Master Thesis

DESTINATION BRANDING
AND
SPOTLIGHT CULTURAL EVENTS
Media narratives of Eurovision and Finland
Chrysoula Skodra

DESTINATION BRANDING
AND
SPOTLIGHT CULTURAL EVENTS
Media narratives of Eurovision and Finland
Master’s Thesis
Arts Management
Chrysoula Skodra
Spring 2010

ABSTRACT
r Thesis
1 Written work
Title Number of pages
Destination branding and spotlight events 124
Author Semester
Chrysoula Skodra Spring 2010
Degree programme Programme option
Arts Management Arts Management
Abstract
Place branding and cultural tourism are not new phenomena. Nations have always branded themselves
through their mythology, anthems, symbols, currency, and names. Places have always competed for
spectacular infrastructure and eye-catching buildings. In today’s Experience Economy, due to a global shift on
immaterial, experiential satisfaction, the role of spotlight cultural events is central to destination branding.
My research interests are threefold: first, to discover how spotlight cultural events contribute to place
branding; second, how event brand image benefits destination brand image; third, how media contribute to
the co-branding of destination and event brand images through storytelling. Spotlight events act: a) as
branding and image-making tools, b) as travel motivators and c) as a media strategy to battle an image crisis.
The theoretical framework consists of theories from the fields of place branding, cultural tourism, cognitive
psychology, and media and communication studies. Associative network memory theory and co-branding
theory explain how destination and event brand images are linked in order to enhance or change image. Also,
the role of media in shaping urban reputation and influencing public opinion and behaviour is vital.
Following a qualitative approach in the case study of the Eurovision Song Contest in Helsinki, I discover how
media narratives portray event and destination images and stereotypes and how they act as catalysts for
image transfer between events and destinations. Storytelling offers a creative way of how branding should be
done in practice. Keeping the spotlight on cities requires a holistic, interdisciplinary and creative approach to
destination branding with spotlight cultural events as the focal point.
Keywords
Destination branding; spotlight events; cultural tourism; media narratives; Fairy-tale Model; Eurovision Song
Contest; Finland; Helsinki; image transfer; co-branding; experience economy, creative city
Additional information

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF FIGURES III
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS IV
1. INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Setting the scene: Description of the research field 3
1.2 Main research questions, purpose and objectives 4
1.3 Positioning of this research 5
1.3.1 Previous research on the topic 7
1.3.2 Contribution to the arts management field 7
1.4 Definition of key terms 9
1.5 Theoretical background 12
1.6 Structure of the report 14
2. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK 16
2.1 Place branding 16
2.1.1 Place branding: the historic context 16
2.1.2 Why place branding has a bad brand? 17
2.1.3 Why places need branding? 19
2.1.4 Place branding terminology 19
2.1.5 Brand image and image transfer 21
2.1.6 Destination branding – a new role for culture 26
2.2 Spotlight events and destination branding 29
2.2.1 Defining spotlight events 30
2.2.2 The power of spotlight events 31
2.2.3 Spotlight events as a motivator for travel behaviour 33
2.2.4 Spotlight events as a branding tool and image-makers 36
2.2.5 Spotlight events as a media strategy 38
2.3 Media, spotlight events and destination branding42
2.3.1 The role of media in place image 42
2.3.2 Media images and public image of place 44
2.3.3 Media narratives and place 47

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3. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 50
3.1 Scientific orientation of the study 50
3.2 Research approach and methods 50
3.3 Appropriateness of the chosen methods 52
3.4 Research process of the study 56
3.4.1 Selection of case study 56
3.4.2 Collection of the data 57
3.4.3 Analysis and interpretation of the data 58
4. THE GRAND MEDIA NARRATIVE OF EUROVISION, HELSINKI
AND FINLAND 60
4.1 Eurovision narratives: From national shame to national pride 60
4.1.1 True Fantasy: The fairytale of Finland’s victory 62
4.1.2 Eurovision and National Music Representations 72
4.1.3 Eurovision and National Identity 73
4.1.4 Eurovision and European Identity: Centre and Periphery 75
4.2 Place narratives: National identity and image 80
4.2.1 Images of Finland 81
4.2.2 Finland and music representations 84
4.2.3 Images and Stereotypes of Finns 89
4.2.4 Images of Helsinki 91
4.3 Discussion of Finland’s past, present and future 97
5. CONCLUSION 102
5.1 Summary of the study 102
5.2 Key contribution of the thesis 102
5.3 Managerial implications 103
5.4 Recommendations 104
5.5 Limitations and suggestions for future research 106
BIBLIOGRAPHY 110
APPENDIX A 123

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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1. Positioning of this research 6
Figure 2. A graphic representation of an association set or mental map 23
Figure 3. Image transfer between events and destinations 26
Figure 4. The multi-purpose use of spotlight events 33
Figure 5. The Fairy-tale Model 64
Figure 6. Finland’s Eurovision Song Contest Fairy-tale 66
Figure 7. The Story Model 71
Figure 8. Friendship blocs in the Eurovision Song Contest 77

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to thank Springer Science+Business Media for their kind permission to
reuse the illustrations shown in Figure 5 and Figure 7.
Special thanks to Johanna Korhonen from Greater Helsinki Promotions Ltd. for
allowing me to use the folder with the precious news material collected from
around the world covering the Eurovision Song Contest in Helsinki. Also, a warm
thank you to Antti Pelkonen for allowing me access to his article for the ‘Twelve
Points’ book.
I am grateful to the City of Helsinki and researcher Vesa Keskinen for allowing
me to use the photographs on the covers of this thesis. All rights remain to the
City of Helsinki. Also, I would like to thank Anja Hämäläinen for her help with
the graphics shown in Figures 1, 3, 4 of this study.
Finally, I express my appreciation to Timo Cantell and Tanja Vilén for their
helpful comments on earlier versions of this study.

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“National image is like starlight which, by the time it reaches us on Earth, is only
the distant echo of an event that started and finished long before.”
Simon Anholt

1
1. INTRODUCTION
Place branding is not a new phenomenon. Many cities have managed to build a
reputation for themselves and make a lasting impact on public perception as
cultural and tourist destinations for years. Just as in everyone’s mind Rome is the
Eternal City and Paris the City of Lights.
During ancient times, travellers visited the Parthenon, the Great Pyramids and
were spectators at the Olympic Games, religious festivities or theatre festivals. In
the late 16th
century, the Grand Tour served as an educational rite of passage for
Europe’s aristocratic youth, who travelled in order to discover the cultural legacy
of classical antiquity and the Renaissance.
Historically, compelling architectural structures had a particular symbolic value of
national identity and played a vital role as image signifiers of places. Indeed,
signature buildings such as the Eiffel Tower, the Parthenon and the Great
Pyramids are inherent parts of how we understand and think of the countries and
cities they are situated in. But, in the so-called ‘experience economy’ we are
living in, the increased importance of intangible elements of places is growingly
fuelling destination branding. Along with the marvelous masterpieces of
architecture, cities are associated with headline catching events such as the
Olympic Games, the European Capital of Culture and the Eurovision Song
Contest.
Therefore, ‘headline catching events’ act as important communication devices for
destinations in the same way ‘eye-catching buildings’ assist in turning a place
with a contradictory, weak or negative image into an internationally recognized
centre for culture and the arts. Contemporary cities have been relying to signature
buildings such as the Frank Gehry’s Guggenheim Museum in order to boost their
image and create their own “Bilbao-effect” (Jansson & Power, 2006). Currently,
more countries, regions and cities find branding through events to be a realistic
way of differentiating by providing “immaterial and experiential stimulation”
(Jensen, 2007).

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Nowadays it seems we have truly entered “the age of special events” (Janiskee
1996: 100 cited in Morgan, Pritchard & Pride 2002: 277). Cities, regions and
nations acknowledge the power of spotlight events and compete with others to
host some of the world’s most spectacular sports and cultural events. This global
competition is no longer limited to the capitals and the big metropoleis; it directly
affects every urban settlement that desires to be placed on the global map.
Accelerated and intensified globalization has lead to a situation where the main
competition is no longer the neighbouring city, but where competitors are half a
world away.
Despite the complexity of place branding, in recent years both public and private
actors have been busy re-imagining cities by trying to create new images or
dealing with image crises. Branding efforts often commence based around culture,
which helps places to successfully establish a positive image and reputation on
people’s minds. In the words of Michael Hamilton, founder of the London-based
brand consultancy The Hamiltons: “Liverpool, Edinburgh and Paris are
successfully branded cities. They ooze the most culture.1
”
However, there is substantial critique that iconic buildings, flagship projects and
major events tend to contribute to the “Disneyization” (Bryman, 2004) of society,
where urban spaces tend to resemble Walt Disney’s theme parks with
standardized events and similar looking buildings. Yet destinations acknowledge
the power of special events because they offer rare opportunities for them to
perform on a national or international stage and enhance the chances of building
their reputation and ‘emerging on the map’ amongst a plethora of other competing
places. Also, due to the media coverage major cultural events attract, they truly
put cities in the spotlight and under the microscope, which can be a double-edged
sword for cities or more of a mirror of truth since a place’s problems are also
highlighted.
The role of a positive image enhances the chances of a destination to build its
reputation and brand image and to gain a foothold in the international
1
The Guardian (1 October 2008)

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marketplace. Place branding through major cultural events is an important tool for
destinations to perform in the global competitive game and a ‘hot’ topic in current
affairs discussions.
This study will try to explore the reasons why destinations are consciously
engaging in place branding and what they hope to gain, how spotlight cultural
events contribute to destination brand image, and what is the role of media in
creating and developing destination brands through storytelling.
1.1 SETTING THE SCENE: DESCRIPTION OF THE RESEARCH
FIELD
This research is based on three pillars: culture, tourism and media. Anholt
(2007:101) points out that “Culture is next-door to tourism (indeed cultural
tourism is often identified as the highest-yielding and fastest-growing area of
tourism), and it is the area that can start to make a connection between people’s
interest in the place itself and their interest in the life of the place.” Therefore,
cultural tourism is an essential part of destination branding efforts.
Also, media, which broadly belong to the cultural industries, act as catalysts for
the sectors of culture and tourism to interrelate. Media create compelling stories
and place imagery that can easily influence the readers’ travel behaviour. In the
case of major cultural events and place branding, the role of media is to add new
information in the public’s knowledge about a destination and associate the event
image with the destination image, which can lead to adding destinations on a ‘to
visit’ list and motivate travelling towards a destination to attend a special one-off
event.
Indeed, public knowledge about foreign events, including major cultural or sport
events but also catastrophes, war and international crises relies heavily on mass
media. While people usually become aware of occurrences in their immediate
environment from direct contact with the events, they learn about events that
occur in more distant places primarily from the media. Moreover, due to new
arms of media such as the Internet, a wider number of people dispersed in every
corner of the globe can be reached.

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Finally, my exploration into the research field between destination branding,
cultural tourism and media focuses on spotlight events and will attempt to
uncover their power in image-making by a case study analysis of the media
narratives of Finland’s victory in the Eurovision Song Contest and media images
of Helsinki as a host city (Chapter 4).
1.2 MAIN RESEARCH QUESTIONS, PURPOSE AND OBJECTIVES
Despite the growth of place branding and cultural tourism, little attention has been
given to the ways that events can impact a destination brand image. Apart from
the short-term benefits created by spotlight events such as the boost to the local
economy and tourism, they act as branding tools with a long-lasting impact on
destination image due to the immense international media coverage they attract
and the power of the media at influencing public perceptions.
This research discusses implications of the use of events in destination branding
with a long-term perspective. The strategic role of spotlight events and the
catalytic role of media in brand image creation are focal topics in this research.
Spotlight events are perceived as threefold entities based on their contribution to
destination branding: a) as branding and image-making tools, b) as travel
motivators and c) as a media strategy to battle an image crisis.
The main argument of this thesis is that spotlight events due to the media
coverage they attract can have long-term impact on destination image and cultural
tourism. This thesis posits that special one-off events can be used as media
strategies for places suffering an image crisis and if the media coverage is used
appropriately then positive place image is associated with event image, which can
lead to positive implications for future tourism. It is important that cities, regions
and countries capitalize on spotlight events and turn their short-term assets to
long-term benefits and competitive advantages in the attraction of investments,
creative people and tourists.
I strongly believe in the power of events and media in shaping city image. My
research focus is on cultural events and media’s role in destination branding. My
research interests are threefold: first, to discover how spotlight cultural events

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contribute to city branding; second, how event brand image benefits destination
brand image; third, how media contribute to the co-branding of destination and
event brand images through storytelling.
In the media content analysis of the chosen case study (Chapter 4), my research
questions are the following: first, how the Eurovision Song Contest as a spotlight
cultural event contributed to the brand image of Helsinki and Finland; second,
how event and place media narratives contribute to place image as a tourist
destination; third, how national images and stereotypes of Helsinki and Finland
are depicted in the media narratives.
Although authors note the importance of various arms of the media in influencing
how we interpret cities, there is little detailed case study analysis. (Boland, 2008)
This study contributes to the research field an examination on how places are
represented, constructed and imagined through the international media and how
spotlight events affect the construction of destination brand image in the media.
This paper offers a contribution to that aspect of the literature with particular
attention focused on news media and the Internet and their impact on social and
spatial imaginations of places.
1.3 POSITIONING OF THIS RESEARCH
This study reflects upon my personal interests as they have been formulated
through academic and professional experiences. My studies in Communication
and Media in Athens University, Greece and in the Arts Management master’s
degree programme in Sibelius Academy, Finland as well as my working
experience in Athens 2004 Olympic Games and in the media, culture, and tourism
sectors in Finland all shaped my desire to bring pieces of knowledge from
different fields together into a coherent and fruitful unit.
Due to personal experience and observation, I have identified that a number of
cities that hosted spotlight events in sports and culture are unable to keep the
spotlight on them, when the lights of the event turn down. There is a lack of
understanding of the major role spotlight events play in city image in a long-term
basis and an inability of collaborative actions among various stakeholders. My

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main concern is how to establish legacy and maintain the positive image on
destinations that host spotlight events that require large expenditures from
taxpayers and sacrifices from citizens and the local community.
This research contains knowledge from the fields of place branding, cultural
tourism and media. In the intersection of these three fields is my research project
as depicted in Figure 1. My approach is interdisciplinary since a number of
perspectives contribute to this research on destination and event brand image. The
foundation theories employed to prove my main thesis come from place branding,
cultural tourism, cognitive psychology, and media and communication studies.
Figure 1. Positioning of this research
Tourism studies, media studies, arts and cultural management studies and, in
particular, event studies are closely related professional fields that have solid
research and are growing in importance but still they might not be accepted as
distinct academic fields. However, all these fields deal with events and could
benefit from the study of spotlight events and the impact of media on destination
image, which can propel urban reputation and have a positive impact on tourism.

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My perspective to the topic focuses on how destination image is portrayed in the
international news media before, during and after hosting a spotlight cultural
event and what kind of spillover effect occurs when the destination and event
brands are paired. In Chapter 4, the content analysis of news media narratives of
Finland, Helsinki and the Eurovision Song Contest is going to unfold city and
national images and stereotypes along with event narratives.
1.3.1 PREVIOUS RESEARCH ON THE TOPIC
In the past, Pajala (2007) from the University of Turku has examined material of
Eurovision coverage in the Finnish national press regarding the ESC 2002. Also,
Pelkonen (2008) examined the international media coverage of Eurovision Song
Contest in Helsinki.
In addition, the City of Helsinki, one of the main partners in organizing the ESC
2007, commissioned an impact assessment of the Eurovision Song Contest in
order to evaluate the impressions of the public, the Eurovision partners and the
service companies of the Helsinki Metropolitan Area. The study, which was
carried out by Kilpeläinen and Laakso (2008) from Kaupunkitutkimus Oy (Urban
Studies Ltd.), is comprehensive but its focus is mainly on the economic impact
and the expectations of the organizers and the involved stakeholders.
I have drawn interesting ideas and conclusions from the research previously made
on the subject; however, my focus is clearly on how the international news media
portray Finland’s and Helsinki’s image and whether hosting the Eurovision Song
Contest 2007 in Helsinki contributes to the destination image or stereotype
enhancement (or not) and how.
1.3.2 CONTRIBUTION TO THE ARTS MANAGEMENT FIELD
The growing importance of special events and their complex nature makes this
study of major cultural events and their impact on destination image relevant to
many interdependent fields. The unique contribution of this research is that it
places culture and events at the heart of activities of various stakeholders and
sheds light to a key piece of the puzzle by offering an insight on the how special

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events can be used in a sustainable way to enhance destination image, attract
media coverage, and increase tourism.
The contribution of my research to the arts management field lies in the
cooperative opportunities for arts organizations, tourism organizations and city
authorities in creating memorable spotlight events and a legacy in their urban
reputation. The growth in special events demands the synergy between arts
organizations and tourism organizations in an urban context.
A destination’s current brand has been shaped by its history, policies and actions
to date. In order to change a place brand, it is important to understand its de-facto
brand, which requires a thorough review of the destination’s local and national
policies, an examination of the way the key stakeholders cooperate and an
assessment of how the destination’s is perceived by internal and external
audiences and the media. Only when the image of a destination is known and how
it is positioned in people’s minds, then desired image makeover can take place.
The media content analysis of how cities and nations are portrayed when they
host events shows what the current destination brand image is and how
storytelling can be used as an effective branding tool in order to create powerful
place images with. Getting involved in a storytelling experience has been the
essence of knowledge sharing and entertainment since our ancestors told tales
around the fire; today, media serve as storytellers since people gather in front of
their television or computer screens to get informed about distant places and
events.
This research attempts to increase the knowledge of the event studies component
in arts management and highlight creative ways in achieving objectives within the
cross-fertilization of the various fields of knowledge and practice. Events offer
potential for arts managers, tourism professionals and media professionals in
creating spellbinding stories that would create urban myths and build a lasting
reputation for destinations.

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1.4 DEFINITION OF KEY TERMS
Branding is a commonly used term in the corporate world, where companies often
change and reinvent themselves. However, the language and rhetoric of business
is commonly used in the public sector in many nations, cities and regions around
the world. It has become common practice for those working in urban affairs to
talk about how cities can ‘compete’ and how they can ‘sell’ themselves.
But when applied to places the chosen terminology seems to be problematic. For
some, the words ‘brand’ and ‘branding’ “embody notions of manipulation, deceit
and superficiality” (Dinnie, 2008: 251). On one hand, Jansson and Power (2006)
criticize urban branding and admit that it represents “a commodification of urban
space: the city becomes a product to be sold in competition with other similar
products.” On the other hand, Olins argues branding businesses and branding
nations have a lot in common: “They create myths, special languages,
environments that reinforce loyalties, colours, symbols, and quasi-historical
myths. They even have heroes (cited in Morgan, Pritchard & Pride, 2004: 23)”.
Tourism marketing, place marketing, place promotion, nation branding, city
management, reputation management, competitive identity, and public diplomacy
are some of the terms professionals use to label the actions undertaken by places
in order to make them appealing to tourists, investors, immigrants, and local
citizens by creating an inviting image.
I personally prefer the term ‘destination branding’. Destination branding
encompasses the concept of travelling towards a destination and that connects
with my thesis that culture, in general, and events, in particular, are chosen as
media strategies and act as travel motivators and image-makers for destinations.
As presented in Dinnie (2008), three are the key elements of branding theory:
brand identity, brand image and brand positioning. In this study, I focus on brand
image and I use Dinnie’s (2008: 42) definition that “image refers to how
something is perceived”. In this research, two brand images are of interest, the
destination brand image and the event brand image. Two theories, associative
network memory theory and co-branding theory, shed light to what happens when

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places host spotlight events and how image transfers between the destination and
event images in the public’s perception as it is formulated by news media
representations.
Therefore, destination image and event image are central terms that help to unfold
the theoretical framework of the thesis. Destination image is defined as “the sum
of beliefs, ideas and impressions that a person has of a destination” (Crompton,
1979: 18 cited in Xing & Chalip, 2006) and event image is outlined as “the
cumulative interpretation of meanings or associations attributed to events by
consumers” (Gwinner, 1997: 147, cited in ibid.).
Due to the new cultural landscapes formed in a context of shifts and
transformations in society and global economy, destinations have started to
realize the role of culture and the impact of cultural events on destination image.
Also, the terms ‘experience economy’ (Pine & Gilmore, 1999) and the ‘creative
city’ (Landry, 2000) that have emerged in the fields of urban branding and arts
management are growing prominent amongst researchers, policy makers, arts
professionals and tourism professionals.
According to Landry (2000), a good quality of life is to be used as a competitive
tool among destinations and the role of culture and tourism in providing
experiential, leisure and fun activities is vital for urban settlements. In the
experience economy, the competitiveness between places is no longer solely
reliant on material conditions like natural resources or built infrastructure but it is
a consequence of intangible elements of places such as cultural events. Events are
alternatives to iconic, signature buildings because they act as animators of urban
spaces bringing the place alive and creating powerful images for citizens and
international visitors. Urban spaces are seen as a stage for events to unfold and the
built environment becomes a backdrop.
The focal point of this study is major events. Special, hallmark, spotlight or mega-
events are few of the terms found in the literature of various fields to describe
them. Although some might be used interchangeably, there are nuances in each of
them that make them more relevant than others in certain situations. For instance,
the term ‘special event’ encompasses knowledge from many fields such as

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marketing, event studies, leisure studies, tourism management, arts and culture
management, sport management, and communication and media studies.
Consequently, Jago and Shaw (1998: 29, cited in Morgan, Pritchard & Pride,
2004: 280) offer a thorough definition of ‘special events’:
“A one-time or infrequently occurring event of limited duration that
provides the consumer with a leisure and social opportunity beyond
everyday experience. Such events, which attract, or have the potential
to attract, tourists, are often held to raise the profile, image or
awareness of a region.”
For the purposes of this research, I agree with Smith, who believes that from a
branding perspective, it is more appropriate to label these events ‘spotlight
events’, due to the fact that they “truly put places in the spotlight”, which,
subsequently, “the opportunities they afford destination brand managers” (ibid.,
264).
Here is my own definition of spotlight events and their characteristics:
“Events of a unique and festive nature, with their own status, prestige
or brand image, of a limited and fixed duration and one-off or
infrequent occurrence that attracts immense media attention on the
host cities. Spotlight events usually involve a number of stakeholders
and organizers that plan and control the event while a live audience is
present at the physical event location(s) experiencing the event’s
unique atmosphere.”
Since the ancient times, special events in sports and culture have always been an
important motivator in the mobility between cities, regions and nations. In recent
times, the number of special events is increasing substantially over time and event
tourism is now a vibrant, and dynamic field of study and research. The term
‘event tourism’ (Getz, 1997), which formalized the link between events and
tourism, was coined in the 1980s and has been defined as “the systematic
planning, development and marketing of festivals and special events as tourist
attractions, catalysts, and image builders” (Getz & Wicks, 1993: 2).

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Lastly, public knowledge about foreign events relies heavily on mass media. Mass
news media have the power to decide what to cover (or not), to filter information
and allow what becomes (or not) news and how places and events will be
portrayed and what images will be presented. In this research, media are seen as
‘gatekeepers’, ‘agenda-setters’ and ‘image-makers’.
Shoemaker (1991) characterizes news media and journalists as “gatekeepers”,
who have the power to filter ideas and information and decide what stories are
published and become news. Additionally, McCombs and Shaw (1972) pointed
out that the gatekeeping concept is related to the concept of “agenda-setting”.
Hoare (1991) explains that, “newspapers’ mass circulation makes them a
powerful, aggressive agent and that they translate this power into decisions
regarding what to cover (or not to cover)” (cited in Avraham & Ketter, 2008: 32).
1.5 THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
Nations have always branded themselves as their regimes and circumstances have
changed through their symbols, currency, anthems, names and so on. Even though
the practice of nations (re-) branding is not a new phenomenon, urban literature
became popular only during the 1980s in Europe and a little earlier in the Unites
States.
Place marketing is growing in popularity the last two decades due to the constant
efforts of western countries to transform from the industrial to the post-industrial
era. Industrial cities carry images of economic problems, pollution, negative
immigration and social unease, [while] post-industrial cities project images of
clean streets, high-tech industry and residents with high socio-economic status
(Avraham & Ketter, 2008: 12). As an answer to an image crisis, local
stakeholders in many nations, regions and cities responded by developing image-
makeover strategies designed to replace negative images with new dynamic place
imagery in order to lure investment, entice new residents and attract tourists.
Place marketing and place branding can be found in cities around the world: it is
now a global phenomenon. This is reflected in the growth of a substantial body of
work on place marketing (Ashworth & Voogd, 1990; Holloway & Hubbard,

13
2001; Jessop, 1998; Paddison, 1993) and place branding (Dinnie, 2004;
Kavaratzis & Ashworth, 2006; Olins, 2002). The literature evaluates the tools
used to ‘re-image’, ‘re-invent’ and ‘re-position’ the city; in fact, they indicate the
transition from ‘selling places’ to ‘marketing places’ to ‘branding places’.
In this study, the focus is on place branding, the role of spotlight events as image-
makers and travel motivators and the catalytic role of media narratives in the
process. Kotler et al. (1993) identify the value of events in enhancing image of
destinations and in attracting tourists and media attention. Place marketing
provides a framework within which cultural events find multiple roles, as image-
makers, tourist attractions and media strategies.
Furthermore, Brown et al. encourage exploring further “the role that events can
play as catalysts for development and in helping to build an image for a region
that will attract longer-term visitation” (cited in Morgan, Pritchard & Pride, 2004:
283). The power of events to attract visitors and visitor spending on a short-term
basis, as well as their ability to attract a tremendous amount of media coverage, to
raise awareness and improve destination image of the host region for future
tourism is present in the literature of place branding, cultural tourism and media
studies. Both short-term and long-term impacts of events on destinations are
described by Smith as the “tangible and intangible byproducts [which] are the
legacy of a place” (ibid., 263).
Although the majority of events have probably arisen for non-tourist reasons,
there is clearly a trend to exploit them for tourism and to create new events
deliberately as tourist attractions (Getz, 1989: 125 cited in Morgan, Pritchard &
Pride, 2004: 282). However, it seems that the focus of the research that has been
conducted to date is on the economic impact of special events. Despite the growth
of event tourism, little attention has been given to the ways that events can impact
a destination’s brand image. In this part of the study, the implications of the use of
events in destination branding are seen through a long-term perspective and how
they contribute to future tourism though destination image narratives.
Undoubtedly, spotlight events can be an important motivator for travel behaviour.
This study argues that the ability of spotlight events to raise awareness of the host

14
region for future tourism is a sustainable act of image enhancement with longer-
term impacts on the host cities.
Jago et al. (2002, 2003) believed there was substantial potential for events to be
used in destination branding but that neither event nor destination managers do a
good job in harnessing that potential (cited in Getz, 2007: 142). Co-branding
between events and destinations is one strategy gaining popularity (Brown et al.
2001, Chalip & Costa, 2006). The intent is to reinforce the destination’s brand
with compatible events, which cause a transferral of positive images.
Indeed, spotlight events attract media coverage to the host city as well as
thousands of journalists, tourism writers, world-class athletes or artists, fans and
tourists that seek to be part of a unique experience. While under the spotlight, the
city itself has an opportunity to gain positive media exposure for its benefit in
creating a positive image and, subsequently, attracting prospective or repeated
visitors.
Avraham and Ketter (2008) highlight the mass media as powerful agents in
presenting, constructing and re-constructing images of events, places and people.
McRobbie and Thornton refer to the influential role that media play in
‘constructing meanings’ (1995: 561) about people and places and how this affects
the public’s mindset.
In the words of McRobbie and Thornton (ibid.: 570) “social reality is experienced
through language, communication and imagery”. This paper examines how news
media form social reality through language and imagery by creating powerful
images of people and place and shaping the perceptions of outsiders through
storytelling.
1.6 STRUCTURE OF THE REPORT
Chapter 1 introduces the purpose of this research. It presents the main research
questions, a summary of the theoretical background, and defines the key terms
used in this study. Also, the introductory chapter offers an insight to my own
interests as a researcher, how the topic was initiated as well as it presents this

15
research’s unique contribution in the field of arts management. It concludes by
describing the structure of the report.
Chapter 2 forms the theoretical foundation of the study. It defines the core
concepts of the study and gives the theoretical foundations of the research topic
through a literature review on place branding, brand image theories, the
experience economy, the characteristics of spotlight events and the catalytic role
of media narratives as image creators for destinations. The historic contexts of the
theories and their interdependence are also critically discussed.
Chapter 3 focuses on research methodology. It introduces the research approach
and methods and describes how the qualitative media content analysis research on
the Eurovision Song Contest 2007 and the image of Helsinki and Finland will be
conducted. Chapter three explains how the empirical data will be collected,
analyzed and interpreted and discusses issues regarding the appropriateness of the
chosen methods as well as possible problems.
Chapter 4 consists of the case study description and analysis of media narratives
and images of Helsinki and Finland that were triggered by the international media
attention given to Helsinki when the city hosted the Eurovision Song Contest in
2007. During the analysis of the international news media of the ESC 2007
fairytale themes were discovered and analyzed in the context of storytelling
within a spatial dimension. The analysis focuses on Finnish national identity,
image and stereotypes projected in the media and, in addition, gives an account of
how media portray travel destination image.
Chapter 5 presents the conclusion of the study. It gives a summary of the results,
presents a theoretical contribution together with managerial implications for arts
managers and makes recommendations. The limitations of the study and
directions for future research are also pointed out. In the concluding part, a few
research topics or themes that have emerged from the findings of this research are
presented. Due to the limitations of this study, certain aspects of the phenomenon
were not covered but hopefully this study opens up interesting areas for further
exploration in destination branding through cultural spotlight events that attract
media coverage.

16
2. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
2.1 PLACE BRANDING
Place marketing has existed since colonial times, when colonial governments tried
to persuade people to move to the newly conquered territories (Gold, 1994 cited
in Avraham & Ketter, 2008: 5). Paddison (1993) observes that the concept of
‘place marketing’ (which some label ‘place promotion’ or ‘city management’)
became popular in European urban literature only during the 1980s and a little
earlier in the Unites States (cited in Avraham & Ketter, 2008:5).
2.1.1 PLACE BRANDING: THE HISTORIC CONTEXT
Olins, one of the world’s most experienced brand practitioners, explains how
France has presented a new symbolic version of itself both internally and
externally, each time its reality has been modulated: “Under Vichy [dictatorship],
France was rebranded yet again; the Republican slogan, or as branding people
would put it strapline, ‘libetré, egalité, fraternité’2
was replaced with ‘travail,
famille, patrie’3
” (cited in Morgan, Pritchard & Pride, 2004: 18). Moreover, Olins
mentions that, “sometimes they [nations] invented or reconstructed national
myths, for instance Finland’s Kalevala; sometimes they even invented a new
language, such as Israel’s modern Hebrew” (cited in Morgan, Pritchard & Pride,
2004: 21).
Currently, many nations are seeking ways to enhance their image, demonstrate
their tourist potential or develop brands both for domestic consumption and for
export. In the words of Olins: “In order to compete effectively on a world stage
they [nations] need all the resources that contemporary branding techniques can
offer” (cited in Morgan, Pritchard & Pride, 2004: 23). He continues by giving the
example of Scotland: “Scotland is OK: although it is a small country, it has been
around for a long time; it has tartans, kilts, Scotch whisky, the Highlands,
2
Liberté, égalité, fraternité, French for “Liberty, equality, fraternity (brotherhood)”, is the
national motto of France, and is a typical example of a tripartite motto. It finds its origins in the
French Revolution.
3
Travail, famille, patrie, French for “Work, family, fatherland” was the motto of the Vichy
France government during World War II. It replaced the republican Liberté, égalité, fraternité of
the Third French Republic.

17
Braveheart and the Edinburgh Festival” (cited in Morgan, Pritchard & Pride,
2004: 23).
To put the evolution of nation branding into yet wider historical perspective, it
could be claimed that nations have always branded themselves- through their
symbols, currency, anthems, names and so on- and that is just the terminology of
nation branding that is new, rather than the practice itself (Dinnie, 2008: 20).
2.1.2 WHY PLACE BRANDING HAS A BAD BRAND?
Place branding is perceived by some critics as an offensive term applied to cities,
regions and nations, despite the fact that history proves that almost every nation
has reinvented itself as its regimes and circumstances have changed. Branding is a
commonly used concept in the corporate world, where companies often change
and reinvent themselves. Anholt (2007: 3) states that, “the task of promotion,
positioning and reputation management on a global scale is a familiar one in the
world of commerce: corporations have been facing it for more than a century, and
this is how the techniques of brand management have emerged.”
Even though the phenomenon of nations (re-) branding is not new, the chosen
terminology seems to be problematic. According to Olins, the reasons “why the
word ‘brand’ acts like a red rag to a bull on some people” are three: snobbery,
ignorance and semantics (cited in Morgan, Pritchard & Pride, 2004: 23). Olins
explains that it is not the ideas the critics of nation rebranding argue about, but
rather the semantics of the term ‘brand’ that bring bad connotations, “image and
national identity are fine but ‘brand’ sticks in the gullet” (cited in Morgan,
Pritchard & Pride, 2004: 22).
Similarly, Brown observes that the words ‘brand’ and ‘branding’ generate mixed
responses, “for some, the words are innocuous descriptors of elements and
practices of the commercial world; for others, the words embody notions of
manipulation, deceit and superficiality” (cited in Dinnie, 2008: 251).
Olins advocates that the techniques used by the commercial sector and nations
alike are similar since, “many brands help to create a sense of identity, of
belonging: just like the nation” (cited in Morgan, Pritchard & Pride, 2004: 25).

18
Although analogies should not be taken too far, Olins acknowledges that branding
businesses and branding nations do have a lot in common:
“They create myths, special languages, environments that reinforce
loyalties, colours, symbols, and quasi-historical myths. They even
have heroes: Richard Branson and his heroic ballooning trips, Jack
Welch, the legendary hero of GE, and Anita Roddick, the staunch
defender of sustainable environments, to mention just three” (ibid.,
23).
On the contrary, Anholt (2007: 3) challenges the above view stating that, “there
are more differences than similarities between countries and companies, but some
of the theories and techniques of brand management can, if intelligently and
responsibly applied, become powerful competitive tools and agents for change
both within the country and beyond.”
Jansson and Power (2006) view the idea of branding a city or a place in the same
way as one might brand a commercial product as unproblematic. They
acknowledge however that, “Just as in the USA, the language and rhetoric of
business is now commonly used in the public sector in relation to Nordic cities
and regions. It has become common practice for those working in urban affairs in
the public sector to talk about how cities and regions can ‘compete’ and how they
can sell themselves.”
On the other hand, Jansson and Power (2006) criticize urban branding and admit
that it represents “a commodification of urban space: the city becomes a product
to be sold in competition with other similar products.” The authors address the
danger that “by attempting to commodify the city and build on its competitive
strengths (as all good businesses do) many interests and groups can be left out or
marginalized”. Yet Jansson and Power (2006) do not suggest neglecting the
importance of image for cities or regions but rather imply that it should
acknowledge the differences between selling a product and improving a cities
image or brand.

19
It is necessary to understand why destinations are consciously engaging in place
branding and what they hope to gain. The following chapter demonstrates why
branding is important for places.
2.1.3 WHY PLACES NEED BRANDING?
Avraham and Ketter (2008: 12) claim that place marketing is growing in
popularity the last two decades due to the constant efforts of western countries “to
transform from the industrial era to the post-industrial era.” Industrial cities carry
images of economic problems, pollution, negative immigration and social unease,
[while] post-industrial cities project images of clean streets, high-tech industry
and residents with high socio-economic status (ibid.).
Each nation, region or city face their own problems and crises, such as criminality
and terrorism, illness and epidemics, unemployment and social injustices, as well
as extreme climatic conditions such as typhoons, tsunami or earthquakes. Also,
images of boredom, lack of social and cultural amenities and negative stereotypes
play a critical role in place branding. These challenges impact the image of the
place to international visitors and damage its tourism.
While cities with long history continue to attract tourists, investors, immigrants,
and talent, others that have not been so privileged, try to battle their way to
travellers’ top choices. That is the reason why a positive image enhances the
chances of a city to start building its brand image and reputation in order to
‘emerge on the map’.
2.1.4 PLACE BRANDING TERMINOLOGY
A plethora of terms has been used to refer to the same phenomenon and its
application on cities, regions and nations. This chapter presents various
definitions of place branding and explains what terms are used in this research.
In the past decades, place branding, known also as tourism marketing, place
promotion, place marketing, urban branding, destination branding, reputation
management, competitive identity, or public diplomacy, has attracted much

20
attention from researchers and practitioners, who have made efforts to define it
from their own perspectives and disciplines.
Kolb (2006: 1) refers to tourism marketing as “simply applying the appropriate
marketing concepts to planning a strategy to attract visitors to a destination,
whether resort, city, region or country.” Similarly, Olsson and Bergland (2006,
cited in Avraham & Ketter, 2008: 5) note that, “the conceptual foundation of
place marketing lies in marketing theories, primarily the marketing-mix
approach”.
Van Gelden and Allan (2007) give the following definition: “City branding is
about deliberately creating, developing and demonstrating [the city’s] value
through appropriate ‘on brand’ actions, which consist of investments, physical
and economic plans, attraction programmes, events, communications, and the
like.”
Avraham and Ketter (2008) provide an overview of definitions available in the
literature concerning place marketing, which are often used interchangeably with
the term place promotion. Specifically, according to Gold and Ward (1994: 2):
“Place promotion [is] defined as the conscious use of publicity and marketing to
communicate selective images of specific geographical localities or areas to a
target audience.” Another popular definition can be found in Short et al. (2000:
318): “Place promotion involves re-evaluation and re-representation of place to
create and market a new image for localities to enhance their competitive position
in attracting or retaining resources.”
Dunn et al., (1995) view place marketing as “a refreshing of urban or national
identity or as a creation of new forms of identity” (cited in Avraham & Ketter,
2008: 6). For Jansson and Power (2006), urban branding, “just like any other
branding, has to be considered a process rather than a stable state of being and e.g.
it continuously needs investments and reinvestments in order to avoid
misinterpretations and remaining fresh in people’s mind.”
Nielsen (2001: 207-208, cited in Avraham & Ketter, 2008: 6) refers to place
promotion, emphasizing the arduous process dealing with an image crisis both in

21
terms of tangible and intangible damage. “Promoting a destination in normal
circumstances is a difficult task, but promoting a destination that faces tourism
challenges -whether from negative press, or from infrastructure damage caused by
natural disasters or man-made disasters- is an altogether more arduous task.”
I prefer ‘destination branding’, a term used by Morgan, Pritchard and Pride
(2004: 3), which encompasses the concept of travelling towards a place and I
believe that culture, in general, and spotlight events, in particular, act as travel
motivators. Especially the ‘sense of urgency’, the ‘once in a lifetime experience’
notion that prevails in spotlight events tends to make this argument valid.
There is no common definition of ‘brands’ or ‘branding’; however, most authors
agree that any definition should include both tangible and intangible attributes of
a product, for instance, both functional and emotional characteristics. A brand’s
value is thus in the way people end up thinking and feeling about it and the
product it is linked to. The aim of branding is to make an almost indistinguishable
link between the character of an object and its branded image or form (Jansson &
Power, 2006).
2.1.5 BRAND IMAGE AND IMAGE TRANSFER
In today’s turbulent and competitive environment, the role of a positive image
enhances the chances of a destination to build its reputation and brand image and
to gain a foothold in the international marketplace. The construction,
communication and management of destination brand image are central to place
branding because “encounters between cities and their users take place through
perceptions and images” (Kavaratzis & Ashworth, 2006).
As presented in Dinnie (2008), three are the key elements of branding theory:
brand identity, brand image and brand positioning. In this chapter, it is vital to
expand on what a brand image is and disseminate confusion between brand
identity and brand image. Also, I examine two theories that are relevant to this
research that deals with destination branding and spotlight events and explore
ways in which city brand image and event brand image are connected and are able
to enhance one another in people’s perceptions.

22
First of all, there is no universal consensus on the precise meaning of the terms
‘brand identity’ and ‘brand image’, since numerous sources offer alternative
definitions. For the purposes of this study, I agree with Dinnie’s (2008: 42),
simple and robust perspective on the distinction between brand identity and brand
image: “identity refers to what something truly is, its essence, whereas image
refers to how something is perceived, which evidently marks a gap between these
two states.”
In this research, two brand images are of interest, the destination brand image
and the event brand image. Destination image has been defined as “the sum of
beliefs, ideas and impressions that a person has of a destination” (Crompton,
1979: 18). Although event image has been less thoroughly studied than
destination image, various researchers have attempted to define it. Gwinner
(1997: 147), for instance, outlined event image as “the cumulative interpretation
of meanings or associations attributed to events by consumers” (cited in Xing &
Chalip, 2006).
When cities host spotlight events, there seems to be a pairing of the destination
brand and the event brand with significant impacts on their image and –
subsequently– on the way people perceive them. Brand image incorporates
perceptions of quality, values and feelings as well as brand associations and acts
as a powerful tool of shaping public opinion and behaviour.
Brands are typically linked in order to increase brand awareness and/ or to
enhance or change an image. However, the use of events as a means to enhance or
change a destination’s image is less well understood in the literature. Destinations
might seek to change its image by using events to alter a negative aspect of their
brand image. For example, to counter the image of poor cultural amenities, events
designed to showcase cultural performances or activities could be added. Finally,
each destination could seek to introduce an entirely new node into its association
set.
Two theories, associative network memory theory and co-branding theory,
shed light to what happens to destination and event images when places host
spotlight events.

23
2.1.5.1 Associative network memory theory
Cognitive psychologists have for some time held that knowledge is represented as
associative networks (Collins & Loftus, 1975; Anderson, 1983; Halford et al.,
1998, cited in Brown et al., 2004: 284). According to associative network memory
theory, a brand is represented in memory as a set of nodes and links (Keller, 1993,
Henderson et al., 1998 ibid.). The nodes and their relations form an ‘association
set’. Nodes are the elements of the association set, and the links combine the
nodes into an overall brand image (cited in Xing & Chalip, 2006). In simpler
terms, association sets constitute how information is stored in memory.
Figure 2. A graphic representation of an association set or mental map
Moreover, Holloway and Hubbard (2001: 48) refer to association sets as ‘mental
maps’ created by individuals allowing them to navigate through complex reality,
because “our surroundings are often more complex than the sense we make of
them” (cited in Kavaratzis & Ashworth, 2006). In this research, the term ‘mental
map’ is an interesting metaphor that adds a visual representation to how event
brand image influences destination brand image when the two are paired and how
destinations can become a ‘must visit’ place in people’s minds and, therefore, be
placed ‘on the global map’. Figure 2 shows how mental maps or association sets
are perceived in this study.

24
Spotlight events such as the Olympic Games or the Eurovision Song Contest work
at a local, national and international level and contribute in placing a place on the
public’s mental maps.
Branding deals specifically with such mental images. Place branding centres on
people’s perceptions and images, and puts them at the heart of orchestrated
activities designed to shape the place and its future. In the words of Kavaratzis
and Ashworth (2006), “managing the place brand becomes an attempt to influence
and treat those mental maps in a way that is deemed favourable to the present
circumstances and the future needs of the place”.
The association sets or mental maps that people draw of different cities, regions or
countries are influenced by a variety of factors. Dinnie (2008: 47) explains
influencing factors that determine to a greater or lesser extent a country’s nation-
brand image: a) personal experience of a country through working or holidaying
there can play a key role in the image an individual holds of a country; b) word-
of-mouth can influence country image when one does not have any first-hand
experience of a country; c) numerous other inputs can influence the image
formation process such as pre-existing national stereotypes, the performance of
national sporting teams, political events, portrayals of the country in film,
television or other media, the quality of brands emanating from the country, the
behaviour of individuals associated with a certain country et cetera.
In this study, the influencing factors researched are the media portrayals of
destinations and the performance of national representatives when cities host
spotlight events. Personal experiences of journalists and the visitors’ word of
mouth influence national images and stereotypes and increase the knowledge
about a place to a greater amount of people.
2.1.5.2 Co-branding theory
When two brands, event and destination, are linked, then this is an exercise in ‘co-
branding’ (Brown et al., 2004; Chalip et al., 2003). Co-branding theory suggests
that pairing an event with a destination will engender some transfer of image
between the event and destination brands (Xing & Chalip, 2006). Co-branding

25
research indicates that the degree to which two brands fit together is positively
related to the evaluation of the brand alliance and, consequently, the individual
partnering brands (Lafferty et al., 2004; Simonin & Ruth, 1998).
Destinations may seek to change their images through hosting spotlight events,
and event organizers may seek to enhance their event’s brand by capitalizing on a
favorable location. For instance, a relatively unknown, second tier city could
incorporate an international singing competition to elevate its perceived
excitement and fun elements, or a sports championship might be awarded to a
famous capital city to enhance the event’s prestige.
Using associative network memory theory, Brown et al. (2004) argue that transfer
of brand image can occur not only when two brands share similar association sets
(for instance, the destination association set shares common elements with the
event association set and they have matched elements), but also when consumers
assimilate a node from one brand’s association set into the association set of the
paired brand (cited in Xing & Chalip, 2006).
Brown et al., explain that in order for an event to have an impact on a
destination’s image there must be some “spillover from the event’s image onto the
destination’s image” (cited in Morgan, Pritchard & Pride, 2004: 284). For
instance, when destination and event brands are paired, the image of destination
brand can be strengthened by the positive elements in the association set of the
event brand and vice versa. The spillover effect of the image transfer process is
significant in the understanding of how event image affects place image, either
positively or negatively.
This is the reason why nations, regions and cities compete to attract spotlight
events so that they introduce the event brand’s positive nodes to the place brand’s
association set. Figure 3 shows what is meant by spillover effect and image
transfer in this research. Chapter 2.2 explains the ability of spotlight events to act
as travel motivators, branding tools and image-makers for destinations.

26
Figure 3. Image transfer between events and destinations
This thesis claims that the role of media in destination branding through spotlight
events is to sustain and multiply the positive impacts and associations between
events and places. While substantial increases in visitation, tourist expenditure
and the multiplier effect in the local economy, occur during events, the benefits
would be short-lived if the impact that a major event engenders could not reach
beyond the period during which the event takes place.
2.1.6 DESTINATION BRANDING – A NEW ROLE FOR CULTURE
Begg (1999: 795) points out that, “urban branding strategies must be seen against
the background of increased globalization and structural adjustments”. Those
structural adjustments and macro-level changes, are explained by Jensen (2007)
as the societal transformation process in western countries characterized by “a
shift towards immaterial and experiential stimulation”. In recent times, countries,
regions and cities find branding through events to be a realistic way of
differentiating from the competition with “immaterial and experiential stimulation
(ibid.)”.

27
Specifically, the terms ‘experience economy’ and the ‘creative city’ have
emerged in the fields of urban branding and arts management and are growing
prominent amongst researchers, policy makers, arts professionals and tourism
professionals. Due to the new cultural landscapes formed in a context of
transformations in society and global economy, destinations have started to
realize the role of culture and the impact of cultural events on destination image.
2.1.6.1 The experience economy
German sociologist Gerhard Schulze observes that we are living in the
‘Erlebnisgeschellschaft’ or ‘experience society’, where the primary concern has
shifted from subsistence to making sense of the world by seeking ever more
stimulating experiences (Ritzer, 1999; Schulze, 1992, cited in Jensen, 2007).
Jansson and Power (2006) share Schulze’s view and refer to the so-called
‘experience economy’, where the competitiveness between regions and cities is
“no longer solely reliant on material conditions like natural resources or built
infrastructure” but it is a consequence of intangible elements of places.
Similarly, Pine and Gilmore (1999) agree that the hallmark of our economy is that
it is an experience economy. Cities worldwide acknowledge the arrival of the
experience economy and in order to stand out choose to become “stagers of
experiences” (ibid.). As a win-win situation for both places and events, urban
spaces become settings and backdrops for cultural experiences and in turn the
cultural events act as animators of urban spaces bringing the place alive.
As culture and experience gain importance, countries, regions and cities are
increasingly (re-) constructing their images and representations through the
practice of place branding with the assistance of spotlight events. The “culture-
led, experience-oriented policymakers” (Jensen, 2007) are looking towards the
discipline of urban branding in order to attract media coverage, improve
destination image and enhance tourism for their cities.
Also, tourism has been at the forefront of staging experience, as Sternberg (1997:
952-954) succinctly put, “tourism primarily sells a ‘staged’ experience [...]

28
tourism’s central productive activity [is] the creation of the tourist experience”
(cited in Oh, Fiore & Jeoung, 2007)
2.1.6.2 Creative cities and the new creative class
As a consequence of the global trends and shifts into the experience economy,
creativity and culture gain priority and weight on the agenda of destination
professionals, event organizers and policy-makers. There is a global discourse of
the ‘creative city’ (Landry, 2000) along with an increased awareness of the
importance of the cultural industries (Hesmondhalgh, 2002: 14) and the creative
economy (Howkins, 2001) for destinations.
Also, there is an increased awareness that art and business are joining forces in
the new urban competitive economy (Caves, 2000; Hall, 2000). According to
Florida (2002), the new ‘creative class’ is a new social class with a particular
creative potential and has gained immense influence in urban policy and planning
circles worldwide.
As part of the global shift on immaterial, experiential satisfaction, cities now
represent themselves as “fun places” (Metz, 2002), which means places where the
‘good life’ is not only about employment but also increasingly about ample time
for leisure (Short, 1999). Fun city and the new cultural narratives are thus part and
parcel of each other (Boer & Dijkstra, 2003).
According to Landry, a good quality of life is to be used as a competitive tool
among destinations. In the words of Landry (2000: 133), the “creative milieu” is
the prerequisite of contemporary urban settlements:
“A place – either a cluster of buildings, a part of a city, a city as a
whole or a region – that contains the necessary preconditions in terms
of ‘hard’ and ‘soft’ infrastructure to generate a flow of ideas and
inventions”

29
2.2 SPOTLIGHT EVENTS AND DESTINATION BRANDING
Cities have been relying to ‘hard’ infrastructure such as signature buildings like
the Frank Gehry’s Guggenheim Museum in order to boost their image and create
their own “Bilbao-effect” (Jansson & Power, 2006). In today’s experience
economy, spotlight cultural events are an alternative to iconic, signature
buildings.
In the words of Jansson and Power (2006), who use the term ‘soft-side’
development to refer to the development of image, brand and reputation, contrary
to ‘hard-side’ development, which means infrastructure upgrading:
“It is important to note then that the strategy to advertise and profile a
city or a region by focusing on one or several high profile or signature
things does not just relate to building unusual buildings: it also
includes hosting high profile or important events and other flagship
projects. Some annual or periodic events with altering hosts, like for
example the World Cup or the Eurovision Song Contest, attract
enormous attention, and to a certain degree economic turnovers, for
the hosts.”
Therefore, ‘headline catching events’ act as important communication devices for
destinations in the same way ‘eye-catching buildings’ assist in turning a place
with a negative image into an internationally recognized centre for culture and the
arts.
In their research paper on the image of Nordic region cities, Jansson and Power
(2006) point out three categories of city branding: 1) branding through signature
buildings, events, flagship projects, et cetera; 2) branding through planning
strategies, urban redevelopment, institutional and infrastructural support; 3)
branding through advertising, myths, slogans, logos, et cetera. In this study, the
focus is on how destination brand image through ‘headline catching’ events is
depicted in media narratives and how it contributes to place brand image.

30
2.2.1 DEFINING SPOTLIGHT EVENTS
Jansson and Power (2006) attempt to define the events that contribute to the ‘soft-
side’ development in terms of image, brand and reputation as “headline catching
events” or “high profile events”. Various writers have used different definitions to
describe those types of events that attract enormous attention for the hosts and
influence their image. This chapter provides an overview of the numerous
definitions of spotlight events.
Firstly, it should be noted that the past 20 years have seen an increased demand
for special events and it is predicted that these events will continue to grow (Getz,
2005; Goldblatt, 2002, cited in Carpenter & Blandy, 2008: 144). Secondly, the
term ‘special event’ encompasses knowledge from many fields such as
marketing, event studies, leisure studies, tourism management, arts and culture
management, sport management, and communication and media studies.
Consequently, the growing importance of special events and their complex nature
makes the study of these events and their impact relevant to many interdependent
fields.
Specifically, although influential writers on event management such as Goldblatt
(2002) and Getz (2005) do not agree on a specific definition of special events, yet
there is a degree of commonality in their perceptions. Goldblatt (2002: 6)
highlights the celebratory and human nature of event by suggesting that: “A
special event is a unique moment in time celebrated with ceremony and ritual to
satisfy specific needs.”
While Getz (2005: 16) offers two definitions; one from the point of view of the
event organizer and the other from that of the event participant:
“A special event is a one-time or an infrequent event that occurs
outside of the normal programme or activities of the sponsoring or
organising body.”
“To the costumer or guest, a special event is an opportunity for an
experience outside of the normal choices or beyond everyday
experience.”

31
A thorough definition of special events is given by Jago and Shaw (1998: 29),
who have proposed that a ‘special event’ is:
“A one-time or infrequently occurring event of limited duration that
provides the consumer with a leisure and social opportunity beyond
everyday experience. Such events, which attract, or have the potential
to attract, tourists, are often held to raise the profile, image or
awareness of a region.”
Scholars Deccio and Baloglu (2002) have labelled these efforts ‘mega-events’
because of their scale and scope. The impact of mega-events on international
tourism is, in part, a consequence of their capacity to attract an international
audience through the media they obtain. Whereas Smith (2004) believes that from
a branding perspective, it is more appropriate to label these ‘spotlight events’,
due to “the opportunities they afford destination brand managers” and the fact that
spotlight events “truly put places in the spotlight, usually emanating from the
lights of the television cameras” (cited in Morgan, Pritchard & Pride, 2004: 262-
264).
For the purposes of this paper, here the term ‘spotlight events’ is defined as such:
“Events of a unique and festive nature, with their own status, prestige
or brand image, of a limited and fixed duration and one-off or
infrequent occurrence that attract immense media attention on both the
event and the host city, region, nation. Spotlight events usually involve
a number of stakeholders and organizers that plan and control the
event while a live audience is present at the physical event location(s)
experiencing the event’s unique atmosphere.”
2.2.2 THE POWER OF SPOTLIGHT EVENTS
A number of spotlight events stand out because they offer rare opportunities for
destinations to perform on a national and international stage. Cities perform on
the global stage when hosting spotlight events in the same way artists or athletes
perform and compete in front of the audience in major sports and cultural events.

32
According to Smith, three characteristics inherent in spotlight events make them
tempting as “branding devices” and “interesting for scholars”. First, the
participants in spotlight events are either numerous or important, or both. In fact,
for instance, the Olympics attract not only world-class athletes, but also thousands
of fans. Similarly, cultural spotlight events attract volumes of famous artists,
celebrities and the creative class as well as fans. Second, spotlight events appeal
to national and, perhaps, international audiences. Third, spotlight events attract a
tremendous amount of media coverage, typically because of the first two
characteristics (Morgan, Pritchard & Pride, 2004: 263-264).
Brown et al. present the wide-ranging reasons why places host spotlight events
found in the literature. Some of the reasons are: increased visitation to a region,
improvement in a destination’s image or awareness, enhanced tourism
development, ability to act as a catalyst for development, reduction in seasonal
fluctuations or extension of the tourism season, positive economic impact,
increased employment, animation of static attractions, enhanced community
pride, advancement of political objectives (ibid., 282-283).
In addition, Smith argues that events of significant importance generate media
coverage, both in the general news media and among tourism writers, enhance the
place’s reputation for future campaigns or events and finally, leave the city with
other “tangible and intangible byproducts” (ibid., 263).
The power of events and their impacts on cities are undeniable. I agree with
Mules and Faulkner (1996) who argue that, “Governments have become
interested in special events largely because of their ability to attract visitors, and
hence visitor spending, as well as their ability to raise awareness of the host
region for future tourism” (cited in Brown, et al., 2004: 282). As a result, the
following section firstly, explores the role of events as motivators for travel
behaviour; secondly, as image-makers for host cities, regions, and thirdly, the role
of spotlight events as media strategies chosen by places to achieve the first two
impacts on branding and tourism. Figure 4 shows the triple role of spotlight
events as image-makers, travel motivators and as media strategy.

33
Figure 4. The multi-purpose use of spotlight events
2.2.3 SPOTLIGHT EVENTS AS A MOTIVATOR FOR TRAVEL BEHAVIOUR
2.2.3.1 Cultural tourism: the historic context
Culture has always been an important motivator in the mobility between cities,
regions and nations. In the ancient times, travellers visited the Parthenon, the
Great Pyramids or were spectators at the Olympic Games, religious festivities or
theatre festivals. Also, wealthy Greeks and Romans travelled for leisure to their
summer homes and villas by the Mediterranean Sea.
In the late 16th
century, the Grand Tour served as an education rite of passage for
Europe’s aristocratic youth. The itinerary embraced visiting metropolises of the
16th
century like London, Paris, Venice, Florence and Rome, where those grand
tourists were exposed to the masterpieces of architecture, literature and the arts.

34
Indeed, by its very nature of travelling involves a cultural element. Visiting
historic sites, cultural landmarks, attending special events and festivals, or visiting
museums have always been a part of the travel for leisure experience.
Cultural tourism began to be recognized as a distinct product category in the late
1970s, when tourism marketers and tourism researchers realized that some people
travelled specifically to gain a deeper understanding of the culture or heritage of
the destination (Tighe, 1986). Initially, it was regarded as a specialized activity
that was thought to be pursued by a small number of better educated, more
affluent tourists, who were looking for something other than the standard sand,
sun and sea holiday. It was only since the fragmentation of the mass market in the
1990s that cultural tourism has been recognized for what it is: a high-profile,
mass-market activity. (McKercher & Du Cros, 2002 :1)
2.2.3.2 The emergence of event tourism
Nowadays it seems we have entered “the age of special events” (Janiskee, 1996).
According to Smith, “an increasing number of destinations have looked to major
events to lure large numbers of visitors, attract investment and tourist spending,
and generate media coverage (cited in Morgan, Pritchard & Pride, 2004: 262).
Cities, regions and nations acknowledge the power of spotlight events and
compete with others to host some of the world’s spectacular sports and cultural
events. Those major spotlight events include the Summer and Winter Olympic
Games and entertainment events or festivals such as the Eurovision Song Contest
or the European Capital of Culture.
The term ‘event tourism’ (Getz, 1997), which formalized the link between events
and tourism, was coined in the 1980s and has been defined as “the systematic
planning, development and marketing of festivals and special events as tourist
attractions, catalysts, and image builders” (Getz & Wicks, 1993: 2).
Event tourism is not a recent phenomenon. The first Olympic Games were held in
776 BC while religious festivities and cultural events and festivals have been held
throughout the ages. However, what is new is the scale of event tourism. Many
authors provide evidence that the number of special events has increased

35
substantially over time (Getz, 1991; Getz and Wicks, 1994; Janiskee, 1994, cited
in Morgan, Pritchard & Pride, 2004: 280). Event tourism is now a vibrant, and
dynamic field of study and research and its sheer scale of growth makes this paper
particularly timely and relevant to the field of arts management and event tourism.
Getz (1989: 125) observed that, “Although the majority of events have probably
arisen for non-tourist reasons, there is clearly a trend to exploit them for tourism
and to create new events deliberately as tourist attractions”. Additionally, Brown
et al., observe that, “much of the attention that has been accorded to special events
has been tourism based, as places have come to recognize the power of special
events to attract visitors from outside the region” (cited in Morgan, Pritchard &
Pride, 2004: 281).
A report from the World Tourism Organisation (2005: 52) outlines the main
features and raises various aspects of spotlight events and how they offer
interesting opportunities for places on the level of tourism:
“Such events, because they take place in a limited timeframe and
because they offer a unique one-off experience, can be used to
influence the position a place has in the long and shortlist of places the
potential traveller wants to visit. The effect is that the place where the
event is held will rise on the list of potential destinations in the
mindset of the traveller, due to the sense of urgency created by events
with a limited duration.”
2.2.3.3 Reasons for the emergence of event tourism
Demographic and psychographic changes that have occurred in modern societies
explain the dramatic increase in the popularity of special events as catalysts for
travel behaviour. According to Brown et al., those demographic and
psychographic changes are the following (cited in Morgan, Pritchard & Pride,
2004: 281):
1. increasing levels of average disposable income
2. a move to more frequent short-term holiday breaks
3. increasing interest in experiential travel

36
4. increasing interest in authenticity
5. increasing interest in culture
Similarly, as Robinson and Noel (1991: 79) point out the increase of spotlight
events is justified because they meet the societal changes above, since they are
“short-term, easily accessible, with a flexible time commitment, and offer options
for all ages” (cited in Morgan, Pritchard & Pride, 2004: 281).
In this study, the increasing interest of people in experiential travel and the
increasing interest in culture support the argument that spotlight events are
important motivators for people to pursue travel. To sum up, spotlight events are
exploited for tourism purposes since they act as a motivator for travel behaviour
due to their unique, once-in-a lifetime nature that creates the feeling of a ‘must
experience’ opportunity.
2.2.4 SPOTLIGHT EVENTS AS A BRANDING TOOL AND IMAGE-MAKERS
2.2.4.1 A long-term perspective
Undoubtedly, spotlight events can be an important motivator for travel behaviour.
However, it seems that the focus of the research conducted to date is on the
economic impact of special events and preoccupied with short-term implications
such as the multiplier effect of special events that captures secondary effects of
tourism expenditure and highlights the wide range of sectors in a community that
may benefit from cultural events.
Certainly, those who attend events consume the services the place offers and, in
that way, support the local economy and businesses in general such as tourist
attractions, restaurants, cafes and hotels in particular (Avraham & Ketter, 2008:
145). But apart from the short-term economic reasons and despite the growth of
event tourism, little attention has been given to the ways that events can impact a
destination’s brand image.
In this study, the implications of the use of events in destination branding are seen
through a long-term perspective as a strategy to attract media attention and
enhance destination image and awareness on a global scale, which in turn

37
contributes to future tourism. Tapachai and Waryszak (2000) accept the view that,
“a beneficial image influences the choices of tourists seeking a place to visit”.
Many authors (Whitson & Macintosh, 1996; Boyle, 1997, cited in Brown et al.,
2004: 283) argue that, “the use of events as a means to enhance consumer’s
awareness of a destination is a common reason that destinations seek to host
events”. Most importantly “the ability to raise awareness of the host region for
future tourism” (ibid., 282) is a sustainable act of image enhancement with
longer-term implications to the host cities.
Brown et al. encourage exploring further “the role that events can play as catalysts
for development and in helping to build an image for a region that will attract
longer-term visitation” (cited in Morgan, Pritchard & Pride, 2004: 283). Brown et
al. (ibid., 279) draw attention to the “intrinsically linked” relationship between
event image, destination image and tourism:
“Events add to the city’s range of tourist attractions and they often
actively seek media coverage as a promotional strategy, hoping that
more people will be encouraged to visit the city in the future. Thus, the
relationship between events and tourism has become intrinsically
linked. One significant element of this relationship is the way in which
images associated with an event may be transferred to the destination.
In this way the destination brand may be strengthened, enhanced or
changed.”
An appealing city image is an intangible byproduct of a spotlight event, which has
a long-term effect on destination branding through the visitors’ stories about the
place and media representations. For Smith, both “tangible and intangible
byproducts are the legacy of a place” (Morgan, Pritchard & Pride, 2004: 263).
The legacy that spotlight event leave to the city has to be sustained and cultivated
in order to host more events and visitors in the future.
This thesis posits the vital role of events in the development of desirable city
images and subsequent positive implications for future tourism. It is important
that cities, regions and countries capitalize on spotlight events such as the ones
below and turn their short-term assets to long-term benefits and competitive

38
advantages in the attraction of investments, creative people and tourists. The role
of media is vital in projecting images that can enhance destination image and
attract visitors.
2.2.5 SPOTLIGHT EVENTS AS A MEDIA STRATEGY
Even tough, the economic value of an event to the host city or region is often
predicted on the media attention that the event obtains (Mules & Faulkner, 1996,
cited in Morgan, Pritchard & Pride, 2004: 283), my focus on media coverage of
spotlight events should be viewed as a strategic choice of destinations with a
long-term implications in image building. Spotlight events can be perceived as a
media strategy, which aims to enhance the brand image of the host cities.
2.2.5.1 The strategic use of spotlight events
As the name suggests spotlight events “truly put places in the spotlight, usually
emanating from the lights of the television cameras” (Smith, cited in Morgan,
Pritchard & Pride, 2004: 264) Spotlight events focus the media’s attention on a
particular location for a short, concentrated period, allowing the host place to
promote certain chosen images that can be used to improve a negative image,
create positive news and shift international media attention from a negative to a
positive portrayal of the place (Avraham & Ketter, 2008: 145).
By placing event images or mentions alongside images or mentions of other
elements of the destination’s product mix that highlight comparable aspects of
brand image, the overall impact should be enhanced (MacKay & Fesenmaier,
1997; Baloglu & McCleary, 1999; Washburn et al., 2000, cited in Morgan,
Pritchard & Pride, 2004: 287-288). In essence, the linking of a destination’s brand
to one or more events is a co-operative branding activity (Morgan, Pritchard &
Pride, 2004: 283), which contributes to the spillover of positive images from the
event to the destination, as explained in chapter 2.1.5. The role of media in the
process is catalytic because it brings the two images –event and destination–
together in people’s minds.
Brown, et al. claim that the exposure that events obtain “through media (via
stories or advertising), would strengthen the aspects of brand image” (cited in

39
Morgan, Pritchard & Pride, 2004: 286). Smith focuses on “reaching audiences
through news media [which] is less expensive than purchasing advertising”
arguing that media relations is a cost efficient tool for PR practitioners because
they “influence a great number of media representatives and, by extension,
members of the public” (cited in Morgan, Pritchard & Pride, 2004: 264)
Similarly, Morgan et al., (2002) suggest that, “as concerns rise over the cost of
branding efforts in light of reduced budgets, media relations have become more
attractive to place promoters (ibid.).
By engaging in media relations, place promoters hope to influence what the
public knows about a place. Another significant advantage for cities hosting
spotlight events is that they “attract opinion shapers such as journalists, who will
later write columns that can improve the place’s image” (Avraham & Ketter,
2008: 145). As Smith states cities hosting spotlight events are under the
“microscope” of the globe’s media (cited in Morgan, Pritchard & Pride, 2004:
264), which can be a double-edged sword since a gap between destination image
and identity can be discovered with negative results for the destination brand.
2.2.5.2 Spotlight events and destination image crisis
Avraham and Ketter (2008) believe that cities, countries and tourist destinations
follow media strategies in order to battle an image crisis and improve their
national and international status. Avraham and Ketter (2008) argue that hosting
spotlight events is a media strategy that involves full acknowledgement of the
image crisis, where spotlight events as seen as a moderate coping mechanism.
For instance, Beriatos and Gospodini (2004, cited in Avraham & Ketter, 2008:
145) have observed the prevalence and strategic role of spotlight events and assert
that, “since 1936 many places have used the Summer and Winter Olympics, the
World Expo, the title of Cultural Capital of Europe or the Eurovision Song
Contest as great platforms for massive PR-driven image campaigns”. In an era
when popular and mass cultures are positioned further up the symbolic hierarchy,
major sport and cultural events are considered by cities to be valuable image or
branding tools due to their global media coverage.

40
Hosting the Olympic Games
The Olympic Games, a major international sports and cultural event held every
four years in a different city, are an excellent example of a spotlight event that
places battle to host since the Olympic Games act as a means to draw immense
media attention to the host city.
Hosting spotlight events has the power to replace negative images with positive
ones. Nielsen (2001, cited in Avraham & Ketter, 2008: 144) mentions that, “one
of the most famous examples of using spotlight events to improve a place’s image
was the Nazi’s use of the 1936 Olympic Games to project a positive image for
their regime.
Historically, the original Olympic Games were held in Ancient Greece from 776
BC until 393 AD. In 1896 the Games were revived, when Athens hosted the first
modern Olympics. Since then, the Olympics are the most popular sporting event
in the world. For instance, 3.9 billion people worldwide watched the Athens 2004
Olympic Games (http://www.olympic.org, cited in Avraham & Ketter, 2008:
145).
Therefore, due to the mass media exposure created when cities host the Olympic
Games and the subsequent positive image transfer from the event to the
destination, many places are willing to invest enormous amounts of money in
their battle to be the home of future Olympics. In 2005, some of the most popular
tourist destinations (New York, Paris, London, Moscow and Madrid) competed to
host the 2012 Olympic Games as a means to improve their image and their future
development. Avraham and Ketter (2008: 146) observe that:
“Although none of these cities [the 2012 Olympic Games candidate
cities] was beset by any serious image crisis, each of them believed
that hosting the games would contribute a great deal to its future
development and its image. At least two of these cities aspired to gain
some benefits related to crisis they had undergone: New York hoped
that hosting the games would help the city recover from the events of
9/ 11, and Paris hoped to reshape the city by means of the new
infrastructures needed for the games.”

41
Hosting cultural events
The European Capital of Culture (ECOC) and the Eurovision Song Contest (ESC)
are also excellent examples of spotlight cultural events that cities and nations are
competing to host. In the words of Avraham and Ketter (2008: 147), “hosting
cultural events can be used to attract visitors or to improve a general image,
although some places use such events as a deliberate means to overcome an image
crisis.”
For instance, the ECOC programme conceived in 1983 by Melina Mercouri, then
Greek Minister for Culture, had a purpose to give a cultural dimension to the
work of the European Community (now the European Union) and to celebrate
European culture as a means of drawing the community closer (Garcia, 2005).
Similarly, the Eurovision Song Contest is the largest and most-watched
international popular music events, as well as one of the world’s longest-running
annual television programmes. The ESC attracts thousands of visitors to host
cities and millions of viewers that watch the televised event in 35 countries all
over the world.
Authors Avraham and Ketter (2008) claim that hosting spotlight events has the
power “to replace the damaged image with a positive one”. In addition, to
strengthen their claim they mention the example of the city of Bilbao in northern
Spain, where a combination of ‘hard’ and ‘soft’ infrastructure boosted the city’s
tourism by portraying a positive image:
“During the 1990s, the city suffered at the hands of Basque terror
groups and endured high levels of unemployment, the Guggenheim
Museum opened in 1997 as a major attraction, and a set of supporting
cultural events turned things around. More than a million tourists
visited the city in 2001” (Ha’aretz, 12 May 2002, cited in Avraham &
Ketter, 2008: 148).

42
2.3 MEDIA, SPOTLIGHT EVENTS AND DESTINATION BRANDING
Boulding (1956: 8) defined image as “what I believe to be true”, and argued that
is an image is “build up as a result of all past experience of the possessor of the
image”. Place promoters use spotlight events to define a place and its unique
characteristics and to influence public perceptions of a place –its image– by
influencing media coverage. Spotlight events allow place promoters the
opportunity to influence a great number of media representatives and, by
extension, members of the public.
The media is an important vehicle through which information can be obtained and
exchanged. Indeed, nowadays, public knowledge about foreign events, including
major cultural and sport events as well as catastrophes, wars and international
crises, relies heavily on mass media. While people usually become aware of
occurrences in their immediate environment from direct contact with the events,
they learn about events that occur in distant places primarily from the media.
2.3.1 THE ROLE OF MEDIA IN PLACE IMAGE
Many different factors influence a place’s image or perception held by the public.
In order to successfully change a place’s public image, analysis of the factors that
construct image is required. Avraham (2003, cited in Avraham & Ketter, 2008:
28) has concluded that the factors that affect place image are:
1. The nature of the place’s population (e.g., race) and its size (big
city or peripheral town)
2. Status and political power (a national centre such as a capital
city)
3. Crime rate, socio-economic status and employment situation
4. Number and character of national institutions located in the place
(e.g., prestigious universities)
5. Location (in the country’s core or periphery)
6. Historical background
7. Type of media coverage (highlighting criminal activity and
social problems or cultural events and other positive news)

43
The widespread nature of the above factors prevents in-depth analysis of all of
them in this study. However, place marketers and arts managers should have a
profound understanding of all the factors that influence place image. In this
research, media coverage is believed to be of the outmost importance in shaping
place image.
People construct place images according to the kind of information they receive
from various sources. Holloway and Hubbard (2001: 48) describe that interactions
with places may be ‘through direct experience with the environment or indirectly
through media representations’. Kavaratzis and Ashworth (2006) recognize that
“people encounter places through perceptions and images”.
Over the years, many researchers have studied the power of media in public life
on the social, political, economic and cultural spheres and their effect in
formulating public perceptions. While films and television can contribute greatly
to a place’s positive or negative image, most places concentrate their efforts on
obtaining positive coverage in the news media because of their enormous
popularity and their major role in shaping public opinion (Weimann, 2000)
As the so-called ‘fourth estate’, the news media is a powerful tool in raising
awareness about events and places as well as influencing public opinion and
behaviour. In this study, the news media are seen as catalysts between destination
branding, culture and tourism, due to the fact that they often create and reinforce
certain media images about events, people, and places that motivate travel
behaviour.
News media and journalists act as “gatekeepers” (Shoemaker, 1991), who have
the power to filter ideas and information and decide what stories are published
and become news. Additionally, McCombs and Shaw (1972) pointed out that the
gatekeeping concept is related to the concept of “agenda-setting” (McCombs &
Shaw, 1972). Hoare (1991, cited in Avraham & Ketter, 2008: 32) explains that,
“newspapers’ mass circulation makes them a powerful, aggressive agent and that
they translate this power into decisions regarding what to cover (or not to cover)”.

44
To sum up, media do not only shape public opinion but also they can easily
influence public behaviour by concentrating on certain issues and allowing certain
images of event and places to reach the public. In the case of spotlight events and
destination branding, news media’s power can easily accelerate (or hinder) travel
behaviour and place (or not) destinations on a ‘to visit’ list in the public’s
perception.
2.3.2 MEDIA IMAGES AND PUBLIC IMAGE OF PLACE
Place image is a central concept in several research fields, resulting from the
hypothesis that the image of a country, city or tourist destination has a marked
effect on our actions and activities. Decisions such as where to live, where to
travel, where to invest, where to study or which country to support in a conflict,
all result from the place’s image. Several researchers observe that the notion that
“a place’s image may be even more important that the place’s reality” has become
widespread (Morgan & Pritchard, 1998, cited in Avraham & Ketter, 2008: 19).
Avraham and Ketter (2008: 19) distinguish between the place’s image among a
specific target audience and the place’s image in the mass media. Information
about a faraway place is not considered crucial to most people so they do not
attempt to locate first-hand sources to verify what happens there (Kunczik, 1997).
Consequently, the image of distant places that media project is perceived and
conceptualized as ‘reality’ by people around the world.
In this study, I examine the concept of place image in the media and its
subsequent impact in public perceptions. Public and media images of places are
closely linked. As a result, city authorities, decision-makers, marketers and PR
professionals spend resources, time and effort in creating a positive media image,
which in turn influences public images and perceptions.
2.3.2.1 Types of place image
Manheim and Albritton (1984, cited in Avraham & Ketter, 2008: 30) conducted a
close analysis of how countries, cities and tourist destinations are presented in the
media, which revealed four types of place’s images:

45
1. Places that receive much negative coverage
2. Places not covered by the media except in a negative context,
usually related to crime, social problems, natural disasters, etc.
3. Places that receive much positive attention such as cultural
events, tourist activity, or investments
4. Places largely ignored by the media but when noticed they
receive primarily positive coverage
Undoubtedly, the third category is the desirable media coverage that city officials,
tourist organizations and event organizers are pursuing. Hosting spotlight cultural
events is a major guarantee in achieving a good amount of positive media
coverage, which in turn can increase tourism and improve the place’s image.
Researchers have used various typologies of place image. For instance, Avraham
and Ketter (2008: 31) distinguish between one-dimensional and multi-
dimensional image of a place in the news media. They argue that places with a
multi-dimensional image in the news media are those that receive coverage for a
wide variety of subjects and events that occur in them, such as politics,
economics, social events and cultural developments. Places with a one-
dimensional image are those that only receive coverage when events of a certain
nature take place there, such as crime or disasters.
When a place is labelled by the media as one in which only a certain type of
activities and events occurs, it becomes, a symbol of such events, and other
activities and events do not get covered (Shields, 1992; Strauss, 1961, cited in
Avraham & Ketter, 2008: 31). For instance, by focusing and publishing negative
aspects of destinations, media labels and stigmatizes place image and reinforces
stereotypes in the minds of the audience. Generally, it is believed that a negative
media image will result in a negative image among public opinion.
Kotler et al. (1993, cited in ibid., 26) list that a place’s image can be positive and
attractive, negative, weak -as in the case of peripheral locations that are not well
known, mixed -when the image includes both positive and negative elements- or
contradictory -when the place has a favourable image with one population and a
negative image with another.

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