2. Steps in Data Collection
1.Explain what test and other measures will be used.
2.Explain how the task will be performed;
3.Explain how the instruments will be administered;
4. Describe how the method of data collection such as
observations and interview will be carried out.
3. The Data Phase of the Research Process
involves Major Decisions, as follows:
1.The target population must be defined;
2.The method of selecting individuals from the target population must be
determined;
3. The method of collecting the data must be specified such as the use of already
existing data, the use of an observed, and self-recording data; and
4. The way in which data are to be processed should be explained, such as the
use of manual processing or by means of computer.
4. Elements to be considered in data Collection
1.The nature of the research problem;
2. The design of the study, whether experimental or non
experimental;
3. The variables, its definition and measurement;
4. Sampling units to be included such as type, number, and location;
5. Amount of time available within which to complete the study; and
6. Adequacy of resources available to pursue the study.
5. Methods of Collecting Data
1. Use of Already Existing or Available Data
These are pertinent records, reports and documents of an institution, which could be any of the
following:
* Raw data from basic documents such as records of patient’s admissions, birth dates, and discharges,
among others.
* Tabular data indicating number of patients admitted or discharged by year or month, or total number
of deliveries, surgeries, or the workload of nurses.
2. Use of Observers’ Data
These are gathered through actual observation and recording of events. For ethical reasons, the
subjects must be informed that they are being observed.
6. Types of Observers
1. Non-Participant Observer- This observer does not share the same milieu with the subjects, and is not a member
of the group or subjects of the study.
Example: Ward Clerks are trained to observe and record student nurses nursing care practices and the
responses of patients to their nursing care.
Types of Non-participant observer
1. Overt non-participant observer
2. Covert non-participant observer
2. Participant Observer
Example: Staff Nurse A who is part of the population is being trained to observe Staff Nurse B who is the
subject of the study. Both are assigned to the ICU on a 6am to 2pm shift.
Types of participants Observers
1. Overt participant observer
2. Covert participant observer- observer interacts with the subjects and observes their
behavior without their knowledge.
7. Two Methods of Observation
1. Structured Observations –These are done when the
researcher has prior knowledge of the phenomenon of
interest. Observer observes events using a guide that has
been planned in advance
2. Unstructured Observations- The researcher attempts to
describe the events or behavior with no preconceived ideas
of what will be seen or observe. Observes and record
behavior in a holistic way without the use of a pre-
determined
8. Categories of Information Gathered
through Observation
1. Characteristics, attitudes and conditions of the subjects
2. Verbal Communication
3. Non-verbal Communication such as facial expression, posture and gesture.
4. Patient’s activities such as eating, sleeping, and ambulating, among others.
5. Skill in task performance such as deep breathing exercise and crutch walking.
6. Environmental conditions such as cleanliness, congestion, barriers, set up, noise level.
7. The Use of Self-recording or the Reporting Approach. This method of data collection uses a
specially prepared document: intended to collect data called Instruments.
9. Types of Instruments
1. Questionnaire
A self-directing instrument structured with questions and
indicators for the respondent to react from. It measures
information levels, opinions, attitudes, beliefs, ideas, feelings
and perceptions, as well as gathers factual information from the
respondent.
2. Interview
A one-on-one dialogue between the researcher and respondent
to elicit data from the latter on the phenomenon under study.
10. Types of Interview
a. Structured Interview. A dialogue in which the interviewer is guided
by prepared questions to gather needed data with ease from the
respondents or interviewees of the study.
b. Unstructured Interview. The interviewer asks questions at random
but makes sure that needed data from the respondents will give
holistic information on the subject of the interview. The
interviewer is free to direct the course of the interview.
11. Research Instrumentation
Instruments are specifically prepared tools or devices used to collect needed
data or information and facilitate observation and measurement of research variables,
consistent with the purpose of the study. Research instruments must be valid and
reliable to avoid inaccurate data and consequent spurious results. These are
administered to the subjects or respondents after being proven valid and reliable by
means of pre-tests or dry runs.
12. Guidelines for Developing Research Instruments
1. The instrument must suit the purpose of the study. It must help solve problems raised in the study.
2. The instrument must be able to gather needed data for testing the hypotheses and answering
questions raised in the study.
3. Indicators in the instrument must be valid, arranged logically and relate to the problems and the
hypotheses of the study.
4. Indicators should be so stated that respondents’ perceptions will not be biased. Questions should not
be stated with built-in clues, such as: Don’t you think that the physician’s order are often
unimportant?
5. The instrument should be reliable and can produce comparable data when used on different subjects
under different circumstances.
6. The instrument should be constructed in such a way that cheating is minimized, if not discouraged.
Subjects must not be influenced by the response of other.
7. The instrument should be easy to administer. Directions should be specific and simply stated.
8. Scale of measurement must be appropriate and reliable.
13. Types of Research Instruments
1. Questionnaire
- This is the most frequently used research instrument to gather needed data from respondents
pertinent to the purpose of the study.
- It is a paper and pencil approach in which participants are asked to answer a set of printed
questions.
- Data and information are based on the demographic profile and perceptual assessment of the
respondents regarding the variables of the study.
2. Scanning Questionnaires
- This is a method of data collection that can be used with questionnaires that have been
administered in face-to-face interviews, mail surveys completed by an interview over the
telephone.
- The survey system produces paper questionnaires that can be scanned.
14. Types of Research Instruments
3. Interview Guide
- This is the next most used research instrument. One-on-one dialogue, data are accurately recorded
such as a video camera and tape recorder.
- A research assistant may help record the questions and answers during the interview.
Methods of Interviewing are as follows:
a. Personal Interview
b. Telephone Survey
c. Mail Survey
d. Computer direct interviews
e. Emails surveys
f. Internet surveys
15. Types of Research Instruments
4. Anecdotal Records and other documentary materials.
5. Mechanical Instruments
a. Diagnostics machines:
- X-rays,
- Ultrasound,
- Computed tomography scan, and
- Magnetic resource imaging;
b. Treatment devices:
- Mechanical ventilators,
- Resuscitation, etc.
16. Preparation of Questionnaires and the Interview
1.Decide whether data should be collected through interview or a questionnaire,
how the instrument should be structured, and what information will be gathered.
2. Determine which information is being sought, then formulate and record the
questions, properly structured and sequenced.
3. Prepare a brief information and cover letter, stating the purpose of the study, the
importance of the respondent’s participation, the assurance of confidentiality of
response and the cut-off date for retrieval of instruments.
A personalized request and expression of gratitude would enhance the interest of
the respondents to accomplish the questionnaire.
17.
18.
19. Preparation of Questionnaires and the Interview
4. Determine the general content of the question needed to obtain the
desired information, the desired form of response, then choose the
exact wording of the question arranges in proper sequence.
5. Prepare the draft of the instrument.
6. Subject the draft to critical review and pre-testing.
7. Administer the revised draft to the actual study respondents.
20. Types of Questions asked in the Interview
Guide/Interview Schedule
1. Structured – for formal interviews, the interview schedule is
used. Questions in the schedule are structured and well
sequenced .It allows flexibility for the respondents reactions
to questions asked.
2. Unstructured – The Interview guide is used for informal
interviews. Questions are so framed as to allow the
researcher flexibility in questioning the subjects when the
need arises.
21. Types of Questions Asked
1. Open-ended Questions – respondent are given enough flexibility
to answer questions. Example: Give your comment and
suggestions to improve teaching and learning process in the
clinical area.
2. Closed-ended Questions – respondent answer a number of
alternative responses called dichotomous items.
22. Types of Closed-Ended Questions
a. Dichotomous Items – these allow respondents to choose between two-response alternatives such as YES or NO,
Married or Unmarried. Pregnant or Not Pregnant.
Example: Have you ever been pregnant?
( ) Yes ( ) No
b. Multichotomous Items – these allow respondents to answer questions with a range of responses as in a
multiple choice test.
c. Fixed-alternative or Multiple Choice items – respondents allowed multiple response alternatives
Example: How favorable is it to you to become pregnant at this time?
( ) very favorable
( ) favorable
( ) not sure
( ) Unfavorable
( ) Very unfavorable
23. Types of Closed-Ended Questions
d. Projective Questions
- This approach uses stimulus and attempt to project a person’s attitude from the response
- This technique uses word associations and fill-in-the-blank sentences.
e. Cafeteria Questions – Respondent are asked to respond according to their own viewpoint.
Example: People have different views on “Family Planning”
Which of the following best represent your views?
1. FP is necessary to quality life
2. FP is immoral and should be totally banned
3. FP has undesirable side effects that suggest need for caution
4. FP has a beneficial effect that merits its practice
5. FP is moral and should be practice
24. Types of Closed-Ended Questions
f. Rank Order Questions – respondent are asked to rank answers from “most” to “least” important,
reasonable, frequent or beneficial.
Example: Why must Family Planning be practiced? Rank your answer from the 1- Most to the 5 –least
reasonable
_____ Limits maternal disabilities
_____ Gives parents more time to meet family needs
_____ Helps maintain financial viability of the family
_____ Affords more working hours for couples
_____ Ensures family capability to educate all the children in the future
g. Checklist – also called “matrix Questions”, items in this instrument are presented in a two-
dimensional pattern. Questions are written horizontally while respondents’ answers are written
vertically
25. Types of Closed-Ended Questions
Example: Below are some family Planning practices observed by people. Check which one of these practices
you observed in your family. Check the benefits derived from the practice.
FP Methods comfort/ cost/ safety/ ease/
1. Natural Method / / / /
2. Mechanical Method / / / /
3. Biological Method / / / /
4. Chemical Method / / / /
26. Characteristics of Good Questions
1. Specifically answer the research problems and focus only on the variables or
phenomenon under study.
2. Clearly and briefly stated;
3. Objective and detached from the researcher’s own judgment;
4. Responses are easy to interpret and tabulate;
5. Use of language appropriate to respondent’s level of understanding;
6. Neatly printed or typed on clean, quality paper; and
7. Bear the researcher’s signature
27. Criteria for Evaluating the Instrument
1. Reliability – Refers to the degree of consistency or accuracy with which an instrument measures the variables
of the study.
2. Validity – The degree to which an instrument measures what it intends to measure. An instrument to may be
reliable but not valid.
3. Efficiency – Refers to the capacity to the instrument to measure items within a given time frame.
4. Sensitivity- Ability to distinguish characteristics or properties or differing attributes of individuals or
phenomena under study.
5. Objectivity – The degree to which two independent users of the instrument will obtain identical or similar
scores on the phenomenon under study.
6. Speed – Quick, fast, and complete results are ensured within the time frame allowed to obtain data.
7. Reactivity – The instrument should not influence the attributes being measured.
8. Simplicity – Clear and simple in order to avoid the risk of errors.
9. Meaningfulness – The extent to which the data collected will be of value and practical for use of the sectors
concerned.
28. Self-Test:
1. Describe the value of instrumentation to data
collection.
2. Explain the two most common types of instruments.
3. List all the characteristics of a good question.
4. Explain the eight (8) criteria for evaluating the
research instrument.
29. Exercises
1. Read previous researches and identify the
instruments used in them. Explain why
these instruments were used.
2. Explain the instruments to be used in your
research study, and the steps in
administering these to your respondents.
