MSc Thesis M.G.

Assessing the potential for large scale
production of insects
A study on the quality attributes that can influence a large scale
production of Yellow mealworm (Tenebrio molitor).
Student: Maria Giakoumelou
Supervisors: dr.ir. JJA (Joop) van Loon
dr. JLF (Geoffrey) Hagelaar

Background information
• Growing world population and wealth
- Approaching 9 billion people in 2050 (FAO, 2009)
- Increasing demand for food the coming decades (Gahukar, 2011)
• Insect production creates less pollution than the common animal
(cow/pig) production
- Yellow mealworms produce much less GHG’s (Greenhouse Gases) than pigs,
chickens and cattle (Oonincx & De Boer, 2012)

• Insects as alternative protein sources
- Entomophagy is the practice of eating insects (FAO, 2013)
- Rich nutritional value (Sirimungkararat et al.,2010)
- Especially rich source of protein (Ramos-Elorduy et al., 2012)
But
- Nutritional value of edible insects can vary (Van Huis, 2003)
- Depending on their developmental stage and diet (Van Huis, 2003)
- Depending on environmental factors such as temperature (Sonmez & Gulel,
2008), humidity (Nedved & Kalushkov, 2012).
- Such factors can cause changes in development and rate of growth (Toba et
al., 1967)
Background information

Yellow mealworm
• Larvae phase
• 8-10 weeks to reach the size for
harvest(NVWA, 2012)
• Rich in protein and fatty acids
(Finke, 2008)
• In the EU, insects fall within the
definition of novel food as food
ingredients isolated from
animals. Parts of insects also fall
within this definition (Regulation
PE-CONS 38/1/15)

• Demarcation
- focus on the Quality Design function in order to analyze the diverse
technological and managerial aspects that can influence the outcome.
- focus on the mass production system of Yellow mealworm (Tenebrio
molitor)
- more precisely focus on the up-scaling step from pilot step of the
quality design, because it is expected higher requirements take place
regarding capital, equipment and facilities from small to large scale
production (Smit, 2000)
Introduction to the research

• Aim of study
- is to highlight the key factors
relevant to upscaling of insect
production upscaling, how they
contribute to the large scale
production and how these
influence the quality outcome on
safety, and nutrition value.
• The research objectives are to
gain insight in
• 1. The technological (mass
rearing and processing) and
managerial (consumer
orientation) requirements for
insect mass production during
the quality design process.
• 2. The rearing conditions that
influence and are important for
the insect production upscaling.
• 3. What influences the quality
attributes of a Yellow mealworm
production.

• Research questions
- 1. Which factors in the up-scaling step can influence the consumers’
perception of quality of an insect product?
- 2. Which conditions and activities during the mass rearing and
processing of insects can influence the quality of the final product
(from the consumer viewpoint) and the production volume of edible
insects?
- 3. What is the influence of these factors on the quality and possibly
interaction effects between the quality attributes.

Insect mass rearing
- production techniques
- production conditions
Insect mass processing
- heat treatment
- freeze-drying
- drying
- preservation techniques
Quality (nutritional
value, safety) of insect
products for human
consumption through
large scale production
The up-scaling step of quality design process for the production of Yellow mealworms as food.
Realizing optimum production process for product quality, product yield, process control and costs
Mass rearing of insects
-Degree of insect welfare during the rearing process.
-Apropriateness of ambient conditions during insect rearing.
Technological Factors
Mass processing of insects
-Knowledge on processing methods.
-Appropriateness of application of HACCP principles.
Managerial factor
Consumer Orientation
-Adequacy of information acquired, shared,
interpreted and utilised about consumers.
Theoretical Framework

Hypothesis
• If welfare and technical requirements (ambient conditions) on the
insect rearing facilities are met, safety requirements during processing
are performed and high level of consumer orientation is achieved,
then successful large scale insect production and quality insect
products for human consumption will be possible.

Research methods
• Exploration of the research topic
• Using tools (boolean operators, synonyms,
and wildcards)
• Using databases (ScienceDirect, Scopus,
WurLibrary)
• Using journal articles and books relevant to
the topic of study.
• Assessment of factors for the identification of
indicators.
• For greater accuracy, use of levels (defined by
Luning et al., (2008)) to analyze the present
situation of the given indicators and the
current level of insect companies.
• Completing of questionnaire by experts of
insect companies
• The questions are divided in 4 main parts:
1. General questions about the expert
2. Questions about the consumer
orientation
3. Questions about the mass rearing of
insects
4. Questions about the mass processing of
insects
Part A: SYSTEMATIC LITERATURE REVIEW
Part B: STUDY ON THE RESPONSES OF
QUESTIONNAIRE

Results
• The most of the potential respondents showed little willingness to
participate and share their experiences.
• Only 3 of 10 Dutch companies participated.

Results
Factor Indicator Current Level*
Consumer orientation 1) Adequacy of information about the consumer. Level 3
Mass rearing
1) Degree of insect welfare during the rearing process. Level 2/3
2) Appropriateness of ambient conditions during insect rearing. Level 2/3
Mass processing
1) Knowledge about processing methods of insects. Level 2
2) Adequacy of application of HACCP principles. Level 3
*The optimal situation is always characterized by the reference situation level 3.

Conclusions
Number Bottlenecks
1 Lack of legislation on welfare of insects.
2 Lack of deeper technical knowledge in insect rearing and processing.
There are no specific welfare regulations for insects and the current
legislation on welfare of animal production typically refers to Brambell’s five
freedoms, but excludes invertebrates (Jönsson & Wätthammar, 2013).
Although some successful processing methods are used for the production of
insects, not all methods are currently reproducible at the industrial scale and
more research in this area is needed (Veldkamp et al., 2012).
- Filling of the existing legislation gaps about insect welfare
- Filling of the existing research gaps through multidisciplinary approach

Conclusions
• Insect rearing companies are involved in activities to enhance the insects’
welfare and more specifically, in the absence of specific welfare regulations for
insects, insect farmers have individually developed their own production
practices and they are generally hesitant to share their expertise.
• Technical requirements, such as ambient conditions (humidity, temperature)
have not been performed on a widely known and ideal level, but their range is
determined by the company’s experience.
• Safety requirements during processing are performed to a certain extend and
awareness of this aspect is present.
• High level of consumer orientation through data collection.

Conclusions
• Overall, it can be concluded that the initial hypothesis is partially
proven.
If welfare and technical requirements (ambient conditions) on the insect rearing
facilities are met, safety requirements during processing are performed and high level
of consumer orientation is achieved, then successful large scale insect production and
quality insect products for human consumption will be possible.

Recommendations for further research
- Specific research on insect welfare during the rearing processes and the
standardization of regulations and safety guidelines for their production.
- Research on the industrial development of insect products, focusing on
welfare issues, processing, product commercialization and alignment of market
with supply and demand of insect products.
- Specific marketing research about advertising of insect products and how to
overcome acceptability barriers.
- Research on the up-scaling of insect production in other countries in order to
compare the major problems and acquire deeper knowledge that is necessary
for the solution of problems.

Thank you for your attention!
Questions and comments?

Consumer Orientation
Mass Rearing
- welfare requirements
- ambient conditions
requirements
(humidity,
temperature)
Mass Processing
- required knowledge on
processing methods
- HACCP requirements
Rearing Processing
Quality (availability,
safety, health,
nutritional value) of
yellow mealworm
products for human
consumption through
large scale production
Theoretical Framework

Evaluation of the research
Literature Analysis
Theoretical Frameworks
Developing research methodology/approach
Data Collection
Questionnaire
preparation
Completing the
questionnaire
by experts
Data Analysis
Results and Discussion
Analysis and examination of the hypothesis.
Acceptance or rejection
Thesis Plan

Explanations
• Brambell’s Five Freedoms (Brambell, 1965):
the freedom from hunger and thirst,
the freedom from discomfort,
the freedom from pain, injury and disease,
the freedom to express normal behavior and the freedom from
fear and distress.

Explanations
• It takes 8 to 10 weeks at a temperature of 28–30 °C and 60 % relative
humidity for mealworms (Tenebrio molitor) to reach the size for
harvest (NVWA, 2012)
• The optimal growth rate for mealworms at 25 °C is attained at 70%
RH (Machin, 1975)

Explanations
The proposed by Luning et al. (2008), general grid is presented below:
- Level 1: is characterized by lack of scientific evidence, use of company history/experience,
variable, unknown, based on common-material equipment and not adapted to the
production system.
- Level 2: is related to best practices knowledge and equipment, sometimes variable, not
always predictable and based on generic information in the production industry.
- Level 3: is associated with scientifically underpinned (accurate, complete), stable,
predictable and tailored information and technology for the specific food production
situation.
For the large scale production of insects the indicators will be determined in levels and the
reference situation (optimal situation for a given indicator) will be proposed based on
scientific literature. The assessment of the level based on the indicators will determine
which areas are currently being operated closely or further from the reference situation,
which will give insights into the positive and limiting aspects for large scale production of
insect for human consumption.

Explanations
Indicator: Adequacy of information
about consumer
• Level 1: is characterized by lack of information about
consumers, in which the acquired information do not
follow the next steps in order to be acted upon. This level
is characterized by companies with very low level of
interest in consumer’s concerns and low level of
knowledge about their consumers;
• Level 2: is characterized by presence of acquisition and
sharing of information about consumers but the
information is not specific to the product and not further
interpreted and acted upon. This level is characterized by
companies which do not examine information to identify
trends or patterns that may be significant to the
company;
• Level 3: is characterized by presence of acquisition,
sharing, interpretation and utilization of information
about consumers. This level is characterized by
companies which design their decisions and strategies
based on knowledge about the consumer marketplace.
Indicator : Degree of insect welfare
during the rearing process
• Level 1: is characterized by lack of any welfare
standards regarding the rearing of insects. The
unnatural, stressful environment and unnatural
density of animals can lead to health issues and
extensive medication provided than more space.
• Level 2: is characterized by moderate use of
welfare standards. Some of the five freedoms
are followed.
• Level 3: is characterized by large use of welfare
standards. The insect farms respect the five
freedoms, action that is proven economically
beneficial and produce healthy and safe
products as well.

Explanations
Indicator : Appropriateness of ambient
conditions during insect rearing
• Level 1: is characterized by companies which
are unaware about the optimal temperature
of Yellow mealworms and the correlation of
that with the growth rate and nutritional
value of insects.
have information about the optimal
temperatures that could lead to high growth
rate and high protein content of insects.
have the knowledge about the optimal
temperatures that could lead to high growth
rate and high protein content of insects.
Finally, these companies apply that
knowledge and produce according to that.
Indicator : Knowledge about
processing methods of insects
• Level 1: is characterized by lack of knowledge both
in laboratory scale as in industrial scale for all the
following methods that could be applied for insect
processing: e.g. extraction of fat, extraction of
protein, browning reactions.
• Level 2: is characterized by existing knowledge
which may be primarily in laboratory scale or
tested in pilot plants of the following methods
that could be applied for insect processing: e.g.
extraction of fat, extraction of protein, browning
reactions.
• Level 3: is characterized by existing knowledge
which is developed and applicable in industrial
scale for all the following methods that could be
applied for insect processing: e.g. extraction of fat,
extraction of protein, browning reactions.

Explanations
Indicator : Adequacy of application of HACCP principles
• Level 1: is characterized by no application of HACCP principles in the
processing of insects. No information about identified CCPs,
tolerances and monitoring and any verification procedures or record
keeping.
• Level 2: is characterized by the use of HACCP principles based on
hygiene codes or on advices of specialized consultants, but not tested
for specific food production systems characteristics of insects.
Identification of CCPs, tolerances and monitoring program determined
by microbiological tests, historical data and by general hygiene codes
but not tailored for the specific production system. Verification and
record keeping procedures based on international standards but not
specific for the insect production system.
• Level 3: is characterized by the use of HACCP principles using own
knowledge and experience, additional scientific literature and or
expert knowledge and according to Codex guidelines. CCPs
identification, tolerances and monitoring program determined by
microbial product tests, modelling of hazard behavior and/or
challenge tests, from process parameters derived from legal
requirements, hygiene codes, literature, and tested and tailored for
the specific production system of insects. Verification and record
keeping procedures based on international standards but and

Questionnaire (1/6)
1. Question about the expert:
1) Which organization/company do
you work for?
2) Is this an organization/company
that produces mealworms for feed
or food?
3) Does your organization/company
produce other insects?
4) What is your current job position?
5) How long have you had
experience with insect production in
this organization/company?
2. Consumer orientation:
Adequacy of information about consumer:
1) Please give your opinion about your
company’s consumer orientation. Do you think
your company is aware of trends and events,
opportunities and/or threats that may be
significant to its production?
(A) Not aware at all
(B) Aware but they can improve
(C) Very much aware.
2) Do you think that your company feels the
need to keep updated regarding its
customers/consumers’ needs?
(A) Yes
(B) No

Questionnaire (2/6)
3) If so, how does your company attempt to learn
about the customers/consumers?
(A) Complaints or requests
(B) Surveys
(C) Consumer panels
(D) Other
4) In case that your company acquires information
from its customers/consumers, based on your
experience, how does it utilize such information?
(A) Developing a strategic plan of the company
(B) A decision-making on what and how to produce
based on customer/consumer demands
(C) Other…
3. Mass rearing of insects:
Insect welfare during the rearing process:
1) Is insect welfare part of policy of your company?
(A) Yes
(B) No
2) How important is the insect welfare for your
organization/company?
(A) Not at all
(B) Important
(C) Very important
3) If insect welfare is to some degree of importance, could you
give a short example which is typical for how important this
topic is.

Questionnaire (3/6)
4) Based on your experience with rearing of insects,
do you classify your company at Level 1, Level 2, or
Level 3?
Level 1: is characterized by lack of any welfare
standards regarding the rearing of insects. The
unnatural environment and density of animals can
lead to health issues.
Level 2: is characterized by moderate use of welfare
standards. Some of the five freedoms* are provided.
Level 3: is characterized by explicit use of welfare
standards. The insect farms respect the five
freedoms*, action that is proven economically
beneficial and produce healthy and safe products as
well.
* Brambell’s Five Freedoms (Brambell, 1965): the
freedom from hunger and thirst, the freedom from
discomfort, the freedom from pain, injury and
disease, the freedom to express normal behavior and
the freedom from fear and distress.
Appropriateness of ambient conditions during
insect rearing:
1) Do you use humidity control in your
company’s rearing facilities? Is it automated?
2) Do you use temperature control in your
3) How did you determine the specific range of
temperature and humidity that you apply? On
which information this decision is based?
4) Do you take into account the optimal
temperature and humidity of mealworms and
their effects on the nutritional value of the
insects produced?
(A) Yes
(B) No

Questionnaire (4/6)
5) How these factors influence growth and nutritional value?
Based on your experience with the ambient conditions of insects during
the rearing process, do you classify your company at Level 1, Level 2, or
Level 3?
Level 1: has information about the optimal temperature of mealworms
and the effect on growth rate and nutritional value of insects but control
technology not affordable.
Level 2: has information about the optimal settings of temperature and
humidity that could lead to high growth rat+e and high protein content of
insects but only limited control options to regulate these.
Level 3: has the knowledge about the optimal settings of temperatures
and humidity that could lead to high growth rate and high protein
content of insects, applies the knowledge and have tight control over
ambient conditions.
6) By which means does your company acquire such knowledge?
(A) Own research
(B) Literature
(C) Non-public information from others
(D) Combination of A, B and C.
7) Does your company expect variation in the growth rate of insects
applying different ranges of temperature and humidity?
(A) Yes
(B) No
8) If yes, how do you work with that knowledge?
9) Does your company experiment with different ranges of temperature
and humidity, to reduce the cost of production?
10) If yes, how do you do that and what are the results from that?

Questionnaire (5/6)
4. Mass processing of insects:
Application of food and feed safety measures:
1) How important is for your company to be able to ensure safety of
insect products for the large scale production of insects.
(A) Not important
(B) Important, but not critical
(C) Very important
2) What could cause safety problems and how your company deal with
those possible causes? Could you give a short example?
3) How great is the risk that something happens?
(A) Little risk
(B) Medium risk
(C) High risk
4) And then what is the impact?
5) Which are the most common safety guidelines and/or hygiene codes used to
guarantee the safety of processed insects? (Please mention the ones most
common in your opinion.)
6) How would you describe your insect company’s commitment to safety
aspects? Based on your experience with the safety guidelines of insects during
the rearing process, do you classify your company at Level 1, Level 2, or Level 3?
Level 1: No application of HACCP (Hazard Analysis Critical Control Points)
principles in the processing of insects. No information about identified CCPs
(Critical Control Points), tolerances and monitoring, verification procedures or
record keeping.
Level 2: Use of HACCP principles based on hygiene codes or on advices of
specialized consultants, but not tested for specific insect food production system
characteristics. Identification of CCPs, tolerances and monitoring program
determined by microbiological tests, historical data and by general hygiene
codes but not tailored for the specific production system. Verification and record
keeping procedures based on international standards but not specific for the
insect production system.
Level 3: Use of HACCP principles using own knowledge and experience,
additional scientific literature and or expert knowledge and according to Codex
guidelines. CCPs identification, tolerances and monitoring program determined
by microbial product tests, modelling of hazard behavior and/or challenge tests,
from process parameters derived from legal requirements, hygiene codes,
literature, and tested and tailored for the specific production system of insects.
Verification and record keeping procedures based on international standards but
and specific for the insect production system.

Questionnaire (6/6)
7) Is it a typical activity of your company to apply HACCP (Hazard Analysis
Critical Control Points) principles in the processing of insects?
(A) Not at all.
(B) Customarily but we can improve.
(C) We always apply HACCP principles.
8) Does your company have an HACCP (Hazard Analysis Critical Control
Points) person or team, present in the company?
(A) Never
(B) Sometimes
(C) Always
9) If HACCP is implemented is that done by internal people or external?
(A) Internal
(B) External
10) Are these people experienced or have a HACCP background?
(A) Yes
(B) No
11) How does your insect company identify the CCPs (Critical Control
Points) in the company?
(A) Management knowledge
(B) Tests
(C) Consultants
(D) Other…
12) Are there monitoring programmes for the control of CCPs?
(A) Yes
(B) No
13) If so, how are they checked? (Please mention the most common
method).
14) Does your company has verified processes and record keeping in
place? If so, how are they done? (Please mention the most common
method).

Which organization/company do
you work for?
Marba Apeldoorn B.V. Topinsect bvba Kreca Ento-Feed BV
Is this an organization/company
that produces mealworms for
feed or food?
Feed for feed and for food both
Does your organization/company
produce other insects?
No Many other insects yes
What is your current job
position?
CEO Manager assistent manager
How long have you had
experience with insect
production in this
organization/company?
30 years in the family for 90
years
30 years 40 years
Please give your opinion about
your company’s consumer
orientation. Do you think your
company is aware of trends and
events, opportunities and/or
threats that may be significant to
its production?
Aware but they can improve Aware but they can improve Very much aware.
Results

Do you think that your company
feels the need to keep updated
regarding its customers/consumers’
needs?
Yes Yes Yes
If so, how does your company
attempt to learn about the
customers/consumers?
Contact with
other producers
Consumer panels Complaints or requests
In case that your company acquires
information from its
customers/consumers, based on
your experience, how does it utilize
such information?
A decision-making
on what and how
to produce based
on
customer/consum
er demands
A decision-making
on what and how
to produce based
on
customer/consum
er demands
Developing a strategic plan of
the company
Is insect welfare part of policy of
your company?
Yes Yes Yes
How important is the insect welfare
for your organization/company?
Important Very Important Important
If insect welfare is to some degree
of importance, could you give a
short example which is typical for
how important this topic is.
Good welfare
means high
production of
healthy
mealworms
The better an
insect feels, the
better it breeds.
You have to explain to your
customers how insects live
and what the can handle. If
we want a success in the
food industry insect welfare
is important.
Results

Based on your experience with rearing of
insects, do you classify your company at Level 1,
Level 2, or Level 3?
Level 3: is characterized
by explicit use of welfare
standards. The insect
farms respect the five
freedoms*, action that is
proven economically
beneficial and produce
healthy and safe
products as well.
Level 3: is characterized
by explicit use of welfare
standards. The insect
farms respect the five
freedoms*, action that
is proven economically
beneficial and produce
healthy and safe
products as well.
Level 2: is characterized by moderate
use of welfare standards. Some of the
five freedoms* are provided.
Do you use humidity control in your company’s
rearing facilities? Is it automated?
yes Yes yes
Do you use temperature control in your
yes Yes yes
How did you determine the specific range of
temperature and humidity that you apply? On
which information this decision is based?
experience Experience experience of 40 years breeding
Do you take into account the optimal
temperature and humidity of mealworms and
their effects on the nutritional value of the
insects produced?
Yes Yes Yes
Results

How these factors influence growth and
nutritional value?
controlling that we
control production
yes if you don't use the correct parameters,
your breeding is not going well
Based on your experience with the ambient
conditions of insects during the rearing process,
do you classify your company at Level 1, Level 2,
or Level 3?
Level 2: has information
about the optimal
settings of temperature
and humidity that could
lead to high growth rate
and high protein content
of insects but only limited
control options to
regulate these.
Level 3: has the
knowledge about the
optimal settings of
temperatures and
humidity that could lead
to high growth rate and
high protein content of
insects, applies the
knowledge and have
tight control over
ambient conditions.
Level 3: has the knowledge about the
optimal settings of temperatures and
humidity that could lead to high growth
rate and high protein content of insects,
applies the knowledge and have tight
control over ambient conditions.
By which means does your company acquire such
knowledge?
Combination of A,B and C Own research Combination of A,B and C
Does your company expect variation in the
growth rate of insects applying different ranges
of temperature and humidity?
Yes Yes Yes
If yes, how do you work with that knowledge? I use that to manage my
production
flexibility Those facts have influence on the hole
rearing aspect.
Results

Does your company experiment with
different ranges of temperature and
humidity, to reduce the cost of
production?
No No No
If yes, how do you do that and what are
the results from that?
Does your organization/company process
insects?
No Yes Yes
How important is for your company to be
able to ensure safety of insect products
for the large scale production of insects.
Very important Very important
What could cause safety problems and
how your company deal with those
possible causes? Could you give a short
example?
HACCP procedure problems with the feed, diseases
Results

How great is the risk that something happens? Medium risk Medium risk
And then what is the impact? HACCP procedure depends on what went wrong, but worse case:
breeding down
Which are the most common safety guidelines and/or
hygiene codes used to guarantee the safety of processed
insects? (Please mention the ones most common in your
opinion.)
HACCP procedure haccp/ breedingbook of the VENIK/
cooperation with Eurofin
How would you describe your insect company’s
commitment to safety aspects? Based on your
experience with the safety guidelines of insects during
the rearing process, do you classify your company at
Level 1, Level 2, or Level 3?
Level 3: Use of HACCP
principles using own
knowledge and experience,
additional scientific literature
and or expert knowledge and
according to Codex
guidelines. CCPs
identification, tolerances and
monitoring program
determined by microbial
product tests, modelling of
hazard behavior and/or
challenge tests, from process
parameters derived from
legal requirements, hygiene
codes, literature, and tested
and tailored for the specific
production system of insects.
Verification and record
keeping procedures based on
international standards but
and specific for the insect
production system.
Level 3: Use of HACCP principles using own
knowledge and experience, additional
scientific literature and or expert knowledge
and according to Codex guidelines. CCPs
identification, tolerances and monitoring
program determined by microbial product
tests, modelling of hazard behavior and/or
challenge tests, from process parameters
derived from legal requirements, hygiene
codes, literature, and tested and tailored for
the specific production system of insects.
Verification and record keeping procedures
based on international standards but and
Results

Is it a typical activity of your company to apply
HACCP (Hazard Analysis Critical Control Points)
principles in the processing of insects?
We always apply HACCP
principles
Customarily but we can improve
Does your company have an HACCP (Hazard
Analysis Critical Control Points) person or team,
present in the company?
Always Sometimes
If HACCP is implemented is that done by
internal people or external?
Internal External
Are these people experienced or have a HACCP
background?
Yes Yes
How does your insect company identify the
CCPs (Critical Control Points) in the company?
All three mentioned
above
Management knowledge
Results

Are there monitoring programs for
the control of CCPs?
Yes Yes
If so, how are they checked? (Please
mention the most common method).
Analysis on all
products and
process.
-
Does your company has verified
processes and record keeping in
place? If so, how are they done?
(Please mention the most common
method).
Yes, system agreed
bij FAVV Belgium.
yes
Results

MSc Thesis M.G.

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