pure water has no colour, no taste and doesn’t smell of anything and absence of micro organism Sources: Rain water Surface water Ground water: Rain water: Natural source & pure Surface water: Lakes Ponds Streams Rivers Storage reservoir Characteristics of safe and wholesome water: Safe and wholesome water is defined as that which is free from pathogenic agents free from harmful chemical substances pleasant to taste, colorless and odorless usable for domestic purposes Uses of water: Household or domestic(drinking, preparing food, bathing, washing clothes and dishes, brushing your teeth, watering the yard and garden) Agricultural (farming gardening fisheries) Industrial (manufacturing) Recreational (swimming, water shows, boating) Environmental activities (park, street cleaning) Fire extinction (control & stoppage of fire disaster) Hydro power generation (production of electricity) Rain water harvesting: Rainwater harvesting is the simple process or technology used to conserve rainwater by collecting, storing, conveying and purifying of rainwater that runs off from rooftops, parks, roads, open grounds, etc. for later use. Components: Rainwater harvesting systems consists of the following components: Catchment (Collection): Used to collect and store Conveyance system (transport): It is used to transport the harvested water from the catchment to the recharge zone. Flush: It is used to flush out the first spell of rain. Filter: Used for filtering the collected rainwater and removing pollutants. Tanks and the recharge structures: Used to store the filtered water which is ready to use. The process of rainwater harvesting involves the collection and the

5.1st GNM Community H Nsg - unit- 2 - Environmental Hygiene - Environmental F...

thiru murugan

Community Health Nursing IEnvironmental Hygiene By, Thiru murugan Environmental Hygiene: Unit I: Introduction: Components of environment Importance of healthy environment Environment: The surroundings or conditions in which a person, animal, or plant lives or operates. Components of environment: Everything in our immediate surrounds, including both living and nonliving things like soil, water, creatures, and plants that adapt to their conditions, is referred to as the “environment.” It is a gift from nature that helps to sustain life on Earth. The survival of life on Earth depends on the environment. A biosphere component that affects the condition of the entire planet is an ecosystem. It includes both live and non living objects in the environment. The elements that make up the environment can be broadly separated into two groups: Biotic Components: The biotic or biological component of environment consists of all living organisms. Animals, plants, and microorganisms interact with abiotic elements to build ecosystems. Abiotic Components: the Non living things like Water, Light, Temperature, Humidity and Soil. Importance of healthy environment: As our activities affect the environment in a way, they also affect our life, health, families and communities. Human civilization has always formed a close bond with their environment. Sitting in fresh air and greenery can increase mental peace, reduce blood pressure, increase attention span. Healthy environments are essential with human safety and emotional well-being. Healthy environment reduces the risk of diseases Enhances quality and length of life Healthy environment helps to protect the creatures and plants around us. It Limits global warming It prevent all types of pollutions Control vectors and flies Food hygiene and safety Proper waste disposal

4. 1st GNM Community H Nsg - unit- 1 - Environmental Hygiene - intro.pptx

thiru murugan

Community Health Nursing IRecords and reports By, Thiru murugan Community health nursing – I (1st GNM) Unit – VIII: Records and reports Types and uses Essential requirements of records and reports. Preparation & Maintenance. RECORD: A record is a clinical, scientific, administrative and legal document relating to the nursing care given to the individual family or community. REPORTS: Reports are oral or written exchanges of information shared between caregivers or workers in a number of ways Reports can be compiled daily, weekly, monthly, quarterly and annually. Report summarizes the services of the nurse and/or the agency. TYPES OF RECORDS Periodical Unit Based Subject Based Collection Placed Based TYPES OF RECORDS 1. Periodical: Permanent Records (Cumulative) Temporary Records (casual/daily records) 2. Unit Based: Individual (individual health cards) Related to family (family folders) Related to community (community folders) 3. Subject Based: Economical (financial structure of family, village) Social (records of social structure) Political Medical and nursing (treatment and medicine records) 4. Collection Placed Based: Collected at institution (records of hospital/ health centers) Records to be kept within individual (immunization cards, disease cards) Nurses responsibility for record keeping and reporting: The patient has a right to inspect and copy the record after being discharged Failure to record significant patient information on the medical record makes a nurse guilty of negligence. Medical record must be accurate to provide a sound basis for care planning. Errors in nursing charting must be corrected promptly in a manner that leaves no doubts about the facts. In reporting information about criminal acts obtained during patient care, the nurse must reveal such information only to the police, because it is considered a privileged communication. Keep under safe custody of nurses No individual sheet should be separated Not accessible to others until necessary Strangers are not permitted to read records Records are not handed over the legal advisors without written permission of the administration Handed carefully, not destroyed Identified with bio-data of the patients such as the name, age, admission number, diagnosis, etc. (Legal issues) Never sent outside of the hospital without the written administrative permission.

3. 1st GNM Community H Nsg - unit- 8 - Records & Reports.pptx

thiru murugan

Community Health Nursing IFamily Health Nursing Care By, Thiru murugan Unit – 5: Family Health Nursing Care: Family as a unit of health Concept, goals, objectives Family health care services Family health care plan and nursing process. FHS - Maternal, child care & family welfare services. Roles & function of a CHN in family health service. Family health records. Family as a unit of health care services Health of an individual depends upon the health of the family. In health care needs, the family plays an important role. Family members have the IPR & dependency on each other. Family size, structure, income, education, environment affect the health of the family Family important role as supportive groups Illness of one family members affects the total health of the family Individual’s health problems can be tackled easily Customs, traditions, habits & socio-cultural aspects related to the health risk & illness Comprehensive health care can be provided to community through family health care The successful family life cycle can be achieved by the family health care services Family health services: Definition: "Family health services can be defined as the special care given to family members to promote their health, prevent health problems, and for the well-being of the family." Concepts: The family is the basic unit of any health system. Without family care services, the goal of health services cannot be achieved. Family health services act as a problem-solving process It provides services regardless of the families' socioeconomic status. Comprehensive health care can be provided to the community and family through health care services. Family planning, nutrition, maternal and child health and geriatric care are the important aspects of family health services. Goals: Reduce maternal mortality, morbidity and the infant mortality rate. Spacing of children's births. Solve the problem of malnutrition in the family. Health education Objectives: To Identify and assess the family's health problems. To ensure understanding and acceptance of the problem by the family. To provide nursing services according to the health needs of the family. To develop the competence of members to care for their family. To promote the use of available resources to maintain health. To provide health education to lead a healthy and fruitful life. To provide health services to family members at a cost-effective level. To help family members achieve their health goals. Scopes The goals of individual and community health and growth at the national health level can be achieved through family health services: Reproductive health Children's health Adolescent health Principles Provide services without discrimination Periodic and continuous appraisal and evaluation of family health situation Proper maintenance of record and reports. Provide continuous services Health education, guidance and supervision as integral part of family health nursing. Maintain good IPR.

2. 1st GNM Community H Nsg - unit 5 FHS.pptx

thiru murugan

Community Health Nursing IEpidemiology By, Thiru murugan UNIT-IV: Principles of Epidemiology and Epidemiological methods: Definition and aims of epidemiology, communicable and non-communicable diseases. Basic tools of measurement in epidemiology Uses of epidemiology Disease cycle Spectrum of disease Levels of prevention of disease. Disease transmission – direct and indirect. Immunizing agents, immunization and national immunization schedule. Control of infectious diseases. Disinfection Epidemiology: Introduction: Epidemiology is derived from Greek word “epidemic” EPI – up on, DEMOS – people; LOGOS – study. Epidemiology means the study of disease in human population. Definition: “epidemiology is defined as the study of the distribution and determinants of diseases or health problems”. Terminologies used in epidemiology: Infection: the entry and multiplication of an infectious agent in the body of man or animal. Endemic: the constant presence of a disease in particular area or population. Ex- malaria, dengue, chikungunya. Epidemic: an out break of disease from one area to other area in a community. Ex - cholera, polio, small pox Sporadic: refers to a disease that occurs infrequently and irregularly. Ex - Tetanus, rabies, and plague. Pandemic: a disease which spreads from country to country or over the whole world. Ex - swine flu, HIV, COVID – 19. Zoonosis: diseases or infections transmitted from animals to men. Ex - rabies. Incubation period: this is the time interval between the entry of the disease agent into the body and the appearance of first sign & symptom of the disease. Carrier: a person who harbors or carry the disease agent with or without having any outward signs and symptoms. Isolation: a separation of a person with infectious disease (communicable disease) from contact with other human beings to avoid spread of disease. Quarantine: a quarantine is a restriction on the movement of people, animals and goods which is intended to prevent the spread of disease Pathogenicity: ability to cause the disease. Contagious: a disease that is transmitted through contact. Reservoir: the habitat ( place for living) where an infectious agent living, grows and multiplies. Virulence: measure the severity of disease. Fomites: inanimate articles other than food or water contaminated by the infectious discharges. Vector: usually an arthropod eg. Mosquito which transfers an infectious agent from an infected person to a healthy person. Aims To describe the distribution and size of disease problems in human To identify the etiological factors. To provide the data (information) essential to the preparation) implementation (providing) & evaluation (checking the outcome). Communicable and non-communicable diseases: Communicable diseases are diseases that spread from person to person. Ex - polio, typhoid, chickenpox, TB,AIDS Non-communicable disease (NCD) are disease that is not spread from one person to another. Ex - most heart disease

1. 1st GNM Community H Nsg - Unit 4 Epidemiology.pptx

thiru murugan

By:M. Thiru murugan Unit XIV Type, structure and functions of muscle Origin, Insertion, and action of muscles Muscle: Muscle is a soft tissue and it is one of the 4 basic tissues, along with nervous tissue, epithelium, and connective tissue. Muscles helps in movement, support and protection of internal organs. Muscle cells or myocytes contain protein filaments called myofilaments actin & myosin that producing a contraction that changes both the length and the shape of the cell. Types of Muscles: There are 3 types of muscles: skeletal, cardiac & smooth muscle Skeletal muscle or “voluntary muscle” or striated Muscles is attached to bone, helps in movement & in maintaining posture. Smooth muscle or “involuntary muscle” or non striated muscles is found within the walls of organs and structures Cardiac muscle is also an "involuntary muscle" found only in the heart. Structure of Skeletal muscle: Skeletal muscle consist plasma membrane is called sarcolemma, the cytoplasm is called sarcoplasm & specialized sarcoplasmic reticulum that play important role in regulation of Calcium. Cells contain many nucleus peripherally It consist of number of elongated cells called muscle fibers or muscle cell , that consist of myofibrils (elongated protein molecules). These Muscle fibers are arranged in bundle called fasciculi Each muscle fibers covered by endomysium, each fasciculi covered by perimysium & the whole muscle is covered by epimysium. Neuromuscular junction (NMJ) or myoneural junction is a chemical synapse between a motor neuron and a muscle fiber. It allows the motor neuron to transmit a signal to the muscle fiber, causing muscle contraction. Properties of skeletal muscle: Excitability: this refers to muscle tissue being able to react to nervous stimulation. Extensibility: this refers to the ability of muscle tissue to lengthen when contracting Elasticity: this refers to the ability of muscle tissue to return to its normal resting length once it has been stretched. Contractility: this refers to the capacity of a muscle to contract or shorten forcibly when stimulated by nerves and hormones Muscle contraction: Muscle use the movement of actin against myosin to create contraction. In skeletal muscle, contraction is stimulated by electrical impulses transmitted by the nerves Cardiac and smooth muscle contractions are stimulated by internal pacemaker cells which regularly contract, and propagate contractions to other muscle cells they are in contact with. All skeletal muscle and many smooth muscle contractions are facilitated by the neurotransmitter acetylcholine. Types of muscle contraction: Isotonic contractions maintain constant force or tone in the muscle as the muscle length changes Isometric contractions changes in force without changing the length of the muscle Muscle tone is defined as the tension in a muscle at rest. Function of skeletal muscles Body movement (Locomotion) Maintenance of posture Respiration Constriction of organs and vess

1 GNM anatomy Unit _ 14 Muscular System.pptx

thiru murugan

By:M. Thiru murugan Unit – 13: Formation and growth of bones Tendons, ligaments and cartilages Classification of bones, joints Joint movement Axial and appendicular skeleton Skeletal system: The human skeletal system consists of all of the bones, cartilage, tendons, and ligaments in the body & It Provide framework of the body Altogether, the skeleton makes up about 20 percent of a person's body weight. An adult's skeleton contains 206 bones Formation and growth of bones: Ossification, or osteogenesis, is the process of bone formation. In fetal life the bone growth occurs in 2 process: intramembranous and endochondral ossification Intramembranous ossification is the process of bone development from fibrous membranes. It is involved in the formation of the flat bones of the skull, the mandible, and the clavicles. Endochondral ossification is the process of bone development from hyaline cartilage. All of the bones of the body (except for the flat bones) are formed through endochondral ossification Stages of bone growth: Cartilage “model” of bone forms. This model continues to grow as ossification takes place. Ossification begins at a primary ossification center in the middle of bone. Ossification then starts to occur at secondary ossification centers at the ends of bone. The medullary cavity forms. This cavity will contain red bone marrow. Areas of ossification meet at epiphyseal plates, and articular cartilage forms. Bone growth ends. Ossification centers: Bone forms from cartilage, ossification begins with a middle point in the cartilage called the primary ossification center & secondary ossification centers (ends part of the bones) form after birth. Skeletal maturity: Throughout childhood, the cartilage remaining in the skeleton keeps growing, and allows for bones to grow in size. Once all of the cartilage has been replaced by bone, and fusion has taken place at the epiphyseal plates, bones can no longer keep growing in length. At this point, skeletal maturity has been reached. It generally takes place by age 18 to 25. Tendons, ligaments and cartilages: A tendon is a band of tissue that connects muscle to bone. Functions of Tendons: Attach muscles to bones Anchors muscle to bone for movement Ligament: A ligament is an elastic band of tissue that connects bone to bone and provides stability to the joint. Functions of Ligaments: Attach bones to bones Provide stability Cartilage: Cartilage is a soft, gel-like padding between bones that protects joints and facilitates movement. Functions of Cartilage: Model for bone growth in embryo & fetus Provides a smooth cushion between adjacent bones Provides firm flexible support (nose, ears, ribs & trachea) Excellent shock absorber Classification of bones: Bones: Bone are specialized forms of connective tissue that forms the skeleton of the body. It is composed chiefly of calcium phosphate and calcium carbonate. It also serves as a storage area for calcium, playing a large role

1 GNM anatomy Unit -13 - Skeletal system.pptx

thiru murugan

By:M. Thiru murugan Unit – 12: Skin, eye, ear, nose and tongue Physiology of vision, hearing, smell, touch, taste and equilibrium. Sensory organs or Special senses: The nervous system must receive and process information about the world outside in order to react, communicate, and keep the body healthy and safe. Skin, eye, ear, nose & tongue (taste buds) are called sensory organ or special senses. Sensory organs have special receptors that allow us to smell, taste, see, hear, touch and maintain equilibrium or balance. Information conveyed from these receptors to the central nervous system is used to help maintain homeostasis(self-regulating process by which biological systems help to maintain stability while adjusting to conditions that are optimal for survival). Skin: Skin is the largest organ of our body. It is related to the sense of touch. The sense of touch is also referred to as tactioception. The skin contains general receptors which can detect touch, pain, pressure & temperature. They are present throughout the skin. Skin receptors generate an impulse, and when activated, is carried to the spinal cord and then to the brain. Structure of the skin: The skin is composed of 3 major layers of tissue: Epidermis layer Dermis layer Subcutaneous layer. The epidermis, the outermost layer of skin, provides a waterproof barrier and creates our skin tone. The dermis - the middle layer, under the epidermis, contains tough connective tissue, hair follicles, and sweat glands. The subcutaneous tissue (hypodermis) - deeper/ innermost layer, it is made of fat and connective tissue. Epidermis: The epidermis is the thin, outer layer of the skin that is visible to the eye. Contains different types of cells: keratinocytes, melanocytes, Merkel cells and Langerhans cells. The skin’s color is created by special cells called melanocytes, which produce the pigment melanin. Melanocytes are located in the epidermis. These form a pigment shield against UV radiation. It does not contain blood vessels The epidermis consists of 4 layers: Stratum germinativum, Stratum spinosum, Stratum granulosum, Stratum corneum Main functions: protection, absorption of nutrients and homeostasis. Dermis: The dermis is the middle layer of the skin that offers elasticity. It is composed of connective tissues and collagen fibers. is much thicker than the epidermis The dermis provides a site for the hair follicles, sweat glands, sebaceous glands, blood vessels, lymph vessels, sensory receptors, nerve fibers, muscle fibers & specialized cells (mast cells and fibroblasts). The main functions of the dermis are: Protection Cushioning the deeper structures from mechanical injury; Providing nourishment to the epidermis; Playing an important role in wound healing Subcutaneous: The subcutaneous is the layer of tissue directly underneath the dermis. It is also called hypodermis. This layer of tissue is composed of fat cells and connective tissue. It is the thickest l

1 GNM anatomy Unit - 12 - sense organs.pptx

thiru murugan

By:M. Thiru murugan Unit – 11: Types of nerves- structure and functions Brain and cranial nerves. Spinal cord and motor and sensory pathways of the spinal cord, autonomic nervous system. Nervous system: Nervous system is one of vital system in our body which control and coordinate all the functions of body parts. Classification: Central nervous system (CNS) Peripheral nervous system (PNS) 1. Central nervous system (CNS): brain and spinal cord 2. Peripheral nervous system (PNS): Somatic nervous System & Autonomic nervous system (ANS) Central Nervous System (CNS): The central nervous system (CNS) controls most functions of the body and mind. It consists of two parts: the brain and the spinal cord. The brain is the center of our thoughts, the interpreter of our external environment, and the origin of control over body movement. It interprets information from our special senses, as well as from internal organs Meninges: The coverings of brain and spinal cord are called meninge. There are 3 layers surrounding the brain and spinal cord. Dura (outer layer) Arachnoid (middle layer) Pia matter (inner layer) Dura mater: The tough outer layer is called the dura mater. protect the central nervous system. Arachnoid: The middle layer is the arachnoid, It contains cerebrospinal fluid, which acts to cushion the brain Pia matter: the innermost layer of the meninges, the pia mater closely covers the brain. Brain: Introduction: The brain is a complex organ that controls thought, memory, emotion, touch, motor skills, vision, breathing, temperature, hunger and every process that regulates our body. the brain and spinal cord Together make up the central nervous system, or CNS The brain receives information through our five senses: sight, smell, touch, taste, and hearing - often many at one time Diagram: Structure: The brain is composed of the cerebrum, cerebellum, and brainstem Cerebrum (telencephalon or endbrain): is the largest part of the brain and is composed of right and left hemispheres. It performs higher functions like interpreting touch, vision and hearing, as well as speech, reasoning, emotions, learning, and fine control of movement. Cerebellum (little brain): is located under the cerebrum. Its function is to coordinate muscle movements, maintain posture, and balance. Brainstem: consist midbrain, the pons, and the medulla oblongata acts as a relay center connecting the cerebrum and cerebellum to the spinal cord. Functions such as breathing, heart rate, body temperature, wake and sleep cycles, digestion, sneezing, coughing, vomiting, and swallowing. Lobes of the brain: Each hemisphere has 4 lobes: Frontal lobe Temporal lobe Parietal lobe Occipital lobe Each lobe may be divided, once again, into areas that serve very specific functions The cerebral cortex has many folds, called the gyrus (plural: "gyri") and its trough is called a sulcus (plural: sulci) Deep structure of Brain: Hypothalamus: is located in the floor of the third ventricle and

1 GNM anatomy Unit -11 Central Nervous System CNS.pptx

thiru murugan

By:M. Thiru murugan Unit – 10: Structure and functions of the female reproductive system Process of menstrual cycle, reproduction and menopause Structure and functions of breasts Structure and functions of the male reproductive system Reproductive health Reproductive system: The organs involved in producing offspring (a person's child or children). In women, this system includes the ovaries, the fallopian tubes, the uterus, and the vagina. In men, it includes the prostate, the testes, and the penis. The female reproductive system The female reproductive system plays many vital functions that ensure the continuation of the human race Located in the pelvic cavity Parts: It consist of External genitalia Internal genitalia External genitalia: Labia minora Labia majora Clitoris Vaginal orifice Internal genitalia: Ovaries Fallopian tubes Uterus Vagina Vagina: A muscular tube, that extends from the cervix of the uterus to the outside of the body. During intercourse, the vagina receives the male’s penis and semen. Birth canal that the baby passes through in a normal delivery. Ovaries: Small almond-shaped glands that produce ova and the female sex hormones located on both sides of the uterus within the pelvic cavity. In charge of ovulation and producing the female sex hormones. The hormones are responsible for getting the lining of the uterus prepared for a fertilized ovum Uterus: Hollow organ (also called womb) Fetus (unborn baby) develops and grows. Contractions to the walls propels the baby during delivery through the birth canal in a normal delivery Parts: fundus, body & cervix The fundus is the broad curved upper area in which the fallopian tubes connect to the uterus; The body, the main part of the uterus, The cervix, extends downward and opens into the vagina. Uterus has 3 layers: The endometrium is the inner layer The myometrium is the middle layer The perimetrium is the outer layer Function of uterus: The uterus receives a fertilized egg and protects the fetus (baby) while it grows and develops. The uterus contracts to push the baby out of the body during birth. Every month, except when a woman is pregnant, the lining of the uterus grows and thickens in preparation for pregnancy. If the woman doesn’t get pregnant, the lining is shed through the cervix into the vagina and out of the body. This is called menstruation. The function of the female reproductive System: The female reproductive system produces ova (the female reproductive cell) Provides a location for fertilization Growth of a fetus Secretes female sex hormones The breast produce milk to nourish the newborn. Menstruation: Menstruation, or period, is normal vaginal bleeding that occurs as part of a woman's monthly cycle. Every month, your body prepares for pregnancy. If no pregnancy occurs, the uterus sheds its lining. The menstrual blood is partly blood and partly tissue from inside the uterus. It passes out of the body through the vagina. Menstrual cycle: Con

1 GNM anatomy Unit - 10 Repro System.pptx

thiru murugan

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