A short brief on Motivation for M Phil, Masters courses.

1. Brig Gen Dr Zulfiquer Ahmed Amin
M Phil, MPH, PGD (Health Economics), MBBS
North South University (NSU)

2. Motivation is derived from the Latin word ‘Movere’ which means ‘to
move’ or ‘to energize’ or ‘to activate’.
Motivation is one of the most frequently used words in psychology. It
refers to the factors which move or activate the organism.
Motivation is the process of arousing and sustaining goal-directed
behavior.

3. 3 Groups of Motivational Theories
Internal (What motivates us)
Suggests that variables within the individual give rise to motivation
and behavior. Example: Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs theory.
Process (Why and How Motivation Occurs)
Emphasizes the nature of the interaction between the individual and
the environment. Example: Vroom’s Expectancy Theory.
External (How Outcome Influence Behavior)
Focus on environmental elements to explain behavior. Example:
Hertzberg’s Two Factor theory.

4. Maslow's hierarchy of needs
Maslow's hierarchy of needs is a theory in psychology proposed by
Abrham Maslow in 1943. Maslow's hierarchy of needs is often
portrayed in the shape of a pyramid which begins with the largest,
most fundamental needs at the bottom and goes up with higher
order needs, eg, the social need, need for Self-Actualization and Self-
Transcendence at the top.
Maslow's theory suggests that the lower order needs must be met
before the individual will strongly desire the higher level needs.
Psychologist says that people are motivated to work till it fulfills their
respective level of needs.

5. Physiological Needs
Physiological needs are the physical requirements for human
survival. These include: Air, water, and food as basic requirements
for survival, clothing and shelter for protection, sex for continuity of
family tree.
If these requirements are not met, the human body cannot function
properly and will ultimately fail. It postulates that to drive people of
lower stratum to work, the organization or manager needs to fulfill
their basic needs of survival.

6. Safety needs
Once a person's physiological needs are relatively satisfied, their
safety needs take precedence and dominate behavior. It postulates
that by fulfilling one’s basic needs, they have accumulated little
wealth, and thus there is a need to protect the wealth and health.
These needs now work as motivator for them. Safety and Security
needs include:
-Personal security
-Financial security
-Health and well-being
-Safety needs against accidents/illness and their adverse impacts

7. Social belonging
After physiological and safety needs are fulfilled, the third level of
human needs become feelings of love and belongingness. According
to Maslow, humans need to feel a sense of acceptance among their
social groups. It is based on the concept that, ‘Humans need to love
and be loved’.

8. Self Esteem
Esteem presents the typical human desire to be valued by others.
Maslow noted two versions of esteem needs: a "lower" version and a
"higher" version. The "lower" version of esteem is the need for
respect from others. This may include a need for status, recognition,
fame, prestige, and attention. The "higher" version manifests itself as
the need for self-respect. For example, the person may have a need
for strength, competence, mastery, self confidence, independence,
and freedom.
To drive these group of people, organization and managers need to
give them more freedom of work.

9. Self-actualization
"What a man can be, he must be." This quotation forms the basis of
the perceived need for self-actualization. This level of need refers to
what a person's full potential is and the realization of that potential.
For example, one doctor may have the strong desire to become a
reputed cardiac surgeon. In another, the desire may be expressed
athletically. For others, it may be expressed in paintings, pictures, or
inventions.
To drive these group of people, organization and managers need to
give them due dignity, honour and space for creativity.

10. Self-transcendence
In his later years, Abraham Maslow explored a further dimension of
needs. The self only finds its actualization in giving itself to some
higher goal outside oneself, in altruism and spirituality.
Transcendence refers to the very highest and most inclusive or holistic
levels of human consciousness.
Like Bill Gates, who has got all that can be derived in life. His only
motivation now is to help humankind by his social work through Bill &
Melinda Gates Foundation. Munificent Haji Mohammad Mohsin is
other example of a Bengali philanthropist.

12. Expectancy Theory of Motivation
Expectancy theory of motivation proposes an individual will behave
or act, what they expect the result of that selected behavior will be.
In essence, the motivation of the behavior selection is determined by
the desirability of the outcome.
Expectancy theory is a motivation theory first proposed by Victor
Vroom.
This theory emphasizes the needs for organizations and managers to
relate rewards directly to performance and to ensure that the
rewards provided are those rewards wanted by the recipients.

15. Vroom introduced three variables within the expectancy theory :
-Valence (V),
-Expectancy (E) and
-Instrumentality (I).
Expectancy: effort → performance (E→P)
Expectancy is the belief that one's effort (E) will result in attainment
of desired performance (P) goals. Usually based on an individual's
past experience, self-confidence (self efficacy), and the perceived
difficulty of the performance.

16. Instrumentality: Performance → Outcome (P→O)
Instrumentality is the belief that a person will receive a reward if the
performance expectation is met. This reward may present itself in the
form of a pay increase, promotion, recognition or sense of
accomplishment. Instrumentality is low when the reward is the same
for all performances given.
Valence V(R)
Valence: The value an individual places on the rewards of an
outcome, which is based on their needs, goals, values and sources of
motivation.

17. Motivational Force (MF) = Expectancy x Instrumentality x Valence.
When deciding among behavioral options, individuals select the
option with the greatest amount of motivational force (MF).
Expectancy and instrumentality are attitudes (Belief), whereas
valence is rooted in an individual's value system.
Examples of valued outcomes in the workplace include, pay increases
and bonuses, promotions, time off, new assignments, recognition,
etc. If management can effectively determine what their employee
values, this will allow the manager to motivate employees in order to
get the highest result and effectiveness out of the workplace.

18. 3 Causes of Motivational Problems
• Belief that effort will not result in performance.
• Belief that performance will not result in rewards.
• The value a person places on certain rewards is not attained.

19. Two-factor theory
The two-factor theory (also known as Herzberg's Motivation-
Hygiene theory and Dual-Factor Theory) states that there are certain
factors in the workplace that cause job ‘satisfaction’, while a separate
set of factors cause ‘dissatisfaction’. It was developed by psychologist
Frederick Herzberg, who theorized that job satisfaction and job
dissatisfaction act independently of each other.

20. According to Herzberg, individuals are not content with the lower-
order needs at work; for example, those needs associated with
minimum salary levels or safe and comforting working conditions.
Rather, individuals look for the gratification of higher-level
psychological needs having to do with achievement, recognition,
responsibility, advancement, and the nature of the work itself. This
appears to parallel Maslow's theory of need hierarchy.

21. However, Herzberg added a new dimension to this theory by
proposing a two-factor model of motivation, based on the notion that
the presence of one set of job characteristics or incentives leads to
worker ‘satisfaction’ at work, while another and separate set of job
characteristics leads to ‘dissatisfaction’ at work. Thus, satisfaction and
dissatisfaction are not on a continuum with one increasing as the
other diminishes, but are independent phenomena.

25. Two-factor theory distinguishes between:
-Motivators: (e.g. challenging work, recognition for one's
achievement, responsibility, opportunity to do something
meaningful, involvement in decision making, sense of importance to
an organization) that give positive satisfaction, arising from intrinsic
factors of job, like recognition, achievement, or personal growth,
-Hygiene Factors/Dissatisfiers: (e.g. status, job security, salary,
fringe benefits, work conditions, good pay, paid insurance,
vacations) that do not give positive satisfaction or lead to higher
motivation, though dissatisfaction results from their absence.
The term "hygiene" is used in the sense that these are maintenance
factors. These are extrinsic to the work itself, and include aspects
such as company policies, supervisory practices, or wages/salary.

26. Maslow’s Need Theory & Herzberg’s Two Factor Theory

27. Four possible combinations of Two Factor Theory:
-High Hygiene + High Motivation: The ideal situation where
employees are highly motivated and have few complaints.
-High Hygiene + Low Motivation: Employees have few complaints but
are not highly motivated. The job is viewed as a paycheck.
-Low Hygiene + High Motivation: Employees are motivated but have a
lot of complaints. A situation where the job is exciting and challenging
but salaries, work conditions, benefits are not up to par.
-Low Hygiene + Low Motivation: This is the worst situation where
employees are not motivated and have many complaints.

28. Barriers to Motivation

29. Problems of Drive
When goals of organization does not accommodate the goals of
individuals, people do not find drive to do that. It is mere thing, one
“need” to do, but don’t “want” to do.
Too much Resistance
When the task becomes beyond one’s physical and intellectual
capability, motivation can not occur.
Problems of Distraction
When people have more alternative with better rewards, drive to
work is not achieved.

30. How to Overcome Motivation Barriers in Workplace
Leadership Style.
To empower the subordinates with authority and responsibility and
giving appropriate direction.
Reward System.
A manager needs to have a clear evaluation system in place that
motivates employees. Rewards should be proportional to
achievements, and meet their need and expectations.

31. The organizational climate.
To cultivate a team that supports one another, trusts each other, and
leaves employees feeling committed, like a family.
The structure of work.
Employees need to know their job description, what is required of
them each day, when they will be reviewed etc. Nature of work
should be flexible, autonomous and at par of one’s physical and
intellectual capabilities.