An Investigation into Public Attitudes towards Prostitution and Sexuality

An Investigation into Public Attitudes
towards Prostitution and Sexuality
Thesis presented as part of the requirements for Bachelor of Arts
Degree in Psychology, University College Dublin
by
Student: Nicole McCormack
Supervisor: Dr. Ciara Greene
10th April 2015

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Table of Contents
Title 1
Acknowledgments 2
Table of Contents 3
Abstract 4
Literature Review 5
Methodology 10
Results 14
Discussion 18
References 22
Appendices
• Appendix A 25
• Appendix B 29
• Appendix C 34
• Appendix D 38

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Abstract
The aims of this investigation were to construct a Public Attitudes towards Prostitution
Scale (PAPS) and subsequently, investigate public attitudes towards prostitution using
the PAPS, with regards to aspects of sexuality such as feminism and homosexuality. The
sample of 250 participants had an age range of 18-69 years, with females making up
62.4% and males the remainder. Methods of data collection used in this quantitative
independent research design include; an author-devised Public Attitudes towards
Prostitution Scale (PAPS), and two standardised measures also of Likert design; the
Modern Homonegativity Scale (MHS; Morrison & Morrison, 2003) and the short-form
FEM Scale (FEM; Smith, Ferree & Miller, 1975). Exploratory factor analysis with a
Varimax rotation was preformed, and yielded high loading scores for a five-factor
model. These five factors made up the PAPS and were subsequently analysed with
regards to the other standardised measures employed. Results concluded a significant
gender difference in attitudes towards prostitution; as the victimisation and
subordination of women, the social and legal acceptance of prostitution, and the
prostitute’s liberal choice to preform sex work. Furthermore, analysis of a correlation
matrix concluded several significant relationships between variables of the PAPS, and
the standardised measures of feminist attitudes (FEM, 1975) and negative attitudes
toward homosexuality (MHS, 2003). Weaknesses to this study included an unreliable
factor regarding social and legal acceptance of prostitution, as well as the use of the
possible outdated FEM (1975) scale; of which suggestive evidence was found that this
measurement of anti-feminist attitudes has morphed into a measurement of modern
anti-gender equalitarianism, or sexism. This research aimed through the use of the
PAPS, to aid societal awareness of the public’s own preconceptions regarding
prostitutes and prostitution, as well as to build upon previous academic discourse.

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Literature Review
Overview of the Research Problem
Prostitution can be defined or simplified as the exchange of sexual services for money
(Crooks & Baur, 2014), however this topic is a broad spectrum with many more aspects
to it, than simply a business transaction (Weeks, 2010). From ancient Greek and Roman
civilization where courtesans were educated women of high stature, to the
contemporary view of streetwalkers and ladies of the night, public attitudes towards
prostitution have varied throughout time. Modern public opinions and contemporary
beliefs about prostitution is a broad spectrum; with some viewing it as an expression of
sexuality (Grant, 2014), while others condemn it as an intrinsically violent and traumatic
activity, specifically promoting the subordination of women under men (Raymond,
1998). Prostitution has also been commonly referred to as the “world’s oldest
profession” (Zatz, 1997, p.278), and “the oldest form of oppression” (US State
Department, 2004). To this day perceptions are slow to change and prostitution remains
a controversial issue that seems split between bipolar camps of strong opinions; radical
feminism (Raymond, 1998) and social feminism (Jeffreys, 2005), with the middle ground
remaining silent and their voice muffled in past literature and research into attitudes
towards prostitution.
This debate has been raging in both academic and public circles as to the acceptability
of sex as work: prostitution, pornography, and the sex industry in general (Weitzer,
2005b). As a consequence, two opposing parties of opinion have formed within the
literature and research on prostitution. Many argue this research is tainted with bias, as
past researchers may have been susceptible to “ideological contamination” (Weitzer,
2005a, p. 935). Weitzer argues, along with many theorists before him, that those
responsible for researching prostitution have almost always allowed their own personal
biases and beliefs to impede the conduct of wholly objective investigations. These
distinctive and contrasting ideals of radical and social feminism, seem to present a
distorted and unbalanced representation of prostitution, of which Weitzer states is
“much more complex and variegated structurally and experientially” (Weitzer, 2000, p.
297).

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The first polarity, radical feminist theory, holds the view that prostitution is not done by
women, but to them. This view of sex work suggests that all forms of prostitution exploit
women and supports male dominance seen in many societies that perpetuates gender
inequality. It takes the stance that “prostitution is bought and sold rape” (Raymond,
1995), arguing that prostitution is a behaviour that is intrinsically violent and ultimately
forced sexual behaviour. Weitzer argues against this view and states that this is an
essentialist theory, which makes sweeping claims over all times periods and cultures
(2005a). In contrast, the second polarity, social feminist theory, assumes the control and
free agency of the sex worker. It argues the view that prostitution is a rationally chosen
profession and should be seen as an expression of the worker’s freedom of choice and
the liberation of their sexuality (Jeffreys, 2005). This ‘sex-as-work’ perspective assumes a
human’s right to sell their body and emphasizes the prostitutes free agency and choice.
Unsurprisingly, the majority of previous research conducted from these polarised camps
of opinion centers almost wholly on women and female sex workers. Beliefs about
women, and feminist attitudes in general, play an integral role when forming public
opinions, specifically student opinions, towards to female prostitution (Basow &
Campanile, 1990). Basow and Campanile’s study investigated the link between feminist
attitudes and attitudes towards prostitution with a sample of eighty-nine female and
male undergraduate students (1990). The students completed an author-devised
Attitudes Towards Prostitution (ATP) questionnaire, as well as a measure of feminist
attitudes (the FEM scale; Smith, Ferree & Miller, 1975). Results revealed that those with
strong pro-feminist attitudes, tended to view prostitution as a force that exploits
sexuality and encourages the subordination women below men. Overall women tended
to score more highly in the pro-feminist direction and were generally less accepting of
prostitution than men (Basow & Campanile, 1990). Nearly a quarter of a century has
passed and feminism seems to be a term almost as controversial as the term
prostitution, and just like prostitution there are with many conflicting views on the
definition of feminism - does it still possess a link with attitudes toward prostitution,
and does its 1975 definition (Smith, Ferree & Miller, 1975) still hold true to public
psychological attitudes and ideology of feminism forty years later?

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In parallel with the unbalanced focus of research into almost only female prostitution,
there appears to be a gap in the study and investigative interest into male prostitutes and
their work (Bimbi, 2008). Male prostitution has a long history, spanning centuries and
once being considered a societal norm and an integral part of Ancient Greek and
Roman civilization (Giles, 2009). Prostitution was equally open to and in demand of
both male and female workers, however female clientele looking to solicit male
prostitutes were a rare occurrence. This has not changed and is still a strong aspect of
contemporary male prostitution; generally male sex workers do not get many female
clients and the majority of their customers are male (Crooks & Baur, 2014). The link
between male prostitution and homosexuality has a long and distorted history. This
association has been documented as early as 1860, in the first major quantitative
homosexuality studies by F. Carlier, in Paris (as cited in Weeks, 1981), with further
significant literature emerging throughout the rest of the 19th
century. This literature
began to link homosexuality to prostitution both socially and legally, and presented the
twisted view of male prostitution as a “regulator of homosexuality” (Weeks, 1981, p.
127). Weeks writes “significant writings on male prostitution began to emerge
simultaneously with the notion of ‘homosexuals” (1981, p. 113).
In the 1980’s, researchers like Weeks (1981) began to focus on this association and
psychological impact it held for young gay men. Boyer (1989) argues that ‘prostitution
was a social fact in the life of gay males’ (p. 151), and how prostitution was associated
in both a legal and social context with homosexual identity in both societal attitudes and
the minds of the public (Boyer, 1989). This societal pressure and apparent link between
prostitution and homosexuality was evident in the minds of the masses in over thirty
years ago. As the topic of gender equality continues to be a driving force in both social
and academic spheres (Weeks, 2010); with a numerous nations accepting, or at the very
least debating, marriage equality and gay rights, it is crucial to investigate pathways of
public attitudes toward prostitution and the role homosexuality has to play within
psychological and societal perceptions (Bimbi, 2008). It is only through being informed
and aware of the spectrum of perspectives that we can achieve a holistic understanding
and elicit meaningful discourse on these complex concepts.
Recent decades have seen a rise in interest into prostitution legislation in many
developed nations such as Sweden, the Netherlands (Huisman & Kleemans, 2014), and

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now Ireland. From its legalisation in the Netherlands in 2000, to the introduction of a
recent bill in early 2015, to amend Ireland’s own laws on the issue, prostitution and the
sale of sex is becoming a growing political and thus public issue. Irish public attitudes
towards legislation regarding prostitution have not been formally addressed on the issue.
The new bill proposed by the Irish Minister for Justice recently in early 2015, introduces
amendments to the Act of 1993, which now prosecute the buyer of the sexual services
rather than the seller. This means that the selling of sex is not illegal, however to solicit
sex is; therefore it is those in demand of prostitution that will face prosecution (Benson,
2015). But what does this mean for the prostitutes themselves? Well for one they cannot
be prosecuted, however this too means that their work is pushed further underground,
with their clientele keen to hide from the authorities - sex work will dive deeper into the
black market (Grant, 2014).
This remodel of legislation is an adaption of what is commonly referred to as ‘the
Nordic Approach’ (Benson, 2015). These recent Irish reforms seem to echo the changes
made by the Swedish and Dutch to their own legislative laws on prostitution at the turn
of the millennia. In the year 2000, the Dutch authorities legalised brothels in the
Netherlands in and effort to regulate prostitution and eliminate human trafficking
(Huisman & Kleemans, 2014). Unfortunately recent literature has argued that these
efforts were in vain as legalizing this indoor prostitution sector has had no effect on
organised crime and with policies actually making is harder for law enforcement to
intervene, stating that “fighting sex trafficking using the criminal justice system may be
even harder in the legalised prostitution sector” (Huisman & Kleemans, 2014, p. 227).
Could Ireland be following down a path, which seems to possess unforeseen
complications, of which the prostitutes may suffer the greatest consequences? Therefore
the need for review and investigation of the general public’s attitudes towards
prostitution is required now more than ever, in a time when copied reformation of
legislation regarding prostitution is happening in our country.
Over the past 25 years there have been few standardised measures developed
specifically for investigating attitudes towards prostitution (Basow & Campanile, 1990;
Sawyer, Metz, Hinds & Brucker, 2001) and fewer yet that have succeeded in taking into
account all the aspects and possible influence’s to public attitudes towards a topic of
such complexity like prostitution (Levin & Peled, 2011). Both Sawyer et al, (2001) and

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Basow and Campanile (1990) developed separate Attitudes Towards Prostitution Scales
(ATPS), however Sawyer et al, specifically focuses on male consumers of prostitution
and their attitudes towards prostitutes (2001), while Basow and Campanile devised their
scale with regards to feminist attitudes towards prostitution (1990), making their
suitability for use with other populations unclear. One of the few studies that provides a
clear, theoretical framework for measuring attitudes towards prostitution is Levin and
Peled’s (2011) Attitudes towards Prostitutes and Prostitution Scales, which distinguishes
between attitudes towards prostitutes and prostitution. While this is a strong scale of
measurement, a limitation and future recommendation of the study included the need
for testing of attitudes in older populations, other countries and cultures. Thus there is
need for a contemporary and culturally diverse framework devised from validated scales
from previous literature on attitudes towards prostitution. This is crucial is a time when
countries remain uncertain of the public and social impact of their legislative laws on
prostitution.
The present study
This study aims to investigate into public attitudes towards prostitution and sexuality,
specifically feminist and homo-negative attitudes.
1. Hypothesis one states that there will be a significant difference in the attitudes
of male and female participants towards prostitution, as measured by the items
loading onto factors extracted from the Public Attitudes towards Prostitution
Scale (PAPS).
2. Hypothesis two states that there will be significant correlation between feminist
attitudes and one or more subscale factors of the PAPS.
3. Hypothesis three states that there will be a significant correlation between
homonegativity (negative attitudes toward homosexuality) attitudes and one or
more subscale factors of the PAPS.
.

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Methodology
Research Design
This study employs a quantitative independent group design with the use of three 5-
point Likert scale questionnaires. These three questionnaires make up the dependent
variables of positive or negative attitudes towards prostitution, feminist attitudes and
levels of homonegativity (negative attitudes or beliefs towards homosexuals).
Independent variables include participant information such as; age, gender, nationality,
sexuality, relationship status, education level and employment (see Appendix B).
Pilot Study
No pilot study was conducted as the existing standardized scales - the Modern
Homonegativity Scale (Morrison & Morrison, 2003) and the short form of the FEM
scale (Smith, Ferree & Miller, 1975) - are well validated following their use in previous
research regarding behavioural intentions towards gay and lesbian people (Morrison &
Morrison, 2011; Morrison, Morrison & Franklin, 2009), and feminist attitudes as a
variable in attitudes towards prostitution (Basow & Campanile, 1990). Furthermore a
large sample was required in order to complete a reliable factor analysis on the PAPS
results, thus conducting a pilot study on a pilot sample of approximately 30 people
would not be prudent (Tabachnick and Fidell, 2007).
Participants
There was a total of 250 participants present in this study, with, previous research also
suggesting that when conducting a factor analysis an absolute minimum of 100 cases is
needed (MacCallum, Widaman, Zhang & Hong, 1999) with further researchers advising
that closer to 300 participants is beneficial when validating a scale through factor
analysis (Tabachnick and Fidell, 2007). This study was made up of a mixed sample of
74% Irish, and 26% International participants (see Appendix B), with an age range of
18-69 years (𝜇 = 24.68, SD = 8.63). Females made up 62.4% of participants (n = 156),
with males the remaining 37.6%.
Apparatus
The online survey was supported, distributed and monitored with the use of a
Qualtrics.com free account. Further online methods were employed to recruit

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participants and direct the to the Qualtrics survey link, mainly through the use of
Facebook and direct email.
Materials
Using previous literature and research in this area the author developed the Public
Attitudes towards Prostitution Scale (PAPS; see Appendix A). The aim of the
researcher was to devise a modern form PAPS that serves 21st
century contemporary
society perspectives. The PAPS scale was devised as a blend of three previously
validated measurements (total 21 items) that investigate attitudes towards prostitution:
as a function of feminist attitudes (Basow & Campanile, 1990 - Items: 1, 2, 3, 16, 21, 29,
30 & 43); from the aspect of male consumers (Sawyer, Metz, Hinds & Brucker, 2001 -
Items: 7, 10, 29, 30, 36, 38 & 39); and within a student sample in Israel (Levin & Peled,
2011- Items: 8, 25, 28, 34, 40 & 42). Items from these scales were included in the PAPS
for their previous success in measuring student and consumer attitudes towards
prostitution, as well as their matching and easily comprehensible Likert format (see
Appendix A).
The author devised the remaining 29 items (Items: 4- 6, 11-15, 17-20, 22-24, 26-27, 31-
33, 35, 37, 41 & 44-50), with inspiration from not only the three references above but
also the main body of previous literature and research into people’s attitudes towards
prostitution, prostitutes, and the sex industry as a whole. Reliability measures were
conducted on all 50 items of the PAPS, resulting in a strong Cronbach’s Alpha of .731.
The use of two standardised measures to test attitudes towards homosexuality and
feminism were also employed, as previous literature has suggested a link between the
perceptions of feminism (Basow & Campanile, 1990) and homosexuality (Boyer, 1989),
and societal perspectives of prostitution.
i) Modern Homonegativity Scale (see Appendix A; Morrison & Morrison, 2003)
with 12 items measuring levels of negative attitudes towards homosexuals.
Items 73, 76, and 79 were scored, (Cronbach’s Alpha of .727).
ii) The short form Attitudes towards Feminism Scale (see Appendix A; Smith,
Ferree & Miller, 1975) with 20 items measuring feminist attitudes. Items 65, 66,
69 and 70 were reverse scored, (Cronbach’s Alpha of .770).

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These 82 items from the three scales were presented in a randomized order to
participants. Items were scored as 1- Strongly Agree, 2- Agree, 3- Neither Agree not Disagree,
4- Disagree and 5- Strongly Disagree except where items were reverse scored.
Procedure
Participants were recruited using mainly online media, like Facebook and direct email.
Participants were asked to complete the study, and were informed that their data would
be de-identified and thus anonymous. Furthermore they were reminded that they must
be over the age of 18 to take part and to not include their name anywhere on the survey.
Participants were presented with a link to the Qualtrics.com survey page. Once the
participant clicked on the link, the first page they were presented with was Information
Sheet about the survey and a Consent Form to document participation (see Appendix
D). In this form participants are given the option to allow the archival of their
anonymous data, or not allow but still participate in survey anyway. This consent to
participate section was made mandatory for participants to continue with the survey.
Once consent was granted, participants were presented with Participant Information
Questions (see Appendix B) and were asked to fill out some basic details characteristics
about themselves such as their age, nationality and gender. They were also asked two
specific questions; a) have they ever worked as a prostitute, and b) have they ever
solicited one? In addition to these questions a comment box was provided for those
who may have answered yes, and wanted to comment further.
Finally participants were presented with the main body of the survey in the form of a 5-
point Likert scale. Participants were asked to rate their agreement with a list of items on
ranging from Strongly Agree – Strongly Disagree. These items totaled to make up one large
and randomized online survey spanning approximately 4 webpages and taking up to 20
minutes to complete. Once participants had completed the survey they were presented
with a final thank you page, the researchers contact details and links to useful contacts
and support lines.

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Analysis
The primary data analysis began with the use of exploratory factor analysis to investigate
the resulting public attitudes towards prostitution. The author decided on an
Orthogonal Varimax method of factor analysis as resulting factors reflected strong and
complimentary factor loadings with the attitudes towards prostitution items. Factors
were extracted; those with Eigenvalues greater than 1 and above the main point of
inflexion on the scree plot (see Appendix C) were chosen and investigated further.
Theoretical strengths of the Likert (1932) method of devising an attitude scale of
measurement consists a cost-effective, straightforward and easily comprehensible
nature. Further advantages stand in its versatility, adaptability and accessibility to be
used with both parametric and non-parametric analyses (Eagly & Chaiken, 1993). “One
must recall that Likert-type data is ordinal data, i.e. we can only say that one score is
higher than another, not the distance between the points” (Jamieson, 2004, p. 1217),
thus it was decided that when analysing singular items it was prudent to treat the data as
ordinal. However once the items had been catagorised into subscales, and treated as full
scales (i.e. FEM, 1975 & MHS, 2003), the data was then viable as interval data (Carifo &
Perla, 2007), and parametric analysis were able for investigation.
Independent t-tests were employed when looking for a significant difference in resulting
attitudes between males and females, in regards to the resulting 5 factors of the
prostitution scale. With regards to the FEM (1975) and MHS (2003), factor analyses
were too conducted and resulting data was analysed using a Pearson Correlation Matrix.
Bonferroni correction was employed and the risk of Type I error was accounted for.
Therefore a 7x7 correlation matrix was conducted using the resulting seven factors
present in this study, to investigate any possible positive or negative relationships
present between the resulting factors (see table in Results below).
Ethics
The topics being discussed and attitudes assessed by the items in the scale are of a
nature that once the age of participation was age 18 or above, and the participants’
identities remained anonymous the ethical risks for this study were minimal. Voluntary
participation was documented through use of an Information Sheet and Consent Form,
(see Appendix C). Ethical approval was granted by the HREC (see Appendix D).

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Results
A 50 item Public Attitudes towards Prostitution Scale (PAPS: see Appendix A) was
devised using a blend of previous literature on prostitution and contemporary studies to
create a 21st
century measure for public attitudes. An exploratory factor analysis was
conducted in both oblique and orthogonal rotation on the results of these 50 items.
Orthogonal-Varimax method of rotation was decided upon, as the loadings of items
were clearer and coherent to previous literature. The resulting orthogonal factor analysis
revealed a total of 12 factors all of which possessed Eigenvalues greater than 1.
Investigation of the scree plot (see Appendix C) found that the plot possessed two
points of inflexion that allowed for two interpretations of the data; one option to
include only the first 2 factors and the other to include all of the first 5 factors. Upon
further investigation of the items within these first 5 factors, it was clear that the first
three factors were clear and separate groups of attitudes towards prostitution, whilst the
fourth focused on male prostitution and the fifth on more general and economical
aspects of prostitution – thus it was decided that all 5 factors would be included in the
analysis (see Appendix C). The following five factors represent the highest and strongest
loadings of items measuring prostitution, furthermore reliability analysis were conducted
for each factor.
Table 1: Factors extracted from Exploratory Factor Analysis
1. Victimization and Subordination
of Women
(Cronbach’s Alpha of .613)
Factor One mainly deals with negative, or non-
accepting attitudes towards prostitution
wherein the recurring themes between the
items were the belief that prostitution
reinforces the subordination and victimization
of women and exploits sexuality. Factor One
represents generally the radical feminist
approach towards prostitution.
2. Social and Legal Acceptance of
Prostitution
(Cronbach’s Alpha of -.106)
Factor Two focuses on the participant’s social
and legal acceptance of prostitution, and
whether there is anything really wrong with it,
and whether or not it should be regulated.
High levels of agreement with Factor Two
express openness to the existence of
prostitution and whether it should be made
legal.
3. Prostitution as Sex Work
Factor Three holds a liberal attitude towards
prostitution and expresses the beliefs that
prostitution is a chosen profession for the
prostitute who enjoys sex as work.

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A reliability analysis of the five PAPS items indicated a moderately reliable scale
(Cronbach’s Alpha of .661), however it must be noted that a weakness in this study was
the resulting reliability of the second extracted factor, Social and Legal Acceptance of
Prostitution, proved to be statistically unreliable (-.106). When this was accounted for
and Factor 2’s items removed, the reliability of the PAPS grew subtly to (.662).
Hypothesis one stated that there would be a significant difference between attitudes of
male and female participants towards prostitution; this was investigated by conducting a
series of independent t-tests on the 5 resulting factors with regards to gender. Results of
these analyses concluded that for variables 1, 2, and 3, there was a significant difference
present between males and females. Using an independent t-test:
Factor 1: Victimisation and Subordination displayed a significant difference (t =
3.462, df = 248, p<. 05) in participant’s responses, showing females to be more likely to
agree with prostitution as an activity that victimizes women and encourages their
subordination below men. In contrast males were more likely to disagree with these
views than women, this is clear from looking at the means of the male (𝜇=53.45, SD=
6.59) and female (𝜇 = 50.57, SD=6.22) scores.
Factor 2: Social and Legal Acceptance displayed a significant difference
between males and females within their acceptance both socially and legally of
prostitution. Males were more likely to accept prostitution and to agree with it’s
regulation, decriminalization, and legalisation than women (t = -4.560, df = 233.739, p <
.05). It is clear from looking to the means that females were less accepting of
prostitution with higher scores (𝜇=29.60, SD= 3.54), denoting greater disagreement
with the items in this variable than males (𝜇=27.78, SD= 2.72)
Factor 3: Sexual and Liberal Beliefs displayed a significant difference between
males and females with regards to their beliefs of prostitution as chosen sex work and as
a liberation of sexual freedom (t = -2.223, df = 248, p < .05). Males (𝜇=25.10, SD=
4. Beliefs about Male Prostitutes
Factor Four focuses mainly on beliefs about
male prostitutes; with a high level of agreement
denoting a strong association between
homosexuality and male prostitutes within
participant’s attitudes.
5. Economical/Environmental
Beliefs about Prostitution
Factor Five represents general attitudes and
beliefs towards the economical reasons people
enter prostitution and the environmental issues
that arise from it.

15
4.02) tended to score lower on this variable than females (𝜇=26.27, SD= 4.06),
illustrating a greater belief in the view that people choose to be prostitutes, enjoy their
work, and view it as representative of the power sex holds.
Factor analyses were conducted for the short form FEM (1975) scale and MHS (2003),
in line with previous research and use of these measurements one main factor was
extracted from each scale. In the case of the MHS (2003) high scores on this factor
indicated high levels of homonegativity, however in the FEM scale, only 14 out of the
20 items loaded heavily onto the one extracted factor; Items 52, 63, 64, 65, 66 and 70
failed to load (continued in Discussion).
Table 2: Correlation Matrix between five PAPS subscales, FEM (1975) and MHS
(2003).
**Correlations are significant; (p < .01)
*Correlations are significant; (p < .05)
Hypothesis two stated that there would be a significant relationship between one or
more factors from the PAPS and the FEM scale (Smith, Ferree & Miller, 1975). A
Pearson’s correlation was conducted and results illustrated a significant correlation
present between feminist attitudes and factors 2, 3, 4, 5 and 7 (see Table 2 above). The
strongest correlations present were positive and between FEM attitudes and; the
standardized MHS measure of homonegative attitudes (r = .601, p < .01) with
percentage of variance accounted for by this relationship at 36.12%; beliefs about male
prostitutes (Factor 4: r = .368, p < .01, with percentage of variance accounted for by
this relationship at 13.54%; and economical and environmental issues associated with
prostitution (Factor 5: r = .351, p < .01) and the percentage of variance accounted for
by this relationship at 12.32%.
Correlation Matrix 1 2 3 4 5 6
1. Victimization/
Subordination
2. Social/Legal -.083
3. Sex/Liberal Choice -.310** .398**
4. Male Prostitution .219** .150* .099
5. Economical/
Environment
.312** .098 .150* .406**
6. FEM scale .068 .251** .175** .351** .368**
7. MHS scale .008 .247** 0.101 .306** .292** .601**

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Hypothesis three stated that there would be a significant relationship between
participant attitudes towards male prostitutes (Factor 4) and homosexuality as measured
by the MHS (2003). A Pearson’s correlation (see Table 1 above) was conducted and
concluded the presence of a significant but subtle positive correlation between beliefs
about male prostitutes and MHS scores (r = .292, p < .01). The percentage of variance
accounted for by this relationship was 8.53%. This suggests that levels of positive or
negative views toward homosexuals are only slightly related to attitudes and beliefs
about male prostitutes and their work.
Furthermore a series of independent t-tests and one-way non-repeated ANOVAs
revealed significant differences between participants attitudes towards prostitution, as
measured by the variables of the PAPS, with regards to their age, gender, sexuality,
relationship status, employment status and education level (see Appendix B; Table 8).
Subsequently non-parametric Mann U Whitney tests revealed significant differences in
participants attitudes towards Factor 2: Social and Legal acceptance (Z= -3.278, p< .05)
and the standardised MHS (2003) measure (Z= -2.697, p< .05) displaying that those
who had solicited a prostitute before (n=9) were more likely to agree with the legal
acceptance of prostitution, as well as display greater levels of negativity in their attitudes
towards gay people, in comparison to those who had never solicited a prostitute
(n=241), however it is should be noted this was the majority of the sample size (96.4%).

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Discussion
Sex for reward, resource or pay has historically held an infamous, yet discreet position
within society (Weitzer 2005b; Jeffreys 2005). Moral views, values and beliefs have split
opinions down the line and created arguments both for and against this ‘profession’
(Weitzer, 2000). From the questions raised about current literature on prostitution,
people’s attitudes towards prostitution and the beliefs present about prostitutes, there is
a growing need for a contemporary 21st
century measure of public attitudes towards this
‘profession’ and it’s workers. This may help to even out the problematic imbalance
within the literature concerning prostitution, with an ever growing concern in the field
of academia that the research present on prostitution and the sex industry is extremely
‘lop-sided’ or biased in favour of the researcher’s own personal views (Weitzer, 2005c).
The main aims of this study were to develop a valid measure of public attitudes towards
prostitution scale (PAPS) and investigate them with relation to feminist attitudes (FEM
scale, 1975) and homonegative beliefs (MHS, 2003).
This first hypothesis of this study was to investigate public attitudes towards
prostitution and clarify whether gender has an effect on participants’ attitudes towards
prostitution. Using a series of independent t-tests, significant differences were found
between the attitudes of males and females towards prostitution. Females were more
likely to agree with the view that prostitution victimizes and subordinates women
(Factor 1), females on average tended to score lower- positively agreeing with these
items. In contrast men were more likely to view prostitution as socially and legally
acceptable (Factor 2), than women. Males scored lower, an indication a higher level of
agreement with these items as well as items regarding the prostitute’s free choice to
work in the sex industry (Factor 3). These gender differences were significant as they
highlight the main differences in males and females attitudes towards prostitution. Males
in general tend to be more agreeable with regards to accepting prostitution and also tend
to view prostitution as a voluntary choice on behalf of the prostitute. In stark contrast
women on average were more likely to disagree with this view. They possessed more
negative views of prostitution, were more likely to agree with items that focused on
prostitution as exploitation of sexuality and human dignity. These results were in line
with previous research conducted by Basow and Campanile (1990).

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The short-form FEM (1975) was chosen for this study, as the researcher was curious as
to how feminist attitudes have changed over the past half century, as the scale contained
quite strong anti-feminist items for example; The unmarried mother is morally a greater failure
than the unmarried father, and a woman to be truly womanly should accept chivalrous attentions from
men (see Appendix A). These statements seem quite outdated if not shocking to
contemporary public attitudes towards women. Previous literature suggests that pro-
feminist attitudes have a strong relationship with an unaccepting view of prostitution
(Basow & Campanile, 1990), therefore the second hypothesis of this study was set out
to investigate whether participants level of feminism still presented a strong positive
relationship with certain aspects of how the public views prostitution.
Investigation of the correlation matrix suggested a negative but weak relationship
participant’s responses on the FEM scale and Factor 1; an unaccepting view of
prostitution as the victimisation and subordination of women, this is in line literature
(Basow & Campanile, 1990). Furthermore a strong positive relationship with
homonegative attitudes as measured by the MHS (2003); a moderate relationship with
beliefs about male prostitutes (Factor 4); economic and environmental issues
concerning prostitution (Factor 5), and participants’ social and legal acceptance of
prostitution (Factor 2). Finally a subtle relationship was detected between feminist
attitudes and sexual and liberal beliefs towards prostitution (Factor 3).
The Modern Homonegativity Scale (MHS, 2003) was employed in this research to
investigate whether a relationship was present between participants’ attitudes towards
homosexuality and attitudes towards male prostitutes and their work. There is a long
record in our social history of homosexuality’s association with prostitution within
public attitudes (Weeks, 2010; Bimbi, 2008; Weeks, 1981), thus the third hypothesis in
this study investigated participants levels of homonegativity, and whether or not they
had any relationship with their attitudes towards prostitution. Participants scores on the
MHS (2003) correlated highest with responses to the FEM scale; with further positive
relationships present in factors concerning public beliefs and attitudes toward male
prostitutes and prostitution (Factor 4); economic and environmental issues concerning
prostitution (Factor 5), and participants social and legal acceptance of prostitution
(Factor 2).

19
When deciding to use the short form of the FEM (Smith, Ferree & Miller, 1975), there
were considerable concerns about the relevance of such an old scale to contemporary
attitudes. The use of this standardized albeit outdated measure was chosen for this
research as a means of comparing attitudes towards feminism and their possible change
over the last forty years. A factor analysis was conducted on the FEM (1975) scale, and
one main factor was extracted. Only 14 out of the 20 items loaded heavily upon this one
factor. Further investigation of the remaining 6 items concluded that these statements
seemed to be the only items relevant to contemporary 21st
century feminist attitudes, for
example: ‘A working woman who sends her six-month-old baby to a daycare center is a bad mother’
(item 63); and ‘Women should not be permitted to hold political offices that involve great
responsibility’ (item 64).
Furthermore the 14 items that did load onto the extracted factor, did so heavily and
seem to be more outdated and antiquated statements about women’s roles for example:
‘It is alright for women to work but men will always be the breadwinners’ (item 51) and, ‘A woman
who refuses to bear children has failed in her duty to her husband’ (item 59). Disagreeing with
these items in 1975 was a measure of pro-feminism, however the overall high scores
indicating high levels of feminism on average for participants in this study suggest an
overall attitude of gender equality, though it is noted women tended to hold slightly
stronger feminist beliefs than men. Thus high levels of agreement with the 14
statements that loaded heavily onto the main extracted factor seems to be more than
just a measure of anti-feminism, but in fact a measure of contemporary and modern
sexism. Therefore there seems to be suggestive evidence that the main factor extracted
from the FEM (1975) scale, is not feminism, but in fact sexism.
A methodological strength of this study included the use of the standardised measure of
modern homonegativity (MHS, 2003). This scale has been previously validated in
measurements of attitudes and behavioural intentions towards gay and lesbian people
(Morrison & Morrison, 2009; 2011). Furthermore this study contained a moderately
sized sample of 250 with participants spanning 26 different nationalities; however no
differences in attitudes towards prostitution, feminist attitudes or homonegativity levels
were found between Irish and International participants. A methodological weakness of
this study was the use of a possibly outdated FEM scale (Smith, Ferree & Miller, 1975),
as mentioned above there seems to be suggestive evidence that the main factor

20
extracted from the FEM (1975) scale, is not feminism, but in fact sexism. A further
limitation to this study was Factor 2: Social and Legal Acceptance of which proved to be
statistically unreliable.
This study attempts to address both the societal public attitudes and academic aspects
present in studying prostitution, by highlighting the change in public perceptions (with
regards to feminist attitudes) and the gender imbalance in the study of prostitution -
with females in the spotlight of research. Practical implications of this study include the
evident gender difference in attitudes with women being on average less accepting of
prostitution. It is the hopes of the researcher and those who have studying prostitutes
and their work before her, that continued and widespread psychological research of
prostitution will lead to a greater awareness of public perspectives and possibly a change
in these perspectives and leading to a decrease in stigma the stereotyping of prostitutes,
an increase in public and authorities respect, and empathy for prostitutes and their
individual scenarios (Grant, 2014). Thus in order to change public perceptions, we need
to be intricately informed about those perceptions and how they have changed
overtime. This research aimed through the use of the PAPS, to aid societal awareness of
the public’s own preconceptions toward prostitution, as well as to build on the academic
discourse regarding prostitution.
Future research is needed to investigate prostitutes attitudes towards their work, their
clients, and their industry. It is only through empathizing with sex workers and
investigating issues from their perspectives, that we can ever find a beneficial solution
(Grant, 2014). It is only through interviewing prostitutes themselves in an environment
that is not judgmental or authoritative, and listening to their concerns without
preconceptions, may we find a way to control prostitution without controlling the prostitutes.
In this sense a theoretical framework must be founded in order to construct a some
form middle ground, wherein both the prostitutes perspectives and the public attitudes
are taken into account - if there is any hope of reaching a successful solution to the
continuation of this age old profession.

21
References
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Attitudes towards Feminism in College Students. Psychology of Women Quarterly,
14, 135-141
Benson, S. (2015) Decriminalise outdoor prostitution. The Village Magazine (February)
Retrieved 13th
February 2015:
http://www.ruhama.ie/assets/Documents/Decriminalise-Outdoor-
Prostitution.jpg
Bernat, J.A., Calhoun, K.S., Adams, H.E. & Zeichner, A. (2001). Homophobia and
Physical Aggression Toward Homosexual and Heterosexual Individuals. Journal
of Abnormal Psychology, 110(1), 179-187
Bimbi, D.S. (2008). Male Prostitution: Pathology, Paradigms and Progress in Research.
Journal of Homosexuality, 53(1-2), 7-35
Boyer, D. (1989). Male Prostitution and Homosexual Identity. Journal of Homosexuality,
17(1-2), 151-184
Carifio, J. & Perla, R.J. (2007). Ten Common Misunderstandings, Misconceptions,
Persistent Myths and Urban Legends about Likert Scales and Likert Response
Formats and their Antidotes. Journal of Social Sciences, 3(3) 106-116
Crooks, R. & Baur, K. (2014) Our Sexuality (12th
Ed.) Belmont, CA: Cenage Learning
Ltd
Eagly, A.H. & Chaiken, S. (1993) The Psychology of Attitudes. New York: Harcourt Beace
Jovanovich Inc.
Grant, M.G. (2014). Playing the Whore: The Work of Sex Work. London: Verso
Giles, G.J. (2009) Sex after Fascism: Memory and Morality in Twentieth Century
Germany (Review). Journal of the History of Sexuality, 18(3) 526-532
Huisman, E. & Kleemans, E.R. (2014). The challenges of fighting sex trafficking in the
legalized prostitution market of the Netherlands. Crime, Law and Social Change 61,
215-228
Jamieson, S. (2004). Likert scales: how to (ab)use them. Medical Education, 38, 1217-1218.
Levin, L. & Peled, E. (2011) The Attitudes Toward Prostitutes and Prostitution Scale: A
new tool for measuring public attitudes towards prostitutes and prostitution.
Research on Social Work Practice, 21(5), 582-593

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Likert, R. (1932). A technique for the measurement of attitudes. Archives of Psychology,
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MacCallum, R. C., Widaman, K. F., Zhang, S., & Hong, S. (1999). Sample size in factor
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Malim, T. & Birch, A. (1998). Introductory Psychology, (Ch. 27 on Attitudes) London:
MacMillian Press Ltd
Morrison, M.A. & Morrison, T.G (2003). Development and Validation of a Scale
Measuring Modern Prejudice Toward Gay Men and Lesbian Women. Journal of
Homosexuality, 43(2), 15-37
Morrison, M.A., Morrison, T.G. & Franklin, R. (2009). Modern and Old-fashioned
Homonegativity Among Samples of Canadian and American Students. Journal of
Cross-Cultural Psychology, 40, 523-542.
Morrison, M.A & Morrison, T.G (2011). Sexual Orientation Bias Toward Gay Men and
Lesbian Women: M1odern Homonegative Attitudes and Their Association With
Discriminatory Behavioral Intentions. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 41(11),
2573-2599.
Raymond, J. (December 1995). PERSPECTIVE ON HUMAN RIGHTS: Prostitution Is
Rape That’s Paid For: The U.S military must have zero tolerance for this exploitation of
women and children, at home and abroad. Retrieved 1st
April 2015:
http://articles.latimes.com/1995-12-11/local/me-12813_1_human-rights
Raymond, J. (1998). Prostitution as Violence against Women: NGO stonewalling in
Beijing and elsewhere. Women’s Studies International Forum, 21(1), 1–9.
Sawyer, S., Metz, M.E., Hinds, J.D. & Brucker, R.A. (2001). Attitudes towards
Prostitution Among Males: “A Consumer Report” Current Psychology: Development,
Learning, Personality and Social, 20(4), 363-376
Shaw, M.E. & Wright, J.M. (1967). Scales for the measurement of attitudes. New York:
McGraw-Hill.
Smith, E., Ferree, E. & Miller, C. (1975) A short scale of attitudes toward feminism.
Representative Research in Social Psychology, 6, 51-56
Tabachnick, B.G., & Fidell, L.S. (2007) Using multivariate statistics (5th ed.) Boston:
Pearson Education
Vanwesenbeeck, I (2001). Another Decade of Social Scientific Work on Prostitution.
Annual Review of Sex Research, 12, 242-289

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Weeks, J. (1981) Inverts, Perverts, and Mary-Annes: Make Prostitution and the
Regulation of Homosexuality in England in the Nineteenth and Early Twentieth
Centuries. Journal of Homosexuality, 6(1-2), 113-134
Weeks, J. (1981). Sex, Politics and Society: The regulations of sexuality since 1800. New York:
Routledge
Weeks, J. (2010). Sexuality, (3rd
ed.) London: Routledge
Weitzer, R. (2000). Why we need more research on Sex Work. In Ronald Weitzer (Ed.)
Sex for Sale: Prostitution, Pornography and the Sex Industry. New York: Routledge
Weitzer, R. (2005a). Flawed Theory and method in Studies in Prostitution. Violence
Against Women, 11, 934-949
Weitzer, R. (2005b). The Growing Moral Panic over Prostitution and Sex Trafficking.
The Criminologist, 30(5), 1-5
Weitzer, R. (2005c) New directions in research on prostitution. Crime, Law & Social
Change, 43, 211–235
US Department of State (2004). The Link between Prostitution and Sex Trafficking.
Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking of Persons. Accessed on 27th
January 2015:
http://2001-2009.state.gov/r/pa/ei/rls/38790.htm
Zatz, N.D. (1997) Sex Work/Sex Act: Law, Labor and Desire in Constructions of
Prostitution. Journal of Women in Culture and Society, 22(2) 277-308

24
Appendices
Appendix A: Public Attitudes towards Prostitution and Sexuality online survey.
This list of 82 items in total made up the final scale, of which was presented to
participants in a randomized order. Attitudes towards these randomized statements
were measured using a 5-point scale where participants indicated their level of
agreement with each statement from Strongly Agree to Strongly Disagree.
Table 3: 50 Author-devised Items: Public Attitudes towards Prostitution Scale (PAPS).
1. Prostitution lowers the moral standards of the community
2. The majority of solicitation of prostitution takes place on the streets
3. Prostitution will always exist
4. Prostitution exists only because of the demand for it
5. Most prostitutes are of a low social economic status
6. Most prostitutes have had abusive or traumatic experiences through childhood or
adolescence
7. There is nothing wrong with prostitution
8. Prostitution spreads sexually transmitted diseases
9. As long as your partner does not know about it, there is not harm to a marriage from
soliciting a prostitute
10. If I were getting married, I would not mind marrying a prostitute
11. Most people will visit a prostitute once in their life
12. Prostitution damages human dignity and exploits sexuality
13. Prostitution is a positive outlet for an unavoidable activity
14. The entertainment and media industry has increased the demand for prostitution
15. Prostitution is mainly an urban activity
16. Women become prostitutes because they enjoy sex
17. Prostitutes are usually of a young age
18. Women become prostitutes out of financial desperation/economic necessity
19. Most prostitutes were lured, tricked or trafficked into the business
20. Prostitutes stop working in the sex trade once over a certain age, e.g. 55+
21. Prostitution exists due to the subordination of women under men in most societies
22. Prostitution reinforces the social subordination of women
23. Most men prefer young prostitutes
24. Prostitution demonstrates the power of sex that women hold over men
25. Prostitutes enjoy controlling men
26. Men go to prostitutes because they enjoy controlling women (in a sexual situations)
27. Prostitution only benefits men
28. Prostitution is a form of violence against women
29. Prostitution should be decriminalised (the undoing or repeal of laws, under which
certain acts are removed of their status as criminal or subject to prosecution)

25
30. Prostitution should be legalised (to make lawful, authorised and sanctioned by law)
31. Prostitutes are entitled to their own Union and benefits such as healthcare and
security in the workplace
32. Prostitutes are victims (of pimps, human traffickers and criminals) in a criminal cycle
33. Without prostitution, instances of rape would be higher
34. Prostitution is forced sexual behaviour
35. Prostitution should be completely eradicated.
36. Prostitutes genuinely like their clients
37. Most prostitutes get to choose their clients
38. Women are prostitutes because they want to be - it’s their own choice
39. Prostitutes enjoy their work
40. Prostitutes make a lot of money
41. Most prostitutes are criminals
42. Most prostitutes are drug addicts
43. Prostitutes wear a lot of make-up, high heels, flashy clothes and are generally
unattractive
44. Most male prostitutes are homosexuals
45. Most male prostitutes are submissive in nature
46. Female clients for male prostitutes are a rare occurrence
47. Most male prostitutes participate in cross-dressing
48. Female prostitution far outweighs male prostitution
49. Male prostitution is an expression of male sexuality
50. Male prostitution is an expression of homosexuality
References for corresponding Attitudes towards Prostitution Items:
• Basow, S.A. & Campanile, F. (1990). Attitudes Toward Prostitution as a Function of
Attitudes towards Feminism in College Students. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 14, 135-141.
v Items: 1, 2, 3, 16, 21, 29 (definition of decriminalized), 30 (definition of legalized),
and 43.
• Levin, L. & Peled, E. (2011) The Attitudes Toward Prostitutes and Prostitution Scale: A
new tool for measuring public attitudes towards prostitutes and prostitution. Research on
Social Work Practice, 21(5), 582-593.
v Items: 8, 25, 28, 34, 40, and 42.
• Sawyer, S., Metz, M.E., Hinds, J.D. & Brucker, R.A. (2001). Attitudes towards Prostitution
Among Males: “A Consumer Report” Current Psychology: Development, Learning, Personality and
Social, 20(4), 363-376.
v Items: 7, 10, 29 (statement), 30 (statement), 36, 38, and 39.

26
Table 4: 20 Items Measuring Feminist Attitudes, (FEM Scale; Smith, Ferree & Miller,
1975).
51. It is all right for women to work but men will always be the basic breadwinners.
52. A woman should not expect to go to the same places or have the same freedom
of action as a man*
53. Realistically speaking, most progress so far had been made by men and we can
expect it to continue that way.
54. A woman should be expected to change her name when she marries.
55. Women who join the Women’s Movement are typically frustrated and
unattractive people who feel they lose out by the current rules of society.
56. As head of the household, the father should have final authority over his
children.
57. A woman who refuses to give up her job to move with lher husband would be
to blame if the marriage broke up.
58. Profanity sounds worse generally coming from a woman.
59. A woman who refuses to bear children has failed in her duty to her husband.
60. Women are basically more unpredictable than men.
61. The ‘clinging vine’ wife is justified provided she clings sweetly enough to please
her husband.
62. One should never trust a woman’s account of another woman.
63. A working woman who sends her six-month-old baby to a daycare center is a
bad mother*
64. Women should not be permitted to hold political offices that involve great
responsibility*
65. It is desirable that women be appointed to police forces with the same duties as
men* (reverse scored)
66. Women have the right to compete with men in every sphere of activity*
(reverse scored)
67. A woman to be truly womanly must gracefully accept chivalrous attentions from
men.
68. The unmarried mother is morally, a greater failure than the unmarried father.
69. It is absurd to regard obedience as a wifely virtue (reverse scored)
70. Whether or not they realize it, most women are exploited by men* (reverse scored)
Note: (reverse scored) represents items that were reverse scored. A 5-point Likert-type
scale was used with the FEM scale (1=strongly disagree; 2=disagree; 3=neither; 4=agree;
5=strongly agree) with total scale scores ranging from 20 to 100. Higher scores denote
stronger feminist attitudes.
Those items marked with an * failed to load onto the one main extracted FEM factor.

27
Table 5: 12 Items Measuring Homonegativity Attitudes (MHS; Morrison & Morrison,
2003).
Items in this scale were adapted to be non-gender specific, for example: ‘Gay
men/Lesbians’ was replaced with ‘Gay people’. Furthermore, within Item 81: ‘Canadians’
tax dollars’ was amended to ‘the public’s taxes’ in order to be suitable for a general
population.
71. Many gay people use their sexual orientation so that they can obtain special
privileges.
72. Gay people seem to focus on the ways in which they differ from heterosexuals, and
ignore the ways in which they are the same.
73. Gay people do not have all the rights they need (reverse scored)
74. The notion of universities providing students with undergraduate degrees in Gay
and Lesbian Studies is ridiculous.
75. Celebrations such as “Gay Pride Day” are ridiculous because they assume that an
individual’s sexual orientation should constitute a source of pride.
76. Gay people still need to protest for equal rights (reverse scored)
77. Gay people should stop shoving their lifestyle down other people’s throats.
78. If gay people want to be treated like everyone else, then they need to stop making
such a fuss about their sexuality/culture.
79. Gay people who are “out of the closet” should be admired for their courage
(reverse scored)
80. Gay people should stop complaining about the way they are treated in society, and
simply get on with their lives.
81. In today’s tough economic times, the public’s taxes shouldn’t be used to support gay
people’s organizations.
82. Gay people have become far too confrontational in their demand for equal rights.
Note: (reverse scored) represents items that were reverse scored. A 5-point Likert-type
scale was used with the MHS (1=strongly disagree; 2=disagree; 3=neither; 4=agree; 5=strongly
agree) with total scale scores ranging from 12 to 60. Higher scores denote greater modern
homonegativity.

28
Appendix B: Participant Information
Participant Information Questions
Please fill in the details asked, but do not mention your name anywhere on the form;
• Age:
• Nationality:
• Gender: Male Female Other/Not specified
• Sexuality: Heterosexual Homosexual Bisexual Not specified
• Level of Education: Primary Secondary Tertiary Other
• Employment Status: Unemployed Part-time Full-time Full-time Student
• Relationship Status: None Short-term (less than one year) Long-
term(Greater than one year) Married/Civil Partnership Divorced/Separated
• Have you ever participated in prostitution?
Yes No
• Have you ever solicited a prostitute?
Yes No
If answered yes to either of the last two questions above, and would like to expand please do so
here;

29
Table 6: Participant Sample Statistics
Participant Information Items Frequency/Percentage
Sample Size 250 participants
Age Range 18 - 69 years
Nationality Irish – 74%
International – 26%
Gender Male – 37.6%
Female – 62.4%
Other/Not specified – 0%
Sexuality Heterosexual – 84.8%
Homosexual – 8%
Bisexual – 6.4%
Other/Not specified – 0.8%
Relationship Status Single – 50.4%
Short-term (less than one year) – 10.4%
Long-term (more than one year) – 27.2%
Married/Civil Partnership – 11.6%
Divorced/Separated – 0.4%
Employment Status Unemployed – 8%
Part-time – 31.2%
Full-time – 11.6%
Full-time Student – 49.2%
Education Level None – 0.4%
Primary Level – 0%
Secondary Level – 4.4%
Third Level – 89.2%
Other – 6%
Have you ever worked as a prostitute? Yes – 0.4%
No – 99.6%
Have you ever solicited a prostitute? Yes – 3.6%
No – 96.4%

30
Table 7: Participant Nationality Information
26 Nationalities that Participants
identified with:
Frequency of
Participants:
Percentage % of
Participants:
American 8 3.2
Austrian 4 1.6
Croatian 2 0.8
Dutch 2 0.8
English 2 0.8
Filipino 1 0.4
German 8 3.2
Hungarian 1 0.4
Icelandic 9 3.6
Irish 185 74
Northern Irish 1 0.4
Israeli 1 0.4
Italian 2 0.8
Latvian 1 0.4
Lithuanian 1 0.4
Malaysian 1 0.4
New Zealander 1 0.4
Polish 6 2.4
Portuguese 1 0.4
Romanian 1 0.4
Russian 3 1.2
Scottish 1 0.4
Slovakian 1 0.4
Slovenian 1 0.4
South African 4 1.6
Spanish 2 0.8

31
Table 8: Participant Independent Variables Table of Results
A series of independent t-tests and one way non-repeated ANOVAS were conducted in
order to investigate any significant differences in participant attitudes towards
prostitution, with regards to gender, age, nationality, sexuality, relationship status,
education level and employment status. Significant differences within the sample of 250
participants are listed in the table below.
Participant Independent Variables Table of Results
Gender: there was a significant difference present between males and females for
Factors 1, 2, 3, and the standardized measures; the FEM (1975) scale and & the MHS
(2003) scale. There were 156 females and 94 males in this study.
1: Victimisation and Subordination: (t = 3.462, df = 248, p<. 05)
Male (𝝁=53.45, SD= 6.59) and female (𝝁 = 50.57, SD= 6.22) mean scores.
2: Social and Legal Acceptance: (t = -4.560, df = 233.739, p < .05)
Male (𝝁=27.78, SD= 2.72) and female (𝝁=29.60, SD= 3.54) mean scores.
3: Sexual and Liberal Beliefs: (t = -2.223, df = 248, p < .05)
Male (𝝁=25.10, SD= 4.02) and female (𝝁=26.27, SD= 4.06) mean scores
FEM (1975) Scale: (t = -3.399, df = 159.937, p < .05)
MHS (2002) Scale: (t = -3.610, df = 248, p < .05)
Age: Range of 18-69 years (𝝁 = 24.68, SD = 8.63)
5: Economical and Environmental Beliefs: (t = -3.610, df = 248, p < .05)
Participants >30 years (𝝁=19.30, n=37, SD= 3.29) and participants < 30years
(𝝁=17.14, n=213, SD= 3.36) mean scores.
Sexuality: Heterosexual (n=212), Homosexual (n=20), Bisexual (n=16) and
Other/Not specified (n=2).
MHS (2003) Scale: (F = 4.169, df = 3, p < .05)
Dunnett’s C post hoc analysis - significant difference lay between the attitudes of
heterosexuals and homosexuals, with heterosexuals denoting greater homonegativity.
(Upper bound confidence interval at .3 and close to zero)

32
Relationship Status: Single (n= 126), Short-term (n= 26), Long-term (n= 68),
Married/Civil Partnership (n= 29), and Divorced/Separated (n= 1).
Employment Status: Unemployed (n= 20), Part-time (n= 78), Full-time (n= 29), and
Full-time Student (n= 123).
Education Level: None (n= 1), Primary (n= 0), Secondary (n= 11), Third (n= 223),
and Other (n= 15).
Note: No significant difference was found in attitudes towards prostitution measured
by variables on the PAPS, between Irish (n=185) and International (n=65) participants.

33
Appendix C: Exploratory Factor Analysis Loadings using Orthogonal-Varimax
Rotation.
Figure 1: Scree Plot from Exploratory Factor Analysis
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Orthogonal (Varimax) Factor Analysis Scree Plot

34
Table 9: Prostitution as the Victimisation and Subordination of Women (17 items)
Reliability analysis concluded a Cronbach’s Alpha of .613, displaying this variable as
moderately reliable.
Factor One Victimisation and Subordination
(.737) Prostitution reinforces the social subordination of women
(.724) Prostitution is a form of violence against women
(.682) Prostitution exists due to the subordination of women under men in most
societies
(.673) Prostitutes are victims (of pimps human traffickers and criminals) in a
criminal cycle
(.635) Most prostitutes were lured, tricked or trafficked into the business
(.623) Men go to prostitutes because they enjoy controlling women (in sexual
situations)
(.608) Prostitution damages human dignity and exploits sexuality
(.602) Prostitution is forced sexual behaviour
(- .563) There is nothing wrong with prostitution
(- .508) Women are prostitutes because they want to be – its their own choice
(.502) Prostitution only benefits men
(.499) Prostitution spreads sexually transmitted diseases
(- .492) Most prostitutes get to choose their clients
(.471) Prostitution should be completely eradicated
(.460) Most prostitutes have had abusive or traumatic experiences through
childhood or adolescence
(-.411) Prostitution is a positive outlet for an unavoidable activity
(.357) The entertainment and media industry has increased the demand for
prostitution

35
Table 10: Level of Social Tolerance and Legal Acceptance of Prostitution (10 items)
Reliability analysis concluded this factor as unreliable (Cronbach’s Alpha of -.106).
Factor Two Social and Legal Acceptance
(.838) Prostitution should be decriminalised (the undoing or repeal of laws, under
which certain acts are removed of their status as criminal or subject to
prosecution)
(.813) Prostitution should be legalised (to make lawful, authorised and
sanctioned by law)
(.758) Prostitutes are entitled to their own Union and benefits such as healthcare
and security in the workplace
(- .684) Prostitution should be completely eradicated
(-. 575) Prostitution lowers the moral standards of the community
(.540) There is nothing wrong with prostitution
(-.458) Prostitution damages human dignity and exploits sexuality
(.441) Prostitution is a positive outlet for an unavoidable activity
(.361) Prostitution will always exist
(-. 314) Most prostitutes are criminals
Table 11: Prostitute as an active voluntary agent – expression of prostitute’s sexuality
and choice (8 items). Reliability analysis concluded a Cronbach’s Alpha of .786, displaying
this variable as strongly reliable.
Factor Three Sexual and Liberal Attitudes
(.735) Prostitutes genuinely like their clients
(.704) Women become prostitutes because they enjoy sex
(.691) Prostitutes enjoy their work
(.532) Prostitutes enjoy controlling men
(.467) Male prostitution is an expression of male sexuality
(.437) Women are prostitutes because they want to be – its their own choice
(.415) Most prostitutes get to choose their clients
(.354) Prostitution demonstrates the power of sex that women hold over men

36
Table 12: Male prostitution items – Beliefs about Male Prostitutes (5 items)
Factor Four Beliefs about Male Prostitution
(.763) Most male prostitutes are homosexuals
(.670) Male prostitution is an expression of homosexuality
(.633) Female clients for male prostitutes are a rare occurrence
(.453) Most male prostitutes participate in cross-dressing
(.355) Most male prostitutes are submissive in nature
Table 13: Beliefs about Prostitutes – Economic and Environmental Issues (6 items)
Factor Five Environmental and Economic Issues Concerning Prostitutes
(.656) The majority of solicitation of prostitution takes place on the streets
(.592) Prostitution is mainly an urban activity
(.490) Most prostitutes are of low economic status
(.456) Prostitutes make a lot of money
(.400) Most prostitutes are drug addicts
(.327) Female prostitution far outweighs male prostitution
Table 14: The remaining items did not load onto any significant factors
1. Prostitutes wear a lot of make-up, high heels, flashy clothes and are generally
unattractive
2. Prostitution exists only because of the demand for it
3. Women become prostitutes out of financial desperation/economic necessity
4. As long as your partner does not know about it, there is not harm to a marriage
from soliciting a prostitute
5. If I were getting married, I would not mind marrying a prostitute
6. Most people will visit a prostitute once in their life
7. Prostitutes are usually of a young age
8. Prostitutes stop working in the sex trade once over a certain age, e.g. 55+
10. Without prostitution, instances of rape would be higher
11. Prostitution demonstrates the power of sex that women hold over men

An Investigation into Public Attitudes towards Prostitution and Sexuality

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