Here are some potential reasons why conspiracy theories may be popular and attractive:
- They provide explanations and narratives that give a sense of understanding and control in an uncertain world. By identifying hidden forces and agendas, conspiracy theories reduce randomness and complexity.
- They appeal to our innate desire to find patterns and agency behind events. It can be psychologically uncomfortable to accept that some things happen arbitrarily or through unintended consequences.
- They allow people to feel special or enlightened by believing they have access to secret or obscured truths that others cannot see. This enhances feelings of identity and community among believers.
- They undermine faith in authority and established institutions/explanations, which some find appealing. Conspiracy theories level perceived
This report discusses about Logical Empiricism, or Logical Positivism – from its origins, who founded this "movement", its influences, weaknesses, and its contribution to education in general.
The contemporary philosophy of science & the problem of the scientific consciousness.
...The understanding of scientific knowledge requires reflective thinking. The reflective thinking could restore the communication between subject and object, between social sciences and natural sciences. Only then, communication between facts and values can achieved. In other words, communication between reason and myth, science and art, knowledge and wisdom, empirical research and the existential question for the meaning of life.
...the problem of scientific consciousness (liability) requires the transformation of the structures of the same knowledge. The sovereignty of uncontrolled scientism-positivism leads to brutalization and the reaction to it, leads to metaphysical obscurantism and madness. The researcher should be aware of the complex and reciprocal relationships between the scientific, technical, social and political worlds...
Chapter 1What is theoryIn literary and cultural studies.docxwalterl4
Chapter 1
What is theory?
In literary and cultural studies these days there is a lot of talk about
theory – not theory of literature, mind you; just plain ‘theory’. To
anyone outside the field, this usage must seem very odd. ‘Theory of
what?’ you want to ask. It’s surprisingly hard to say. It is not the theory
of anything in particular, nor a comprehensive theory of things in
general. Sometimes theory seems less an account of anything than an
activity – something you do or don’t do. You can be involved with
theory; you can teach or study theory; you can hate theory or be afraid
of it. None of this, though, helps much to understand what theory is.
‘Theory’, we are told, has radically changed the nature of literary
studies, but people who say this do not mean literary theory, the
systematic account of the nature of literature and of the methods for
analysing it. When people complain that there is too much theory in
literary studies these days, they don’t mean too much systematic
reflection on the nature of literature or debate about the distinctive
qualities of literary language, for example. Far from it. They have
something else in view.
What they have in mind may be precisely that there is too much
discussion of non-literary matters, too much debate about general
questions whose relation to literature is scarcely evident, too much
reading of difficult psychoanalytical, political, and philosophical texts.
1
Theory is a bunch of (mostly foreign) names; it means Jacques Derrida,
Michel Foucault, Luce Irigaray, Jacques Lacan, Judith Butler, Louis
Althusser, Gayatri Spivak, for instance.
The term theory
So what is theory? Part of the problem lies in the term theory itself,
which gestures in two directions. On the one hand, we speak of ‘the
theory of relativity’, for example, an established set of propositions. On
the other hand, there is the most ordinary use of the word theory.
‘Why did Laura and Michael split up?’
‘Well, my theory is that . . .’
What does theory mean here? First, theory signals ‘speculation’. But a
theory is not the same as a guess. ‘My guess is that . . .’ would suggest
that there is a right answer, which I don’t happen to know: ‘My guess is
that Laura just got tired of Michael’s carping, but we’ll find out for sure
when their friend Mary gets here.’ A theory, by contrast, is speculation
that might not be affected by what Mary says, an explanation whose
truth or falsity might be hard to demonstrate.
‘My theory is that . . .’ also claims to offer an explanation that is not
obvious. We don’t expect the speaker to continue, ‘My theory is that it’s
because Michael was having an affair with Samantha.’ That wouldn’t
count as a theory. It hardly requires theoretical acumen to conclude that
if Michael and Samantha were having an affair, that might have had
some bearing on Laura’s attitude toward Michael. Interestingly, if the
speaker were to say, ‘My theory is that Michael was having an a.
Scientism, or the unity of scientific method. The positivist
methodology does not see any difference between the
natural and the social sciences. The adoption however, of
the unity of the scientific method is accepted in tandem
with the notion of the predominant role of the natural
sciences, in which the social sciences see their model.
The outcome is what we call scientism, that is the view
that only the natural sciences can produce the semantic
interpretation of knowledge.
The contemporary philosophy of science (epistemology) featuring K.Popper, T.Kuhn, I.Lakatos, P.Feyerabend, Hanson among others, has exercised a decisive critique to the dominant views of the positivist and neo-positivist model of knowledge and has in fact undermined its credibility.
This report discusses about Logical Empiricism, or Logical Positivism – from its origins, who founded this "movement", its influences, weaknesses, and its contribution to education in general.
The contemporary philosophy of science & the problem of the scientific consciousness.
...The understanding of scientific knowledge requires reflective thinking. The reflective thinking could restore the communication between subject and object, between social sciences and natural sciences. Only then, communication between facts and values can achieved. In other words, communication between reason and myth, science and art, knowledge and wisdom, empirical research and the existential question for the meaning of life.
...the problem of scientific consciousness (liability) requires the transformation of the structures of the same knowledge. The sovereignty of uncontrolled scientism-positivism leads to brutalization and the reaction to it, leads to metaphysical obscurantism and madness. The researcher should be aware of the complex and reciprocal relationships between the scientific, technical, social and political worlds...
Chapter 1What is theoryIn literary and cultural studies.docxwalterl4
Chapter 1
What is theory?
In literary and cultural studies these days there is a lot of talk about
theory – not theory of literature, mind you; just plain ‘theory’. To
anyone outside the field, this usage must seem very odd. ‘Theory of
what?’ you want to ask. It’s surprisingly hard to say. It is not the theory
of anything in particular, nor a comprehensive theory of things in
general. Sometimes theory seems less an account of anything than an
activity – something you do or don’t do. You can be involved with
theory; you can teach or study theory; you can hate theory or be afraid
of it. None of this, though, helps much to understand what theory is.
‘Theory’, we are told, has radically changed the nature of literary
studies, but people who say this do not mean literary theory, the
systematic account of the nature of literature and of the methods for
analysing it. When people complain that there is too much theory in
literary studies these days, they don’t mean too much systematic
reflection on the nature of literature or debate about the distinctive
qualities of literary language, for example. Far from it. They have
something else in view.
What they have in mind may be precisely that there is too much
discussion of non-literary matters, too much debate about general
questions whose relation to literature is scarcely evident, too much
reading of difficult psychoanalytical, political, and philosophical texts.
1
Theory is a bunch of (mostly foreign) names; it means Jacques Derrida,
Michel Foucault, Luce Irigaray, Jacques Lacan, Judith Butler, Louis
Althusser, Gayatri Spivak, for instance.
The term theory
So what is theory? Part of the problem lies in the term theory itself,
which gestures in two directions. On the one hand, we speak of ‘the
theory of relativity’, for example, an established set of propositions. On
the other hand, there is the most ordinary use of the word theory.
‘Why did Laura and Michael split up?’
‘Well, my theory is that . . .’
What does theory mean here? First, theory signals ‘speculation’. But a
theory is not the same as a guess. ‘My guess is that . . .’ would suggest
that there is a right answer, which I don’t happen to know: ‘My guess is
that Laura just got tired of Michael’s carping, but we’ll find out for sure
when their friend Mary gets here.’ A theory, by contrast, is speculation
that might not be affected by what Mary says, an explanation whose
truth or falsity might be hard to demonstrate.
‘My theory is that . . .’ also claims to offer an explanation that is not
obvious. We don’t expect the speaker to continue, ‘My theory is that it’s
because Michael was having an affair with Samantha.’ That wouldn’t
count as a theory. It hardly requires theoretical acumen to conclude that
if Michael and Samantha were having an affair, that might have had
some bearing on Laura’s attitude toward Michael. Interestingly, if the
speaker were to say, ‘My theory is that Michael was having an a.
Scientism, or the unity of scientific method. The positivist
methodology does not see any difference between the
natural and the social sciences. The adoption however, of
the unity of the scientific method is accepted in tandem
with the notion of the predominant role of the natural
sciences, in which the social sciences see their model.
The outcome is what we call scientism, that is the view
that only the natural sciences can produce the semantic
interpretation of knowledge.
The contemporary philosophy of science (epistemology) featuring K.Popper, T.Kuhn, I.Lakatos, P.Feyerabend, Hanson among others, has exercised a decisive critique to the dominant views of the positivist and neo-positivist model of knowledge and has in fact undermined its credibility.
How Dead Is Philosophy ~or~ What Do You Imagine Philosophy Actually Is?noiseTM
High-profile science champions such as Stephen Hawking, Neil DeGrasse Tyson and Bill Nye The Science Guy have all gone on record to have a pop at philosophy as past its sell-by date, now that we have SCIENCE to tell us the truth about the world – even going as far as to proclaim the centuries-old discipline, like jazz or guitar rock*, is dead.
Doctor of philosophy James Wakefield and ex-philosophy teacher Thomas Morton have found themselves on the wrong end of this frustrating pub conversation and, frankly, take umbrage at what seems to be a fundamental misunderstanding of the difference in what science and philosophy respectively do.
In this talk they intend to gather up their "beefs" and air them – in the process outlining a personal take on what philosophy is all about, while making a case for why it is not going away and is worth paying attention to. Even for scientists.
(*perhaps tellingly at least one of the speakers listens to both)
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High-profile science champions such as Stephen Hawking, Neil DeGrasse Tyson and Bill Nye The Science Guy have all gone on record to have a pop at philosophy as past its sell-by date, now that we have SCIENCE to tell us the truth about the world – even going as far as to proclaim the centuries-old discipline, like jazz or guitar rock*, is dead.
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2. Module 3 Agenda
Part 1. Theory
Part 2. Critical Theory
a. Frankfurt School critical social theory
b. Max Horkheimer, “Traditional and Critical Theory”
c. Tommie Shelby, “Ideology, Racism, and Critical Social
Theory”
Part 3. Conspiracy Theories, and other Political Propaganda
a. Quassim Cassam 1 | 2 | 3 | 4
b. Jason Stanley
c. Neil deGrasse Tyson and Michael Shermer, COVID-19 and
conspiracy theories
3. Midterm Essay / Project
Directions: Employ the work of 1-2 critical theorists (e.g. Friedrich Nietzsche, Harry Frankfurt, Max Horkheimer, Tommie Shelby, Jason Stanley, or
Quassim Cassam) to thoroughly investigate and call “bullshit” on one contemporary conspiracy theory. Please address the following questions:
1. Which questions does your chosen conspiracy theory attempt to answer?
2. What sort of ideology or propaganda does this conspiracy theory advance?
3. Whose interests does it serve?
4. How could a critical social theory more thoroughly or adequately address the questions that the conspiracy theory purports to answer?
Details and Options: 3-4 full pages of double-spaced writing OR 10-15 minute audio-visual presentation / 1-2 students per project / MLA
formatting for writing and research / follow the requirements for written assignments on course syllabus, Section VII
Due date and location: October 22, 2020 by 11:59pm to https://canvas.dom.edu > PHIL 210 > Assignments > Midterm Essay
4. Part 1. What is theory?
While apparently a simple enough term to define, “theory” is definitely not an easy concept to
unpack. The terms “theory” and “theorize” are used a lot, and they probably don’t always
mean the same thing from time to time, or from person to person. Let’s take a look at the
etymological meaning of this term:
To theorize, then is to contemplate, to speculate, derived from the verb “to spectate.” The
term “theory” and the term “theater” thus have common root words.
5. What is a scientific theory?
A theory is a “...a supposition or a system of ideas intended to explain something, especially one based on
general principles independent of the thing to be explained,” e.g. Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution. Notice
that a scientific theory is more than a guess or hunch. Other definitions of theory, understood scientifically,
include:
● A set of principles on which the practice of an activity is based, for example "a theory of education"
● An idea used to account for a situation or justify a course of action. For example, "my theory would be
that the place has been seriously mismanaged"
● In MATHEMATICS: a collection of propositions to illustrate the principles of a subject.
<<As we may have noticed already, theory is something about which we may theorize.>>
Natural scientists often employ the term theory to accomplish two main goals:
1. Explain
2. Predict
6. The American Association for
the Advancement of Science
“A scientific theory is a well-substantiated explanation of some aspect of the
natural world, based on a body of facts that have been repeatedly confirmed
through observation and experiment. Such fact-supported theories are not
‘guesses’ but reliable accounts of the real world. The theory of biological evolution is
more than ‘just a theory.’ It is as factual an explanation of the universe as the atomic
theory of matter or the germ theory of disease. Our understanding of gravity is still a
work in progress. But the phenomenon of gravity, like evolution, is an accepted fact.”
Question: How does the AAAS define a scientific theory? Is that the only way to
define and understand a theory?
7. Where is theory used?
SCIENCES
Physics, e.g. quantum theory
Biology, e.g. evolutionary theory, germ theory
Astronomy, e.g. big bang theory
Psychology, e.g. behavioral theories
Geology, e.g. plate tectonic theory
Legal theory = jurisprudence
ARTS
Political theory
Literary theory
Art theory and criticism
Music theory
Moral theory
Education theory
8. Theory and/vs. Philosophy
Question: What is the relationship, if any, between theory and philosophy?
Both seem to be somewhat similar, involving the human mind’s ability to
comprehend, to speculate, to offer a panoramic worldview, and to attempt to
make sense of the world.
Answer: Philosophical thinking is one form of theory. That is to say, theory is
the larger category, and philosophizing is one subset of theorizing.
9. Exhibit A.
Questions:
1. Is this a theory?
2. What is this theory attempting to explain and
predict?
3. Who is the theorist, and what are their
credentials?
4. What do we think of this theory? Does it explain
and predict accurately?
5. How seriously should we take this theory?
10. Theory: a closer look
Ancient Greek: θεωρία / 1592, “conception, mental scheme,” from L.L. theoria (Jerome), from Gk. theoria
“contemplation, speculation, a looking at, things looked at,” from theorein “to consider, speculate, look at,” from theoros
“spectator,” from thea “a view” + horan “to see.” Sense of “principles or methods of a science or art (rather than its
practice)” is first recorded 1613. That of “an explanation based on observation and reasoning” is from 1638. The verb
theorize is recorded from 1638. (website)
● This deeper understanding of “theory” adds a new, deeper dimension to the term. To theorize is not only to
speculate or contemplate the object of understanding, but it also means more precisely to see what one is
seeing, that is to really see it. Each instance of “thea” needs a “horan,” that is, spectators require illumination in
order to see what they are seeing. There are a number of conditions of possibility for seeing, and subsequently
for knowing. And seeing always involves a relationship between the seer and the seen, the knower and the
known, the subject and the object. To theorize, then is to attend to this interconnected relationship between me
(the subject, the “I”) and the object of my vision. To really see clearly what you are in fact seeing is to theorize
well.
Moral of the story: to theorize is no small matter. A theory is much more than a hunch, inclination, or personal opinion.
This is a large undertaking, and it should be taken seriously and carefully.
11. Questions
1. What is the difference between theory, a critical theory, and a
conspiracy theory?
2. Is there such thing as a non-critical theory?
3. There are non-conspiracy theories, of course, but what distinguishes a
critical theory from a conspiracy theory?
These questions will frame the rest of our discussions for Unit 3.
12. Part 2. Critical Theory
Five different definitions:
1. “Critical theory is theory that explains, challenges, and
contests power structures/systems in society.”
2. “An approach to analysis that forefronts power
relations as of primary concern. Its analysis is thus
inherently intersubjective.”
3. “An interdisciplinary synthesis of social science and
philosophy intended to promote human liberation
through an understanding of oppressive social and
psychological structures.”
4. “An approach to social science heavily influenced by
Marxism and the challenges the rise of fascism posed
to Marxist social theories.”
5. “Updated and interdisciplinary Marxism for the 20th
century.”
What is critical about critical theory?
Challenges the distinction between metaphysics,
epistemology, and axiology; and the division
between theory and practice
Key feature of critical theory: immanent critique--
● Method of analyzing human culture
● Identifies contradictions, mismatches, and
ruptures in our cultural ideals, attitudes, and
behaviors
13. “Critic,” “criticize,” “Critique,” and
“critical”
Immanuel Kant (1724-1804): critical philosophy
1. Critique of Pure Reason (1781/1787)
2. Critique of Practical Reason (1788)
3. Critique of Judgment (1790)
Offers a thoroughgoing analysis of the conditions of
possibility of human thought: metaphysics,
epistemology, and axiology
G. W. F. Hegel (1770-1831)
● Phenomenology of Spirit (1807)
Dialectical progression
Frankfurt School Critical Theorists incorporate
Kant’s critical philosophy, along with Hegelian
dialectics and Marxian historical materialism into a
directly social-political analysis of their historical
epochs.
Critical theorists’ questions:
1. What are the conditions of possibility for
capitalist exploitation and alienation?
2. How, if at all, is meaningful social change
possible?
3. Given the crises and catastrophes of 20th
century Europe, how can humans
experience liberation and freedom from
oppression?
17. Critical social theory
Critical social theory features a continuous updating of Marxian ideas about society, history,
and social change. It remains critical, even of itself.
Given the catastrophes of 20th century Soviet communism and German facsism, critical
social theorists attempted to offer a new sort of analysis and prescription for social
transformation. Critical social theory is thus interdisciplinary, drawing from resources in
philosophy, psychology, political science, economics, sociology, cultural theory, and the arts
(literature, music, film, “the culture industry”).
If I were asked to boil down Critical Social Theory to an equation full of $5 words, I would use
the following:
Hegelian dialectical thinking + Marxist revolutionary thought + Freudian psychoanalysis +
Weberian social science + aesthetic and cultural criticism + ambivalent utopian/dystopian
visions = Critical Social Theory
18. Critique of Ideology
Questions:
1. What is ideology?
a. Unlike an idea, which can be an open and dialectical system of thought, an
ideology is a relatively closed system of thought. Most of the relevant
questions have been answered, presumably once and for all.
b. Examples: liberalism, certain political parties or positions, racism, some
religious belief systems
c. What does an ideology do? What function does it serve?
2. Why should we be critical of ideology?
a. Ideologies are not inherently bad or evil, but they can be ossified and
transformed into something oppressive, exclusive, and restrictive. An
ideological perspective is not an open and living one.
19. 2b. Max Horkheimer, “Traditional and
Critical Theory” (1937)
Questions:
1. How does Horkheimer define and understand “traditional theory”?
2. How does Horkheimer define and understand “critical theory”?
3. What are some notable differences between “traditional theory” and
“critical theory,” on Horkheimer’s view?
4. How does critical theory offer a more appropriate method of social-
political-cultural analysis than traditional theory?
20. Horkheimer, “Traditional Theory and
Critical Theory”
For Horkheimer, a Critical Theory must be:
1. Explanatory
2. Practical
3. Normative
In other words, a Critical Theory of Society needs to:
1. Explain what is wrong with current social reality
2. Identify the actors to change it
3. Provide both clear norms for criticism and achievable practical goals for social
transformation
“...it is the task of the critical theoretician to reduce the tension between his own
insight and oppressed humanity in whose service he thinks.” (221)
21. Today’s question: “How can theory help create the necessary change to eliminate oppressive and
illusionary ideologies?”
22. 2c. Tommie Shelby, “Ideology, Racism,
and Critical Social Theory” (2003)
Tommie Shelby, Ph.D.
Professor of Philosophy and African
and African-American Studies at
Harvard University
Author or editor of:
1. We Who Are Dark: The
Philosophical Foundations of
Black Solidarity (2005)
2. Dark Ghettos: Injustice,
Dissent, and Reform (2016)
3. Hip-Hop and Philosophy
(2005)
The essay:
1. Introduction
2. Forms of Social
Consciousness
3. Critical Conceptions of
Ideology
4. Ideological Illusion
5. False Consciousness
6. The Social Function(s) of
Ideology
7. Ideology and Class
8. Ideology-Critique and
Materialist Social Theory
23. Questions
1. What is the difference between theory, a critical theory, and a
conspiracy theory?
2. Is there such thing as a non-critical theory?
3. There are non-conspiracy theories, of course, but what distinguishes a
critical theory from a conspiracy theory?
These questions will frame the rest of our discussions for Unit 3.
24. Theory vs. Theory:
critical vs. conspiracy
From here, students are encouraged to practice our skills in theorizing, especially employing
aspects of critical social theory, and apply them to our discussions of conspiracy theories. Some
questions that we can ask include:
1. How do critical theories and conspiracy theories attempt to describe, explain, analyze,
justify, and predict similar social-historical phenomena?
2. What happens when we investigate conspiracy theories from a critical-theoretical
perspective?
3. What sort of social role or psychological function does conspiracy theorizing play in the
contemporary world?
4. How can we perform an immanent critique of the ideologies inherent in various conspiracy
theories?
5. With regard to social theorizing, is there a way to remain critical without becoming
conspiratorial?
25.
26. Part 3. Conspiracy Theories
Let’s identify a few popular conspiracy theories:
Sasquatch / Bigfoot Alien abductions
Death of Elvis Presley Area 51 and extraterrestrials
Assassination coverups, e.g. John F. Kennedy, Princess Diana
Celebrity/politician/notable person X isn’t really dead, e.g. Tupac
Birds Aren’t Real Flat Earth
Holocaust denial Moon landing was a
hoax
QAnon Illuminati
9/11 was an inside job Chemtrails
Reptiles are secretly in charge COVID-19
Questions:
1. Are all of these conspiracy theories?
2. What differentiates a conspiracy theory from urban legend, myth,
or tall tales?
27.
28. Part 3. Conspiracy Theories
Questions:
1. What is a conspiracy?
2. What is a conspiracy theory?
3. Who advances conspiracy theories?
4. How do conspiracy theories work?
5. Why do people construct or resort to conspiracy theories?
6. What role do conspiracy theories play?
7. Whose interests do conspiracy theories serve?
8. Are conspiracy theories true? If so, then what?
9. What is at stake in making a claim like this?
10. If a conspiracy theory is false, misleading, or dangerous,
how should the rest of us respond to it?
29. What difference is there, if any, between
a conspiracy and a conspiracy theory?
Conspiracy: more than meets the eye; reality is deeper or more complicated than it
appears; something is going on behind the scenes; something foul or devious is going
on; “they’re out to get you”
● There is a legal definition of “conspiracy” as well: “An agreement between two or
more people to commit an illegal act, along with an intent to achieve the
agreement's goal.” (Legal Information Institute)
● Essence of a conspiracy: at least two people are secretly conducting a nefarious
plan to harm, misinform, disinform, or oppress others to their benefit
Conspiracy theory: a theory that attempts to explain and predict conspiracies; “a
theory that explains an event or set of circumstances as the result of a secret plot by
usually powerful conspirators” (Merriam-Webster)
30. What are some questions that conspiracy
theories attempt to answer?
This is an exercise in reverse-engineering. Humans desire significant elements and events of our
lives to make sense, to have a durable sense of meaning, stability, and order to our lives.
1. There must be more to the story to it than this. There seems to be mismatch between how
things appear and how things really are. The prevailing story or theory can’t be that simple or
straightforward. What else is going on?
2. Who is “out there” trying to deceive or misinform me?; Or, is someone out there trying to get
me?
3. Who stands to benefit if the story is more complicated and/or nefarious than it appears?
4. How much trust should everyday people place in our governments, “big business,” “big
science,” “big medicine,” “Big Brother,” or other institutions of authority?
5. Who ultimately holds and is accountable to the truth?
Question: What do all ^these^ questions seem to have in common or point to?
31. Question: Why are conspiracy theories
popular and attractive?
One argument:
1. Human, natural, and social life often seem or are chaotic. We are vulnerable creatures.
2. We tend to prefer order and reason to chaos and madness.
3. We naturally seek meaning, order, sense, reason, and discernible patterns, especially during times of social unrest,
transition, or crisis.
4. Humans thrive in community, and we share stories.
5. If no theory to explain a difficult, painful, or disturbing reality is available or sufficient, we are inclined to construct one.
6. Sometimes momentous events have simple, not complex, explanations.
7. No one really has the time to fact-check everything, especially in an era of social media, instant communications, and 24-
hour news networks.
8. Conspiracy theories offer a solution, a sense of meaning and community.
9. Conspiracy theories deflect and channel blame “them,” and not “us.” Someone else is out there, plotting against us.
32. Christopher S. Baird: “The main reason
people believe in conspiracies despite their
absurdity is helplessness.” (2013)
Question: What do we think of Baird’s
reason?
33. Contemporary political conspiracy
theories in the media
1. Crash Course philosophy, ep. 14
2. Stephen Colbert
3. Samantha Bee
4. Trevor Noah
5. Jim Jefferies
6. Bill Maher on QAnon
7. Wired.com
8. Ex-conspiracy theorists
34. Part 3d. Conspiracy Theories
Quassim Cassam (Ph.D. Oxford University) is professor of philosophy at University
of Warwick in England.
In 2015, Cassam published an essay for Aeon, which focused on the
epistemological dimension of conspiracy theories. He argued that education needs
to cultivate the intellectual virtues of critical and independent thinking, respect for
evidence, and open-mindedness; and teach students about the dangers of
intellectual vices.
In 2019, Cassam published Conspiracy Theories, which expands the scope of
critically thinking about conspiracy theories, focusing on their explicitly political
motivations, contours, and effects.
Audio, video, and readings: 1 | 2 | 3 | 4
35.
36. Quassim Cassam on conspiracy theories
● “...the starting point of a Conspiracy Theory is that things aren’t as they
seem” (20; 58-60)
● “The thing that Conspiracy Theories are contrary to is appearances or
the obvious explanation of events.” (20)
● “Conspiracy Theories aren’t just theories. They are expressions of
a particular view about how the world works, and can’t be shaken
without changing the Conspiracy Theorists’ overall
worldview.” (100)
● “Conspiracy Theories are first and foremost forms of political
propaganda” (7)
● “Conspiracy Theories are...a distraction from big-picture social
issues such as injustice and inequality” (86)
37. Conspiracy Theories
According to Quassim Cassam (2019), conspiracy theories are:
● Political propaganda
1. Speculative
2. Contrarian
3. Esoteric
4. Amateur-ish
5. Premodern, outdated worldview
6. Self-sealing
7. Not credible; dubious
● Unlikely to be true
39. Conspiracy Theories, and Other
Political Propaganda
1. Jason Stanley: “Propaganda, Race, and Mass
Incarceration” (2015)
[See more on on Propaganda]
Is propaganda still being used today, or is our society easy
to manipulate, or has it improved?
1. Neil deGrasse Tyson with Michael Shermer: natural
scientific reasoning vs. conspiratorial thinking regarding
COVID-19 (StarTalk, 2020)
40.
41. Module 3: Some take-home points...
1. We’re all in this together. Homo sapiens, i.e. humanity, are social creatures.
2. Living with ambiguity is difficult, but possible.
3. Contemporary life is fraught with contradictions, alienation, and conflict.
4. To theorize about our lives and world is no small matter.
5. Not all opinions are equally valid, correct, or deserving of our time and attention.
6. The phrase “everything happens for a reason” isn’t always true.
7. Misinformation and disinformation exist, and there are folks who actively and intentionally attempt to deceive.
8. It’s healthy to be critical, suspicious, and skeptical, but don’t take it too far. There is still some space available for
reason, credible research, communication, and human connection.
9. Think critically.
10. Take a walk once in a while. Give your technology and social media a break.
11. Critical social theory is one tool to analyze, dissect, and challenge conspiratorial thinking.
12. Every once in a while, we need to defer to the experts. But remain vigilant, be critical, and hold them accountable.
