This document summarizes Clare Mehta's response to Wood and Eagly's (2015) paper on two traditions of gender identity research. Mehta argues that both traditions of gender identity - based on gender attributes and gender self-conceptualization - may vary based on contextual factors like who someone is with and the situation. Mehta reviews research showing how gender attributes and self-concept can change in different contexts. Mehta encourages considering context when measuring gender identity and beliefs that gender is innate rather than variable.
RETTA: dal GRAFICO all'EQUAZIONE in FORMA IMPLICITA
- ESEMPIO 1 con CALCOLI e GRAFICI PASSO PASSO
- NUOVE FORMULE per le COSTANTI
- Equazioni in forma implicita
- Equazioni in forma esplicita rispetto a y
- Equazioni in forma esplicita rispetto a x
- Equazioni in forme miste
https://www.youtube.com/user/enzoexposito
http://www.enzoexposito.it/mobile/matematica.html
http://www.enzoexposito.it/mobile/geom_analit_retta_equaz_forma_implic.html
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https://www.linkedin.com/in/enzo-exposyto-aa970530/detail/recent-activity/shares/
https://www.facebook.com/enzoexposyto
https://twitter.com/enzoexposyto
https://www.tumblr.com/blog/enzoexposyto
https://www.pinterest.it/enzoexposyto/_saved/
#matematica
#geometria_analitica
#algebra
#equazione #equazioni
#equazioni_primo_grado
#equazione_forma_esplicita
#equazione_forma_implicita
#funzione #funzioni
#funzioni_intere
#funzioni_razionali
#piano_cartesiano
#retta #rette
#pendenza #coefficiente_angolare
#math #maths #mathematics
#analytic_geometry
#cartesian_geometry
#coordinate_geometry
#equation #equations
#function #functions
#straight_line #straight_lines
#slope #slopes
#y_intercept
NOTA:
Si sottolinea la semplice formula
per ricavare la c (c=-a*b), slide 9.
Come risulta dall'esempio,
accanto all'ipotesi c = -a*b,
la 'a' e la 'b' sono diverse da 0 (zero).
Casi diversi sono trattati altrove.
Herzlich Willkommen in unserer Dolomiten Residence Sonnleiten mit modernen Ferienwohnungen im Herzen Südtirols! Alle unsere FeWos verfügen über goßem Sonnen-Südbalkon mit Ausblick auf Wiesen, Wälder und die Südtiroler Berge, ein separates Schlafzimmer sowie gemütliche Ausstattung.
Südtirol Ferienwohnungen mit Hoteldienstleistungen
Ein absoluter Pluspunkt und sehr geschätzt von unseren Gästen sind unsere zahlreichen Hoteldienstleistungen, mit denen wir Ihnen Ihren Urlaub bei uns versüßen: angefangen vom Brötchen- & Zeitungsservice bzw. Frühstücksbuffet über Picknickkorb, Grillpaket, Getränkeservice und Abendmenüs bis zu kostenlosem Internet, Spielplatz und Teleskopverleih. Für entspannte Ferientage sorgt das Hallenbad und unser Wellnessbereich.
RETTA: dal GRAFICO all'EQUAZIONE in FORMA IMPLICITA
- ESEMPIO 1 con CALCOLI e GRAFICI PASSO PASSO
- NUOVE FORMULE per le COSTANTI
- Equazioni in forma implicita
- Equazioni in forma esplicita rispetto a y
- Equazioni in forma esplicita rispetto a x
- Equazioni in forme miste
https://www.youtube.com/user/enzoexposito
http://www.enzoexposito.it/mobile/matematica.html
http://www.enzoexposito.it/mobile/geom_analit_retta_equaz_forma_implic.html
https://www.slideshare.net/EnzoExposito1
https://www.linkedin.com/in/enzo-exposyto-aa970530/detail/recent-activity/shares/
https://www.facebook.com/enzoexposyto
https://twitter.com/enzoexposyto
https://www.tumblr.com/blog/enzoexposyto
https://www.pinterest.it/enzoexposyto/_saved/
#matematica
#geometria_analitica
#algebra
#equazione #equazioni
#equazioni_primo_grado
#equazione_forma_esplicita
#equazione_forma_implicita
#funzione #funzioni
#funzioni_intere
#funzioni_razionali
#piano_cartesiano
#retta #rette
#pendenza #coefficiente_angolare
#math #maths #mathematics
#analytic_geometry
#cartesian_geometry
#coordinate_geometry
#equation #equations
#function #functions
#straight_line #straight_lines
#slope #slopes
#y_intercept
NOTA:
Si sottolinea la semplice formula
per ricavare la c (c=-a*b), slide 9.
Come risulta dall'esempio,
accanto all'ipotesi c = -a*b,
la 'a' e la 'b' sono diverse da 0 (zero).
Casi diversi sono trattati altrove.
Herzlich Willkommen in unserer Dolomiten Residence Sonnleiten mit modernen Ferienwohnungen im Herzen Südtirols! Alle unsere FeWos verfügen über goßem Sonnen-Südbalkon mit Ausblick auf Wiesen, Wälder und die Südtiroler Berge, ein separates Schlafzimmer sowie gemütliche Ausstattung.
Südtirol Ferienwohnungen mit Hoteldienstleistungen
Ein absoluter Pluspunkt und sehr geschätzt von unseren Gästen sind unsere zahlreichen Hoteldienstleistungen, mit denen wir Ihnen Ihren Urlaub bei uns versüßen: angefangen vom Brötchen- & Zeitungsservice bzw. Frühstücksbuffet über Picknickkorb, Grillpaket, Getränkeservice und Abendmenüs bis zu kostenlosem Internet, Spielplatz und Teleskopverleih. Für entspannte Ferientage sorgt das Hallenbad und unser Wellnessbereich.
INTERCULTURAL RESEARCH AND ANALYSIS PROJECTWritten Report. The .docxnormanibarber20063
INTERCULTURAL RESEARCH AND ANALYSIS PROJECT
Written Report. The written report (7-8 pages and References) should consist of an introduction, in which the general context is explained and a rationale is provided for the importance of the topic, and the following sections: (a) description of the situation and the context in which it is embedded; (b) 4 page literature review; and (c) analysis of the situation and conclusion. Include a reference page prepared in either APA or MLA format, and attach an appendix with copies of materials (e.g., specific news articles) that help explain the context.
Paper Structure Guidelines
You may use headings (e.g., Introduction, Body, Conclusion) for the main parts of your paper. Also, use “I” in this paper where appropriate.
1. Introduction
a. Provide background information about the issue/case/incident/situation that led you to work on this research project
b. State your Research Question
c. State your position on the issue and preview what you will discuss in the paper
2. Body
a. Provide a summary of each of the articles/sources you located. Think carefully about how you order these summaries.
b. Discuss how these sources inform you about the situation/case/issue your investigated; how they help you in answering your research question.
3. Conclusion
a. State what you have learned about the situation/issue/case based on the research you did.
4. Do not forget to mention how this research relates to what you have been learning in CAS 471 this semester.
5. References
6. Appendix (only if applicable). If you investigated a specific incident/case/situation discussed in the media, include a link or attach a copy of the news article.
Grading Rubric:
Content (80 pts)
Introduction (14 pts)
Body: Review of research studies/articles/sources (36 pts)
Body: Summary and discussion of findings (20 points)
Conclusion (10 pts)
Organization & overall format (5 pts)
Grammar, punctuation, spelling (5 pts)
In-text documentation (5 pts)
Reference page (end-of-text list of references) (5 pts)
Running head ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY 1
ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY 4
Annotated Bibliography
Gordon Lu (Guo)
ICC 471
Dixon, J., Durrheim, K., & Tredoux, C. (2005). Beyond the optimal contact strategy: a reality check for the contact hypothesis. American Psychologist, 60(7), 697.
Dovidio, J. F., Kawakami, K., & Gaertner, S. L. (2002). Implicit and explicit prejudice and interracial interaction. Journal of personality and social psychology, 82(1), 62.
In this article, the authors discuss the contact theory that argues that contact between people between diverse groups normally assists in reducing the intergroup prejudice, but only in ideal conditions. The authors continue to criticize some research practices have been dominant in this field including the prioritization of the research of relations between rarefied circumstances. They also critic.
Appraisal System Used by Man and Woman Writer in The Article Published by Moj...AJHSSR Journal
ABSTRACT: This research focuses on the analysis of appraisal system employed by the man and woman
writer through their article published in Mojok.co. The researchers examine all of the aspects of appraisal
system and find out how the man and woman writer manifest those aspects. Besides, the researchers elaborate
the use of the appraisal system through gender perspective. This research is included into qualitative which the
data are based on the words, phrase, and clause that contains of appraisal system. These data are investigated
using Spradley's model which are domain analysis, taxonomy analysis, componential analysis, and discovering
cultural themes. The result shows that the use of appraisal system of man and woman writer is different and
gender variable has significant impacts in the use of appraisal system.
KEYWORDS-appraisal, gender, Mojok.co, writer
Class topic Racism, bias, and discriminationArticle topic Towa.docxbartholomeocoombs
Class topic: Racism, bias, and discrimination
Article topic: Toward a Social Psychology of Race and Race Relations for the Twenty-First Century.
Reflection
After reading the article on the social psychology of race and race relations, I have learned several things. The author starts by conceptualizing race. Understanding the relations between social psychology require a clear understanding of race itself. I believe that race is not based on biological characteristics of an individual but instead, it is socially constructed. The society tends to classify races based on historical contexts. Due to dynamics across the globe, the concept of the multiracial category of race has emerged. The multiracial groups emerge from the migration that results in intermarriages. For instance, a black woman married to a white man will produce a biracial child. If this child is married to an individual from a different race, a multiracial child will be produced. This has been a pressing issue when it comes to race categorization. This is a challenge because such individual does not fit into a particular race category. This calls for research to classify these individuals using other social aspects instead of biological characteristics. I believe the issue of multiracial race classification will result in a major overhaul to the entire process of race categorization. It is clear that the issue of race and ethnicity has a huge impact on categorization. This is because a single race may have many ethnic groups and therefore ethnicity must be used together with race classification.
The author identifies a number of theories related to race relations. One of the theories is the social identity theory. I believe this theory still applies to modern society. People continue to classify other easily. Despite the modernization, this theory continues to apply, and it is one of the reasons why racial discrimination persists across the globe. The theory is motivated by issues such as inadequate resources and increased population. This leads to favoritism among individuals of the same race. The author focusses on the United States and discusses how the rapid changes in the race continue to affect racial relations. It is important to note that the social dominance theory continues to encourage unfairness in terms of resource sharing. However, civilization across all races may address the issue of social dominance.
After reading the article, I learn that racial diversity has various effects on individuals. It is true to say that racial diversity affects the interaction between individuals. Each of the individual’s opinion about the other race forms the basis of the interaction. As time progresses, the interaction becomes freer and the individuals are able to share their opinions without fear. Moreover, individuals get to understand other races better. Also, racial diversity has an effect on groups. Interracial groups working together tend to solve problems easier. This is becau.
ArticleSome Evidence for a Gender Gapin Personality and .docxdavezstarr61655
Article
Some Evidence for a Gender Gap
in Personality and Social Psychology
Adam J. Brown1 and Jin X. Goh1
Abstract
This research examined a possible gender gap in personality and social psychology. According to membership demographics from
the Society for Personality and Social Psychology (SPSP), women and men are represented near parity in the field. Yet despite this
equal representation, the field may still suffer from a different type of gender gap. We examined the gender of first authors in two
major journals, citations to these articles, and gender of award recipients. In random samples of five issues per year across
10 years (2004–2013; N ¼ 1,094), 34% of first authors in Journal of Personality and Social Psychology were women and 44% of first
authors in Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin were women. Articles authored by men were cited more than those authored by
women. In examining the gender of award recipients given by SPSP (2000–2016), on average, 25% of the recipients were women.
Keywords
social psychology, personality, gender gap, bibliometric
It is no longer newsworthy that women enter psychology at a
higher rate than men do. In 2013, women represented 72.2%
of all doctorates in psychology (National Science Foundation
[NSF], 2015a). This is remarkable considering that in 1958 (the
earliest data available), women only represented 18.0% of all
doctorates in psychology. This impressive growth in represen-
tation is pervasive across most subfields of psychology, includ-
ing social psychology, with 67.3% of doctorates being awarded
to women in 2013.
1
Membership in the Society for Personality
and Social Psychology (SPSP), the field’s largest professional
society, likewise reflects this distribution: 51% of the SPSP
members are female, 38% are male, and 11% did not report
their gender in the most recent membership survey. Of the
89% of all members who specified their gender, 57% are
female and 43% are male. While these numbers are not defini-
tive, they do provide a good snapshot of the field’s gender com-
position, and this distribution is a cause for celebration. After
all, it stands in marked contrast to other fields such as science,
technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM), where
women are severely underrepresented (NSF, 2015b). Yet despite
this progress for equal representation, there is reason to believe
that social and personality psychology may still suffer from a
gender gap. The current article presents evidence that even
though women and men are represented equally in social psy-
chology and personality in terms of participation, they are nev-
ertheless underrepresented as authors and underrecognized as
award recipients. The remainder of this article assumes that at
least half of the individuals participating in social and personal-
ity psychology are women, but based on the SPSP demographic
statistics, this estimate may be conservative.
The attrition of women in STEM fields is a.
Running head LITERATURE REVIEW 1LITERATURE REVIEW 2.docxcowinhelen
Running head: LITERATURE REVIEW 1
LITERATURE REVIEW 2
Literature review: relationship between the US and international business based on cultural approach to organization
Name:
Institution:
Relationship between the US and international business based on cultural
An exploration of a collection of articles on the subject of culture and communication using theoretical framework is necessary for the comprehension of the relationship between the US and international business. The aim is conceptualizing the cultural perceptive of the American in the organizational context. Afterward, the findings of the articles reviewed can serve as the basis for concluding the nature of the relationship. The works of Taras, Kirkman, & Steel (2010), Yamazaki & Kayes, D. C. (2004), and Fey & Denison (2003) are the selected items for review. They explore subjects relating to US relations in the international sphere using a different view. The analysis of the respective studies leads to the claim that cultural perception influences behavior in the international sphere. The conclusion of Taras, Kirkman, & Steel (2010), Yamazaki & Kayes, D. C. (2004), and Fey & Denison (2003) imply that American business relations through communication with the rest are reflective of the cultural practices of the majority in the nation as depicted in the literature reviewed below.
Literature review
Taras, Kirkman, & Steel (2010) explores the implications of culture on the behavior of individuals with a focus on personalities preference of values. The researchers deploy a mixed study method in testing the implication of culture on teh response of employees at the workplace. They exploit data of 598 studies that involved over 200, 000 participants as the basis for hypothesizing their study. The analysis considers the cultural values dimension that infers to Hofstede's experimental conclusion. Taras, Kirkman, & Steel (2010) use the weighted effects of values in extricating the implication of culture. The study considers job performance absenteeism and turnover rate as the variable elements. They correlate the variable with elements such as work commitments and citizenship behavior in the quantification of the weighted values.
The findings that include participants from the United States indicate a connection between emotions and cultural values. The link, in turn, affects the attitude that alters behavior translating to the expression of the same in job performance. The result is critical guide in formulating a solution to the challenges of communication and relationship issue affecting Americans in the workplace context. Taras, Kirkman, & Steel’s findings correlate cultural values to individual behavior, and such is an affirmation that the values instilled in many American affect their overall behavior at the workplace. Another confounding this in the study is that the texts explain the cultural developments using real-life examples.
Yamazaki & Kayes (2004) con ...
1
Annotated Bibliography: Topic (Chosen from the list provided)
[Name]
South University Online
[Template instructions: Replace the information in red with your work-then delete this line]
2
Annotated Bibliography: Topic (Chosen from the list provided)
[APA formatted reference for source (list in alphabetical order) using a hanging indent]
[Underneath the reference, give a summary of the article then an analysis:
Summary of article: 1-2 paragraphs that describe the following information in your own words
in paragraph format (not bullet points).
• Why the article was written?
• What are the major points of the article?
• If the article was a study, describe:
o The methods used in the research: Include the participants, how the research question(s)
was tested or measured (e.g. survey, interview, formal testing…)
o The results of the study: What did the researchers find out?
o The conclusions: What did the researchers conclude from the study? What were the
limitations of the research?
NOTE: Do not include citations for the article you are summarizing in an annotated
bibliography. You have already given credit by listing the reference first. This is different
from a paper.]
[Analysis of the article: 1-2 paragraphs describing the following: Whether or not the
points made by the author are logical and supported by evidence and whether the author
demonstrates any bias in presenting the arguments. Were other arguments or possibilities
considered? Are the author’s conclusions supported? Do they fit with your understanding
of the topic and your textbook's description (cite the textbook and any other sources you
use for analyzing your article – include any additional sources you cite as part of your
analysis in your reference list)? Why or why not (provide support for your opinion)?]
3
Example of formatting:
Boonstra, A., & Broekhuis, M. (2010). Barriers to the acceptance of electronic medical records by
physicians from systematic review to taxonomy and interventions. BMC Health Services
Research, 10(1), 231-248. doi:10.1186/1472-6963-10-231
Authors conducted a systematic review of research papers between 1998 and 2009 that
examined physician perceptions of barriers to implementation of electronic medical
records. An examination of 1671 articles….
DeVore, S. D., & Figlioli, K. (2010). Lessons Premier hospitals learned about implementing electronic
health records. Health Affairs, 29(4), 664-667. doi:10.1377/hlthaff.2010.0250
Premier healthcare alliance is a network of 2300 non-profit hospitals and 63,000
outpatient facilities in the United States, This paper summarized lessons learned from
reviewing implementation practices within their system….
4
References
List any references you cited in your analyses of your chosen sources. DO NOT list the references for
the articles you chose as you already referenced them in your an ...
INTERCULTURAL RESEARCH AND ANALYSIS PROJECTWritten Report. The .docxnormanibarber20063
INTERCULTURAL RESEARCH AND ANALYSIS PROJECT
Written Report. The written report (7-8 pages and References) should consist of an introduction, in which the general context is explained and a rationale is provided for the importance of the topic, and the following sections: (a) description of the situation and the context in which it is embedded; (b) 4 page literature review; and (c) analysis of the situation and conclusion. Include a reference page prepared in either APA or MLA format, and attach an appendix with copies of materials (e.g., specific news articles) that help explain the context.
Paper Structure Guidelines
You may use headings (e.g., Introduction, Body, Conclusion) for the main parts of your paper. Also, use “I” in this paper where appropriate.
1. Introduction
a. Provide background information about the issue/case/incident/situation that led you to work on this research project
b. State your Research Question
c. State your position on the issue and preview what you will discuss in the paper
2. Body
a. Provide a summary of each of the articles/sources you located. Think carefully about how you order these summaries.
b. Discuss how these sources inform you about the situation/case/issue your investigated; how they help you in answering your research question.
3. Conclusion
a. State what you have learned about the situation/issue/case based on the research you did.
4. Do not forget to mention how this research relates to what you have been learning in CAS 471 this semester.
5. References
6. Appendix (only if applicable). If you investigated a specific incident/case/situation discussed in the media, include a link or attach a copy of the news article.
Grading Rubric:
Content (80 pts)
Introduction (14 pts)
Body: Review of research studies/articles/sources (36 pts)
Body: Summary and discussion of findings (20 points)
Conclusion (10 pts)
Organization & overall format (5 pts)
Grammar, punctuation, spelling (5 pts)
In-text documentation (5 pts)
Reference page (end-of-text list of references) (5 pts)
Running head ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY 1
ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY 4
Annotated Bibliography
Gordon Lu (Guo)
ICC 471
Dixon, J., Durrheim, K., & Tredoux, C. (2005). Beyond the optimal contact strategy: a reality check for the contact hypothesis. American Psychologist, 60(7), 697.
Dovidio, J. F., Kawakami, K., & Gaertner, S. L. (2002). Implicit and explicit prejudice and interracial interaction. Journal of personality and social psychology, 82(1), 62.
In this article, the authors discuss the contact theory that argues that contact between people between diverse groups normally assists in reducing the intergroup prejudice, but only in ideal conditions. The authors continue to criticize some research practices have been dominant in this field including the prioritization of the research of relations between rarefied circumstances. They also critic.
Appraisal System Used by Man and Woman Writer in The Article Published by Moj...AJHSSR Journal
ABSTRACT: This research focuses on the analysis of appraisal system employed by the man and woman
writer through their article published in Mojok.co. The researchers examine all of the aspects of appraisal
system and find out how the man and woman writer manifest those aspects. Besides, the researchers elaborate
the use of the appraisal system through gender perspective. This research is included into qualitative which the
data are based on the words, phrase, and clause that contains of appraisal system. These data are investigated
using Spradley's model which are domain analysis, taxonomy analysis, componential analysis, and discovering
cultural themes. The result shows that the use of appraisal system of man and woman writer is different and
gender variable has significant impacts in the use of appraisal system.
KEYWORDS-appraisal, gender, Mojok.co, writer
Class topic Racism, bias, and discriminationArticle topic Towa.docxbartholomeocoombs
Class topic: Racism, bias, and discrimination
Article topic: Toward a Social Psychology of Race and Race Relations for the Twenty-First Century.
Reflection
After reading the article on the social psychology of race and race relations, I have learned several things. The author starts by conceptualizing race. Understanding the relations between social psychology require a clear understanding of race itself. I believe that race is not based on biological characteristics of an individual but instead, it is socially constructed. The society tends to classify races based on historical contexts. Due to dynamics across the globe, the concept of the multiracial category of race has emerged. The multiracial groups emerge from the migration that results in intermarriages. For instance, a black woman married to a white man will produce a biracial child. If this child is married to an individual from a different race, a multiracial child will be produced. This has been a pressing issue when it comes to race categorization. This is a challenge because such individual does not fit into a particular race category. This calls for research to classify these individuals using other social aspects instead of biological characteristics. I believe the issue of multiracial race classification will result in a major overhaul to the entire process of race categorization. It is clear that the issue of race and ethnicity has a huge impact on categorization. This is because a single race may have many ethnic groups and therefore ethnicity must be used together with race classification.
The author identifies a number of theories related to race relations. One of the theories is the social identity theory. I believe this theory still applies to modern society. People continue to classify other easily. Despite the modernization, this theory continues to apply, and it is one of the reasons why racial discrimination persists across the globe. The theory is motivated by issues such as inadequate resources and increased population. This leads to favoritism among individuals of the same race. The author focusses on the United States and discusses how the rapid changes in the race continue to affect racial relations. It is important to note that the social dominance theory continues to encourage unfairness in terms of resource sharing. However, civilization across all races may address the issue of social dominance.
After reading the article, I learn that racial diversity has various effects on individuals. It is true to say that racial diversity affects the interaction between individuals. Each of the individual’s opinion about the other race forms the basis of the interaction. As time progresses, the interaction becomes freer and the individuals are able to share their opinions without fear. Moreover, individuals get to understand other races better. Also, racial diversity has an effect on groups. Interracial groups working together tend to solve problems easier. This is becau.
ArticleSome Evidence for a Gender Gapin Personality and .docxdavezstarr61655
Article
Some Evidence for a Gender Gap
in Personality and Social Psychology
Adam J. Brown1 and Jin X. Goh1
Abstract
This research examined a possible gender gap in personality and social psychology. According to membership demographics from
the Society for Personality and Social Psychology (SPSP), women and men are represented near parity in the field. Yet despite this
equal representation, the field may still suffer from a different type of gender gap. We examined the gender of first authors in two
major journals, citations to these articles, and gender of award recipients. In random samples of five issues per year across
10 years (2004–2013; N ¼ 1,094), 34% of first authors in Journal of Personality and Social Psychology were women and 44% of first
authors in Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin were women. Articles authored by men were cited more than those authored by
women. In examining the gender of award recipients given by SPSP (2000–2016), on average, 25% of the recipients were women.
Keywords
social psychology, personality, gender gap, bibliometric
It is no longer newsworthy that women enter psychology at a
higher rate than men do. In 2013, women represented 72.2%
of all doctorates in psychology (National Science Foundation
[NSF], 2015a). This is remarkable considering that in 1958 (the
earliest data available), women only represented 18.0% of all
doctorates in psychology. This impressive growth in represen-
tation is pervasive across most subfields of psychology, includ-
ing social psychology, with 67.3% of doctorates being awarded
to women in 2013.
1
Membership in the Society for Personality
and Social Psychology (SPSP), the field’s largest professional
society, likewise reflects this distribution: 51% of the SPSP
members are female, 38% are male, and 11% did not report
their gender in the most recent membership survey. Of the
89% of all members who specified their gender, 57% are
female and 43% are male. While these numbers are not defini-
tive, they do provide a good snapshot of the field’s gender com-
position, and this distribution is a cause for celebration. After
all, it stands in marked contrast to other fields such as science,
technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM), where
women are severely underrepresented (NSF, 2015b). Yet despite
this progress for equal representation, there is reason to believe
that social and personality psychology may still suffer from a
gender gap. The current article presents evidence that even
though women and men are represented equally in social psy-
chology and personality in terms of participation, they are nev-
ertheless underrepresented as authors and underrecognized as
award recipients. The remainder of this article assumes that at
least half of the individuals participating in social and personal-
ity psychology are women, but based on the SPSP demographic
statistics, this estimate may be conservative.
The attrition of women in STEM fields is a.
Running head LITERATURE REVIEW 1LITERATURE REVIEW 2.docxcowinhelen
Running head: LITERATURE REVIEW 1
LITERATURE REVIEW 2
Literature review: relationship between the US and international business based on cultural approach to organization
Name:
Institution:
Relationship between the US and international business based on cultural
An exploration of a collection of articles on the subject of culture and communication using theoretical framework is necessary for the comprehension of the relationship between the US and international business. The aim is conceptualizing the cultural perceptive of the American in the organizational context. Afterward, the findings of the articles reviewed can serve as the basis for concluding the nature of the relationship. The works of Taras, Kirkman, & Steel (2010), Yamazaki & Kayes, D. C. (2004), and Fey & Denison (2003) are the selected items for review. They explore subjects relating to US relations in the international sphere using a different view. The analysis of the respective studies leads to the claim that cultural perception influences behavior in the international sphere. The conclusion of Taras, Kirkman, & Steel (2010), Yamazaki & Kayes, D. C. (2004), and Fey & Denison (2003) imply that American business relations through communication with the rest are reflective of the cultural practices of the majority in the nation as depicted in the literature reviewed below.
Literature review
Taras, Kirkman, & Steel (2010) explores the implications of culture on the behavior of individuals with a focus on personalities preference of values. The researchers deploy a mixed study method in testing the implication of culture on teh response of employees at the workplace. They exploit data of 598 studies that involved over 200, 000 participants as the basis for hypothesizing their study. The analysis considers the cultural values dimension that infers to Hofstede's experimental conclusion. Taras, Kirkman, & Steel (2010) use the weighted effects of values in extricating the implication of culture. The study considers job performance absenteeism and turnover rate as the variable elements. They correlate the variable with elements such as work commitments and citizenship behavior in the quantification of the weighted values.
The findings that include participants from the United States indicate a connection between emotions and cultural values. The link, in turn, affects the attitude that alters behavior translating to the expression of the same in job performance. The result is critical guide in formulating a solution to the challenges of communication and relationship issue affecting Americans in the workplace context. Taras, Kirkman, & Steel’s findings correlate cultural values to individual behavior, and such is an affirmation that the values instilled in many American affect their overall behavior at the workplace. Another confounding this in the study is that the texts explain the cultural developments using real-life examples.
Yamazaki & Kayes (2004) con ...
1
Annotated Bibliography: Topic (Chosen from the list provided)
[Name]
South University Online
[Template instructions: Replace the information in red with your work-then delete this line]
2
Annotated Bibliography: Topic (Chosen from the list provided)
[APA formatted reference for source (list in alphabetical order) using a hanging indent]
[Underneath the reference, give a summary of the article then an analysis:
Summary of article: 1-2 paragraphs that describe the following information in your own words
in paragraph format (not bullet points).
• Why the article was written?
• What are the major points of the article?
• If the article was a study, describe:
o The methods used in the research: Include the participants, how the research question(s)
was tested or measured (e.g. survey, interview, formal testing…)
o The results of the study: What did the researchers find out?
o The conclusions: What did the researchers conclude from the study? What were the
limitations of the research?
NOTE: Do not include citations for the article you are summarizing in an annotated
bibliography. You have already given credit by listing the reference first. This is different
from a paper.]
[Analysis of the article: 1-2 paragraphs describing the following: Whether or not the
points made by the author are logical and supported by evidence and whether the author
demonstrates any bias in presenting the arguments. Were other arguments or possibilities
considered? Are the author’s conclusions supported? Do they fit with your understanding
of the topic and your textbook's description (cite the textbook and any other sources you
use for analyzing your article – include any additional sources you cite as part of your
analysis in your reference list)? Why or why not (provide support for your opinion)?]
3
Example of formatting:
Boonstra, A., & Broekhuis, M. (2010). Barriers to the acceptance of electronic medical records by
physicians from systematic review to taxonomy and interventions. BMC Health Services
Research, 10(1), 231-248. doi:10.1186/1472-6963-10-231
Authors conducted a systematic review of research papers between 1998 and 2009 that
examined physician perceptions of barriers to implementation of electronic medical
records. An examination of 1671 articles….
DeVore, S. D., & Figlioli, K. (2010). Lessons Premier hospitals learned about implementing electronic
health records. Health Affairs, 29(4), 664-667. doi:10.1377/hlthaff.2010.0250
Premier healthcare alliance is a network of 2300 non-profit hospitals and 63,000
outpatient facilities in the United States, This paper summarized lessons learned from
reviewing implementation practices within their system….
4
References
List any references you cited in your analyses of your chosen sources. DO NOT list the references for
the articles you chose as you already referenced them in your an ...
Final Project Sampling 2FINAL PROJECT SAMPL.docxvoversbyobersby
Final Project Sampling 2
FINAL PROJECT SAMPLING
Student
UNIVERSITY
PSY302-A01 Research Methods
Professor
April 8, 2015
Assignment 2: Assignment 2: Final Project: Sampling
Based on the feedback you received on your submission from last week, submit a revised draft of your paper with this additional information:
1. Five additional references that could be used for your research paper and include a 1-2 sentence description for each of the five additional references, explaining how they fit with the research topic and the research question proposed. Make sure that these references come from scholarly sources using Argosy's library resources.
2. A very detailed outline of what you would like to cover in the intro/lit review of your paper. Write it as an outline and think about what you want each paragraph or section to cover. Paste your references into each section where the information from that article applies to the topic. Below is an example of the outline although the references have not been pasted in yet:
a. Introduction or Statement of the Problem (e.g. Predictors of Depression in Men)
i. Research question (E.g. What factors predict depression in men? For example, age, marital status, family history, stressors).
ii. Why is it important/implications (E.g. xx% of men are depressed; less likely to seek treatment; if we can identify who is at risk, may be able to direct them to treatment sooner)
iii. Revised hypothesis based on feedback from the instructor
b. Review of the Literature (the following is an example for above topic):
i. Brief description of depression, symptoms, and any unique symptoms for men (Cite articles from which you will obtain this information).
ii. How widespread is it? Stats on depression in general but also stats on depression in men (Cite articles from which you will obtain this information).
iii. List factors that put men at risk for depression (Cite articles).
1. Difficulty communicating distress or sadness (Cite articles).
2. Job/work pressures (Cite articles).
iv. Demographic characteristics (Cite articles).
1. Relationship between age and depression (Cite articles).
2. Relationship between marital status and depression (Cite articles).
3. A 1-2 page description of the sample you would like to use for your study, that provides the answer to the following questions:
a. What sampling technique would you use?
b. Does the sample generalize to the population? Explain why or why not.
c. What inclusion criteria would be used? What exclusion criteria would be used, if any?
d. What ethical issues might be encountered when collecting your information from this sample?
4. Be sure to also submit all your ten references (the five from last week and the five new ones you added) in an APA-style reference page. Be sure to also include an APA-style title page with your submission. Your paper should be at least 2-3 pages long. Make sure you write in a clear, concise, and organized manner; demonstrate eth ...
Does Female-authored Research have More Educational Impact than Male-authored...eraser Juan José Calderón
Does Female-authored Research have More Educational Impact than Male-authored Research? Evidence from Mendeley. Mike Thelwall
ABSTRACT
Female academics are more likely to be in teaching-related roles in some countries, including the USA. As a side effect of this, female-authored journal articles may tend to be more useful for students. This study assesses this hypothesis by investigating whether female first-authored research has more uptake in education than male first-authored research. Based on an analysis of Mendeley readers of articles from 2014 in five countries and 100 narrow Scopus subject categories, the results show that female-authored articles attract more student readers than male-authored articles in Spain, Turkey, the UK and USA but not India. They also attract fewer professorial readers in Spain, the UK and the USA, but not India and Turkey, and tend to be less popular with senior academics. Because the results are based on analysis of differences within narrow fields they cannot be accounted for by females working in more educationrelated disciplines. The apparent additional educational impact for female-authored research could be due to selecting more accessible micro-specialisms, however, such as health-related instruments within the instrumentation narrow field. Whatever the cause, the results suggest that citation-based research evaluations may undervalue the wider impact of female researchers.
The Role of Introversion vs. Extroversion on Marital Bliss5.docxssusera34210
The Role of Introversion vs. Extroversion on Marital Bliss5
GRADE DETAIL FOR
FINAL PROJECT ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY:
THE ROLE OF INTROVERSION AND EXTRAVERSION PERSONALITY TRAITS ON MARITAL BLISS
Assignment 3 Grading Criteria
Maximum Points
Created a research question based on a research topic approved by the instructor and submitted a testable hypothesis. No hypothesis.
13/15
Submitted citations in the form of an APA-style for five articles and included a paragraph summarizing each article and discussing its relevance.
33/40
Ensured that all the articles are from peer-reviewed journals.
20/20
Submitted a title page for the submission.
4/5
Wrote in a clear, concise, and organized manner; demonstrated ethical scholarship in accurate representation and attribution of sources; displayed accurate spelling, grammar, and punctuation.
16/20
Total: (Grade)
86/100 (B)
The Role of Introversion vs. Extroversion on Marital Bliss
Research Question
The research question for this topic will be to investigate the effects of personality traits, that is, introversion and extroversion on the social life of an individual and success in marriage and relationships.
Bibliography
Akande, W. A., Adetoun, B. E., Adewuyi, M. F., Akande, T. I., E, Ntshanga, L. P., et al. (2012). The Wisdom of Eve: On Differentiating the Colours of Emotion that May Be Threats to Good Life. Springer Science & Business Media, 107(3), 531-560.
This journal investigates the effects of one's personality, emotions, and reasoning on one's behavior. The research was conducted through observation of people with different character traits and how they react in the society and at the workplace. Using students and gauging them on the Differential Emotions Scale, the researchers were able to detect attractions between people of different behaviors and record their results. The results showed that people tend to be more attracted and associate with people who are indifferent to them in the context that an outgoing person will most likely get attracted to a person with different characteristics. The methodology used in the research is based on experiments, and most of the respondents were students. In this context, the results lack generalizability to all the population of the world. However, the journal is essential in contributing to the psychological and personality attributes of a person that affect their behavior.
Huber, V. (2003). Personality, cognitive style, demographic characteristics and Internet use - Findings from the HomeNetToo project. Swiss Journal of Psychology, 62(2), 79-90.
In this journal, respondents from different classes of life were investigated and analyzed in relation to their personality and internet use at home. The rationale for using the internet at home was fetched in the context that, respondents who used internet at home more and were with their families show a lot of misunderstandings and discomfort towards one another. People from different cultural backgrounds we ...
SOCW 6210 Week 5 discussion post responses.Respond to the coll.docxrosemariebrayshaw
SOCW 6210 Week 5 discussion post responses.
Respond to the colleagues posts in one of the following ways:
Respond in one or more of the following ways:
· Add to your colleague's explanation of how gender identity affects an individual's life-span development.
· Explain whether you might use your colleague's strategy for applying the concept of gender identity to social work practice. Provide support for your position.
Be sure to support your posts with specific references to the resources. If you are using additional articles, be sure to provide full APA-formatted citations for your references.
· At least one reference and citation is required in each post.
MMV’s post states the following:Top of Form
A new understanding you have gained in the resources about gender identity
A new understanding, I have gained in the resource about gender identity is that people explore relationships and engage in nonmarital intimacy during the emerging adulthood stages (Brewster, & Moradi, 2010). They also explore nonmarital relationships in various and gender identity during emerging adulthood may differ from middle adulthood. They may vary because the difference of cohorts illustrates that during the emerging adulthood people go through a period of identity exploration with little commitment but gradually increases with early and middle adulthood (Brewster, & Moradi, 2010). Genetic and environmental factors influence both childhood and adult gender identity, but it is more difficult to identify the elements in women (Burri, Cherkas, Spector, & Rahman, 2011).
An explanation of how individuals' gender identity affects their development through young and middle adulthood
A person's gender identity affects their development through young and middle adulthood. The increasing number of gay, lesbian, and bisexual people that seek out mental health services in comparison the heterosexual counterparts illustrate the effects (Ferguson, & Miville, 2017). Men and women differ in the way they approach their sexual identity because women are more susceptible to analyze their identity. After analyzing their identity, they then come out later on in the young adulthood where men do not examine their status, and unlike women do not gradually come out (Brewster, & Moradi, 2010). Instead, men abruptly come out, and this may be due to the acceptance gap both genders receive towards their gender identity because women can still be feminine as gays, but a mans masculinity is questioned as gay (Brewster, & Moradi, 2010).
A strategy you might use to apply your understanding of gender identity development to social work practice
A strategy I might use to apply my understanding of gender identity development to the social work practice is to approach every case in a professional manner and show respect to the client at all times and reframe from passing judge or viewed as passing judgment. I would also use caution and practice in an ethical manner as dictated by the n.
JOURNAL-Last week we discussed the controversial New Family Str.docxssuser47f0be
JOURNAL-
Last week we discussed the controversial “New Family Structures Study” by sociologist Mark Regnerus, and we saw how fundamental differences in values and assumptions about human nature can result in intractable disagreements about how to interpret the facts of human society. In this 1-3 page Journal reflection, analyze the values that influence research bias, as illustrated by the Regnerus case. Explain the differing assumptions that lead Mark Regnerus and his critics to opposing conclusions about the same data, and evaluate the possibility of value-neutral research about such controversial topics.
WEEK 3 ASSIGNMENT FOR REFERENCE
Was Regnerus's research biased?
The research was slightly biased. The study did not acknowledge the timeframe of the childhood of their participants. The participants underwent childhood between 1971 and 1994. This was a period where the same-sex relationships were outlawed and shunned by the society; therefore, the families of the same sex couples could not be stable or integrated at the time (Saletan, 2012). The research also did not have many classifications for their participants. The intact biological families did not factor in the possibility of having broken homes, but this factor was considered in the lesbian mother and gay father families.
Is it possible to do unbiased research on a politically controversial topic like same-sex marriage?
Doing unbiased research on such a controversial topic is hard. This is because of the challenges that the researcher faces during the research process. The researcher will often encounter a relatively small sample size in the society from which they can draw conclusions. Since the sample size is not representative of the entire population, it may yield biased results (Umberson, Thomeer, Kroeger, Lodge, & Xu, 2015). It is also hard to get a comparison group for the research. This is because of the distinct demographic of the people in the same-sex marriage. These individuals tend to be young, educated and not willing to have a family. It is hard to find a group to compare such individuals too, which may make the research biased.
Should liberals take Regnerus's research thoughtfully, even if they disagree with his conclusion?
Yes, they should. The study, even though flawed, exposed a very important fact; the children from broken homes of the gays have the same issues as children from broken heterosexual homes. This shows that family integrity is essential with every type of home (Saletan, 2012). The investigation also revealed that the effect of broken homes was higher in the gay families than in the heterosexual families. Many of the children who grew up in broken same-sex relationships reported a lower quality of their life than their counterparts. The liberals should take these points into consideration as they are vital for the proper growth of the children.
Did Regnerus break any principles of research ethics? What lessons about research can we lea ...
Mehta & Strough_2009_ Sex segregation across the lifespan
Mehta_2015_Gender in Context
1. 1 23
Sex Roles
A Journal of Research
ISSN 0360-0025
Sex Roles
DOI 10.1007/s11199-015-0535-4
Gender in Context: Considering Variability
in Wood and Eagly’s Traditions of Gender
Identity
Clare M. Mehta
2. 1 23
Your article is protected by copyright and all
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+Business Media New York. This e-offprint is
for personal use only and shall not be self-
archived in electronic repositories. If you wish
to self-archive your article, please use the
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given to the original source of publication
and a link is inserted to the published article
on Springer's website. The link must be
accompanied by the following text: "The final
publication is available at link.springer.com”.
3. FEMINIST FORUM COMMENTARY
Gender in Context: Considering Variability in Wood and Eagly’s
Traditions of Gender Identity
Clare M. Mehta1
# Springer Science+Business Media New York 2015
Abstract This paper was written in response to Wood and
Eagly’s (2015) feminist forum paper that proposes two tradi-
tions for gender identity research, a tradition based on gender-
typed attributes and a tradition based on gender self-concep-
tualization. The present paper expands on Wood and Eagly’s
(2015) framework by proposing, in line with social construc-
tivist models, that both traditions of gender identity may be
variable and context dependent. Specifically, the present paper
reviews research conducted in the U.S.A. that suggests that
gender-typed attributes and components of gender self-
conceptualization may change based on contextual factors
such as the gender of people in a person’s immediate context
and the salience of gender in a given situation. The paper also
reviews ways in which variation in gender-typed attributes
and components of gender self-conceptualization has been
measured previously, and suggests the use of experience sam-
pling methodology for future research. Finally, the paper en-
courages researchers to consider Wood and Eagly’s (2015)
suggestion of using the principle of compatibility when
selecting trait or state measures of gender identity, and pro-
poses that beliefs in gender essentialism (that gender differ-
ences are due to innate traits) may be reduced by understand-
ing how contextual factors influence gender identity.
Keywords Gender identity . Social constructionism .
Context . Gender-typed traits . Femininity . Masculinity
Introduction
At the time of this writing, a search for the term gender iden-
tity using PsycINFO produced 11,017 results. In spite of its
popularity as a topic of study, I believe that gender identity as a
construct remains elusive, complicated, and definitionally
complex. It is my view that one of the reasons for this is that
there are no widely accepted definitions as to what the term
gender identity means. To illustrate this point, I looked at the
way gender identity was defined in a sample of the 11,017
papers returned by PsycINFO. I found gender identity defined
as how a person feels inside about their gender (the authors
note that this feeling may or may not coincide with their
biological gender; Reisner et al. 2015), Bhow masculine or
feminine^ a person is, (Vantieghem et al. 2014, p 358), a
person’s gender atypicality defined as BBbutch^ and
Bfemme^, erotic roles, masculinity and femininity of behavior^
(Brewer and Hamilton 2014, p 13), and in a study using Egan
and Perry’s 2001 measure of gender identity, a person’s sense
of Bgender typicality, gender contentment, felt pressure to con-
form, and intergroup bias^ (Dinella et al. 2014, p 495). In
addition to the variety of definitions exhibited here, there
were also a number of papers in which the authors did not
explicitly define gender identity (e.g. Drury et al. 2013;
White and Gardner 2009; Yoon and Kim 2014) presum-
ably because they assumed that the meaning of the term
was universally understood.
Because of the inconsistency in definitions of gender identity
in the extant literature, Wood and Eagly’s (2015) paper provides
a much-needed framework in which to consider gender identity,
at least in samples from the U.S.A. This is illustrated by the fact
that the examples listed above could all be placed into either of
the two traditions (identity based on feminine and masculine
attributes or gender self-categorization) identified by Wood and
Eagly (2015). In my opinion, however, the strength of Wood
* Clare M. Mehta
mehtac@emmanuel.edu
1
Emmanuel College, Boston Children’s Hospital, Harvard Medical
School, 400 The Fenway, Boston, MA 02115, USA
Sex Roles
DOI 10.1007/s11199-015-0535-4
Author's personal copy
4. and Eagly’s (2015) paper is that it goes beyond providing clear
definitions of gender identity. Wood and Eagly (2015) outline
different conceptualizations, measurements, and applications of
gender identity, and encourage researchers to select measures of
gender identity that are compatible with the concepts which
they are investigating. As such, Wood and Eagly’s (2015) paper
makes a substantial contribution to the literature and is invalu-
able to those interested in the study of gender identity and when,
how, and why different types of gender identity are measured.
Wood and Eagly’s (2015) conceptualization of the two tra-
ditions of gender identity research is relatively comprehen-
sive. As they themselves note, however, there are some im-
portant considerations that were beyond the scope of their
paper. For example, while Wood and Eagly (2015) present
some research that has addressed situational variation in gen-
der identity in their section on gender self-conceptualization, a
discussion of the context and how contextual factors (such as
who a person is with and where they are) affect gender and
gender identity is largely missing from their paper.
Deaux and Major (1987) first proposed a contextual model
of gender in the late 1980s. Their contextual model promoted
a social constructivist approach to gender and posited that
rather than reflecting an individual’s personality traits, femi-
ninity and masculinity reflect an individual’s interaction with
their immediate context (Deaux and Major 1987; Leaper
2000; Maccoby 1990). According to this social constructivist
model, all gendered attributes including gendered attitudes,
behaviors, femininity, and masculinity are dynamic and con-
text dependent (Deaux and Major 1998; Deaux and Major
1987). As such, I contend that gender identity is likely to vary
within an individual based on where they are, who they are
with, and what they are doing.
While Deaux and Major’s model is widely cited, I would
argue that the social constructivist approach has not substan-
tially changed how researchers study gender. This is reflected
in Wood and Eagly’s (2015) paper in that the authors only
cursorily consider the role of the context in gender identity.
Rather than becoming an issue of wide discussion, I believe
that the idea that gender may be affected by the context has
been quietly accepted and incorporated into theory in the gen-
der literature without inspiring a debate about when the con-
text matters and when context matters, or when gender is trait
like and when gender is state like. I also believe that theoret-
ical work that emphasizes the important role context plays in
determining gender identity and gendered attitudes, thoughts,
and behaviors has had minimal impact on how studies inves-
tigating gender differences are designed.
Wood and Eagly’s (2015) paper on the two traditions of
gender provides a useful starting point for those interested in
considering variability in gender identity. As such, in this
paper I build upon Wood and Eagly’s (2015) framework
by considering the ways in which the context may con-
tribute to variability in both traditions of gender identity
and how this variability can be assessed. Specifically, I
review both traditions of gender identity identified by
Wood and Eagly (2015) along with existing contextual
research for both traditions. I also provide suggestions
for how to measure the two traditions of gender identity
as contextual variables, and encourage researchers, in line
with Wood and Eagly (2015), to consider when measuring the
context matters, and when it does not. Unless otherwise noted,
all the research I cite in this paper was conducted in the U.S.A,
and any conclusions I draw or suggestions I make should be
interpreted with this in mind.
Gender Identity Based on Feminine and Masculine
Attributes
The first tradition of research on gender identity considered by
Wood and Eagly (2015) is gender identity based on feminine
and masculine attributes. This tradition of research comes out
of a research tradition that focuses on individual differences in
interests and personality (Wood and Eagly 2015). Wood and
Eagly (2015) describe measures that use masculine and
feminine interests to discriminate between male and female
research participants (gender diagnosticity; see Lippa and
Connolly 1990). These measures are specific to a sample,
and therefore may be more specific to the context in which the
sample was surveyed (see Lippa and Connolly 1990). Thus, in
this paper, I will focus on gender identity based on gender-
typed personality traits.
Gender research that has focused on individual differences
in personality examines gender-typed personality traits using
measures that ask people to endorse traits that they identify
with from a list of stereotypically masculine (e.g. aggressive,
competitive) or stereotypically feminine traits (e.g. caring,
passive; Wood and Eagly 2015). These traits are usually mea-
sured at one point in time, and participants are asked how
typical each trait is for them in general (Wood and Eagly
2015). This approach is based on the assumption that femi-
ninity and masculinity are stable over time and that they are
irresponsive to the context (Smith et al. 1999).
Personality psychologists have questioned the assumption
of stability in traits, acknowledging that whether personality
traits are stable or whether they vary based on contextual
factors has significant implications for their field (Fleeson
2004). If personality traits are stable, people should behave
consistently across contexts and situations (Fleeson 2004;
Funder 2006). This stability would enable researchers to
meaningfully describe people in terms of general traits that
could in turn be used to predict social and psychological out-
comes, such as happiness and longevity (Fleeson 2004). If,
however, the context or situation impacts a person’s behavior,
their behavior will be inconsistent across time and place
(Fleeson 2004: Funder 2006). If this is the case, describing
people according to general traits loses its meaning and
Sex Roles
Author's personal copy
5. usefulness (Fleeson 2004). With a few exceptions (see Deaux
and Major 1987; Leaper 2000; Maccoby 1990; Shields 2013),
how aspects of personality such as femininity and masculinity
vary according to context has received little attention from
gender researchers (Smith et al. 1999).
I believe that whether gender-typed personality traits are
stable or vary across contexts has important implications for
the study of gender identity as well as the broader field of
feminist psychology. Shields (2013) describes a reciprocal
cycle in which essentialized beliefs about gender differences
are popularized by the media, which in turn influences scien-
tific enquiry, which then informs the media. It is my view that
if we can illustrate that gender-stereotyped personality traits
are not in fact traits but rather states that vary according to
context, we may be able to break this cycle of gender essen-
tialism that serves to underscore gender differences rather than
acknowledging gender similarities (e.g. Hyde 2005).
Contextual Research on Feminine and Masculine
Attributes
The research on feminine and masculine attributes reviewed
by Wood and Eagly (2015) conceptualizes gender identity as
stable, being comprised of static traits that remain stable
across time and contexts (Berenbaum and Beltz 2011;
Shields 1993; Shields and Dicicco 2011; Smith et al. 1999).
If however, as argued by social constructivists, gender is not
stable, but changes across time, relationships, and contexts
(Anselmi and Law 1998; Berenbaum and Beltz 2011;
Shields 1993; Deaux and Major 1987; Deaux and Major
1998; Leszczynski and Strough 2008; Shields 1993; Shields
1998; West and Zimmerman 1987), measuring and describing
gender according to general traits loses its meaning and
usefulness.
While theoretical work in both personality and feminist
psychology has suggested that gender is contextually depen-
dent, only a few studies have investigated masculinity and
femininity as state variables (Smith et al. 1999). These studies
have investigated how gender traits vary according to the gen-
der of peers in the social context (see Pickard and Strough
2003 for an example).
Research investigating gender-typed traits and the peer
context during childhood has found that girls played less pas-
sively than boys when they were in same-gender pairs
(Maccoby 1990). In mixed-gender pairs, however, girls
played passively and allowed boys to dominate the toys
(Maccoby 1990). Similarly, male adolescents and college stu-
dents report greater identification with feminine traits when
they interact with girls and women in comparison to when
they are interact with boys and men (Leszczynski and
Strough 2008; Leszczynski 2009; Pickard and Strough
2003; Smith et al. 1999). While femininity varies according
to context for men, masculinity is less variable. Research with
college students has found that men endorse masculinity to the
same extent when they interact with men and when they in-
teract with women (Pickard and Strough 2003).
Research investigating how the social context affects en-
dorsement of femininity in adolescent girls and women has
produced mixed results. While some research suggests that
women’s femininity scores remain constant in same- and
cross-gender contexts (Smith et al. 1999), other research sug-
gests that women, similar to men, endorse femininity to a
greater extent when completing a task with same-gender
peers, especially when they have been instructed to work co-
operatively (Leszczynski and Strough 2008).
While there seem to be no consistent findings with regards
to when men and women report feeling more feminine or
masculine, this research supports theoretical suppositions that
femininity and masculinity vary according to the context
(Maccoby 1990; Smith et al. 1999). Consequently, I believe
that researchers and theorists interested in the tradition of gen-
der identity that incorporates gender-typed personality traits
should take context into consideration.
Measuring Feminine and Masculine Attributes in Context
As noted by Wood and Eagly (2015), the Bem Sex Role
Inventory (BSRI) and the Personal Attributes Questionnaire
(PAQ) largely conform to the two dimensional structure of
gender that is widely accepted in the literature. These mea-
sures are considered to be direct measures as they require the
participant to explicitly rate themselves by indicating how
likely a particular word or words describe them in general
(Wood and Eagly 2015; Smith et al. 1999). While both of
the BSRI and PAQ are commonly used to measure gender
identity, a major shortcoming of this measure is that it assesses
general traits and behaviors, and as such, does not acknowl-
edge that people may rate themselves differently in different
contexts (Smith et al. 1999).
Because methods commonly used to measure gender-
related phenomenon remove information about the context
from analyses, exploring contextual variability in gender mea-
sures proves exceptionally difficult (Jones and Heesacker
2012). As such, researchers have called for feminist psychol-
ogists to reassess how they measure gender, and to incorporate
different types of research methods into feminist research on
gender (Shields and Dicicco 2011). In their paper, Wood and
Eagly (2015) encourage researchers to use gender measures
that are compatible with the domain of interest of the outcome
variable. It is my belief that measuring contextual variability
in gender identity requires either using existing measures in a
creative way so as to incorporate the context, or requires the
development of new contextual methods for measuring gen-
der as a state, rather than trait, variable.
Research that has investigated contextual influences on
gender has largely used existing trait measures, such as the
Sex Roles
Author's personal copy
6. BSRI (e.g. Pickard and Strough 2003). To use trait measures
of gender stereotyped personality as state measures re-
searchers have modified the measures and administered them
to the same people either in different contexts or after an
activity believed to elicit gendered cognitions or behaviors.
For example, Pickard and Strough administered the BSRI
and the Child Sex Role Inventory (CSRI) to participants.
Several weeks later these participants completed a task
(playing a game of Jenga) with a female confederate, and
responded to state versions of the BSRI and CSRI that spe-
cifically asked participants to Breport how true the adjective
or statement is about yourself while you were working on
Jenga^ (Pickard and Strough 2003, p 425). One week later,
participants returned and completed the same task with a
male confederate, and once again completed state versions
of the BSRI and the CSRI (Pickard and Strough 2003).
Other studies have used similar protocols to investigate contex-
tual differences in femininity and masculinity (e.g. Leszczynski
2009; Leszczynski and Strough 2008).
I believe that experimental studies that have included re-
peated measurements of gendered states have made important
contributions to our understanding of the state component of
femininity and masculinity. It is important however, to con-
sider the contextual specificity of gender outside of a research
lab. Specifically, if we wish to develop a more complete
understanding of how context influences gender identity, I
believe that it is important to examine how masculinity
and femininity vary in real time and in people’s real-life
daily contexts.
Ecological Momentary Assessment (EMA) is a research
methodology in which highly variable phenomena are repeat-
edly measured across time and contexts (Larson and Richards
1994; Shrier et al. 2007). As such, EMA is ideally suited to
examine people’s femininity and masculinity in their daily
lives. Participants in EMA studies carry a device (e.g., a smart
phone) that randomly signals them across the course of a day,
prompting them to respond to a survey (Mehta et al. 2014).
EMA measures allow researchers investigate to masculinity
and femininity in context, increasing ecological validity and
reducing recall bias (Larson and Richards 1994).
In a relatively new program of research, my colleagues and
I piloted the use of EMA methodology to measure gender
identity in context (Mehta and Dementieva 2015a). We creat-
ed a shortened version of the BSRI, and used this to assess
gender identity in context over a 2-week period. Using this
measure, we found that gender identity varied over the course
of the study (see Fig. 1 for variations in masculinity over a 2-
week period, and Fig. 2 for variations in femininity over a 2-
week period). We also found that these variations were asso-
ciated with social context. Specifically, men reported greater
femininity when they were in the company of women, and
lesser femininity when they were in the company of men.
Both men and women reported greater masculinity when they
were in the company of men (Mehta and Dementieva 2015a).
Men and women also reported greater femininity when they
were at home in comparison to when they were at work or
school (Mehta and Dementieva 2015b). Based on the prelimi-
nary results of this research, EMA seems to be a promising
method for investigating gender identity in context.
Gender Identity Based on Self-Categorization
The second tradition of gender that Wood and Eagly (2015)
consider is gender identity based on self-categorization, or
gender-self concept. Before embarking on an exploration of
how contextual factors may interact with gender-self catego-
rization it is first important to understand the way in which
Wood and Eagly (2015) define and conceptualize gender self-
categorization. Wood and Eagly (2015) define gender self-
categorization as Bthe descriptive or prescriptive categoriza-
tion of oneself as female or male, along with the importance of
this categorization for ones self-definition^ (Wood and Eagly
2015, this issue). According to Wood and Eagly (2015), this
tradition of gender identity differs from the tradition of gender
identity that focuses on gender-typed traits in that the person
self-labels their gender identity, rather than responding to traits
selected based on researcher’s beliefs about gender identity
(Wood and Eagly 2015). I would also argue that these traditions
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0.20
0.40
0.60
0.80
1.00
1.20
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39 41 43 45 47 49
BSRIMaculinity
Observation
Fig. 1 Variations in masculinity over a 2-week period for one male
participant
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4.00
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1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 1719212325272931333537394143454749
Femininity
Observation
Fig. 2 Variations in femininity over a 2-week period for one female
participant
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7. differ in that the tradition of gender-typed personality traits
refers to a more visible or external gender identity, whereas
the second tradition of gender self-concept refers to a more
invisible or internal gender identity.
If gender self- categorization is an internal self-labeling of
social identity, I find it hard to argue that this type of gender
identity would vary according to contextual factors. In a
commentary on a paper about context and self concept,
Oosterwegel 2001 suggests that the context becomes in-
corporated into a person’s self-concept only if the person
reflects on their interaction with context and finds it to be
descriptive of who they believe they are (Oosterwegel
2001). Wood and Eagly (2015) describe how the gender
self- categorization process may occur during childhood. I
find it difficult, however, to conceptualize this process
taking place beyond childhood, (or possibly adolescence
and early adulthood for those who are not cisgendered).
Therefore, I would argue that whether one identifies as a
male or a female in terms of larger group membership is
likely to remain stable across contexts.
Wood and Eagly (2015) also make an argument for the
stability of gender self- categorization for people who are
Bchronically more likely that others to identify with their gen-
der group^ (Wood and Eagly 2015, this issue). However they
then go on to provide literature to support the argument that
gender self- categorization may be responsive to the context. I
believe that this contradiction is possible because of the broad-
ness of Wood and Eagly’s (2015) definition of gender self-
categorization.
While Wood and Eagly’s (2015) initial definition of gender
self- categorization appears to be narrowly focused on self-
definition, the inclusion of the importance of self-
categorization goes beyond the extent to which a person iden-
tifies with and feels psychologically connected to their gender
(which I would argue is concise definition of gender self-
categorization) to incorporate how salient their gender is. In
their consideration of measurements of gender self-concept,
Wood and Eagly (2015) stray even further from their original
definition and include measures that assess how important it is
for respondents to be similar to those of the same gender,
reaction time to gender-related words, and collective self es-
teem. I would argue that the first two types of measure assess
gender typicality, whereas the second type of measure
(collective self-esteem) measures gender positivity. Based on
the inclusion of these measures of gender self-concept I would
then argue that Wood and Eagly’s (2015) definition of gender
self- categorization is comprised of the extent to which a per-
son identifies with their gender, how salient their gender is to
them, how typical of their gender they feel, and how positively
they feel about their gender. As this definition is conceptually
complex, in order to properly address how the context may
impact gender self- categorization, each part of this definition
should be considered separately.
Contextual Research on Gender Identity Based
on Self-Categorization
As I argued above, the first part of this definition, the extent to
which a person identifies and feels a psychologically connect-
ed to their gender is unlikely to be affected by the context. The
importance of self-categorization, or gender salience, howev-
er, is likely to be affected by the context, and in fact this has
been demonstrated in a number of research studies. For
example, Wood and Eagly (2015) cite work by White and
Gardner (2009) that found an increase in gender salience when
people were the only person of their gender in an other-gender
group. Other research on contextual influences on gender sa-
lience found that in a sample of young swimmers gender was
salient during unstructured times out of the water, but less
salient when they were racing and comparing times in the
water (Musto 2014). This suggests that elements of self-
categorization may be more relevant in some situations than
others (Van der Meulen 2001).
Measuring Gender Self-Concept in Context
As noted above, Wood and Eagly’s (2015) broad definition of
gender self-concept is comprised of multiple components.
While these components are all interrelated, they are discrete
enough that I believe the context may affect each component
to a different extent. In my opinion, the first part of the defi-
nition, the extent to which a person identifies and feels psy-
chologically connected to their gender, is unlikely to be affect-
ed by the context. I believe that gender salience, gender typ-
icality, and gender positivity, however, may vary according to
contextual factors. As such, I recommend that efforts to mea-
sure changes in gender self-concept according to context
should focus on these components of gender self-concept.
There is, to the best of my knowledge, no research investigat-
ing contextual variation in gender typicality and gender posi-
tivity. There has, however, been limited research investigating
contextual variation in gender salience. One study, using be-
tween groups samples rather than within groups samples
placed participants in same-gender, mixed-gender or other-
gender (e.g. one female with two males) groups and measured
gender salience in these different contexts by observing
whether or not gender was mentioned in response to the probe
Btell me about yourself^ and Btell me what you are not^
(Cota and Dion 1986, p 771). Other, within subjects research
with swimmers (see above) used participant observation
methodology to observe participants' gender salience in two
different contexts (Musto 2014). I believe that it is clear from
the paucity of research in this area that there is a need to
develop better measures to examine how gender self- catego-
rization may vary according to the context. Similar to the
measurement of gender-typed personality traits, I believe that
EMA could be a useful approach to examine variations in
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8. components of gender self- categorization across con-
texts. To establish whether components of gender self-
categorization change according to context, I recommend
that researchers develop abbreviated measures of gender
typicality, gender positivity, and gender salience that can be
administered over time (e.g. 2 weeks) in people’s real-life
daily contexts.
While I have argued that the extent to which a person
identifies and feels psychologically connected to their gender
is unlikely to be affected by the context, EMA methodology
should be used to test this assertion. Psychology as a discipline
is heterocentric (Rawlins 2009), and my suggestion that a
person’s identification with and connection to their gender
does not change may reflect this heterocentric bias.
Wood and Eagly (2015) also call for the creation of more
specific measures of gender identity. This is a call that I re-
soundingly second. I think there is especially a need for more
measures of gender self- categorization, as this tradition of
gender identity is understudied and as noted in this paper,
predicts different attitudes and behaviors than trait measures
(see Mehta and Strough 2010 for an example).
Choosing the Right Measure of Gender Identity:
When Does Context Matter?
Wood and Eagly (2015) discuss how the principle of compat-
ibility should inform the measures that researchers select for
measuring gender identity. Specifically, they propose that re-
searchers investigating behaviors should use trait measures of
gender identity, whereas researchers investigating group-
related judgments (such as in-group favoritism) should use
measures of gender self- categorization. I propose that the
principle of compatibility should also inform how we measure
gender in context. Specifically, I contend that while the con-
text is an important consideration and should certainly not be
ignored by gender researchers, it may not always be central to
our research questions and as such may not always need to be
included in our research. For example, if a person is interested
in investigating individual differences in behavior regardless
of the context, it makes sense to ignore (or hold constant) the
context (Funder 2006). If, however, a person wishes to
explain differences within people, I believe that it is crucial
to investigate the role of the context in these differences.
Overall, I would recommend that researchers seeking to
elucidate information about stable traits should use trait
measures of gender identity, while researchers seeking to
elucidate information on variable states should use state
measures of gender identity.
As noted above, Wood and Eagly (2015) call for the crea-
tion of more specific measures of gender identity. In develop-
ing these measures, researchers should consider the role of the
context and whether there are elements of gender identity that
are stable and elements that are variable. Better understanding
of when gender is trait-like and when gender is state-like will
enable gender researchers to develop a more comprehensive
understanding of gender identity.
Conclusion
Wood and Eagly’s (2015) paper meaningfully contributes to
the literature on gender identity by organizing research and
theory about gender identity into two traditions. This is an
important contribution to the field as research on gender iden-
tity currently does not have a guiding framework in which to
organize and consider the many facets of gender identity.
In my opinion, this framework can and should be built
upon to include a consideration of the context. By considering
whether the context affects the two traditions of gender iden-
tity identified by Wood and Eagly (2015), I believe that we
can develop a richer understanding of gender as both a stable
trait and a contextual state. It is my view that understanding
which facets of gender identity are state like and which facets
of gender identity are trait like will enrich the study of gender
identity and may reduce gender essentialist beliefs that sug-
gest gender differences are a result of innate traits, rather than
situational factors that vary.
Acknowledgments The author would like to thank Yulia Dementieva
for creating the figures presented in this manuscript.
Ethics Statement IRB approval was granted for unpublished data pre-
sented in this paper. This unpublished data was collected in accordance
with APA ethical guidelines.
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