Ineffective change management and control practices in donor and government-funded projects
served as the major impediment to meeting project completion timelines and possible project failures.
Project management professionals globally have attributed multiple requests for cost, scope, or
schedule changes to classical project management issues, including cost overruns, schedule overruns,
and scope creeps when managing traditional-driven projects. In post-conflict countries, including
Liberia, multiple change requests or variation orders are prevalent in various types of projects often
driven by political interests, corruption, and other fraudulent practices. In this paper, the author
examined some critical change management and control issues, especially regarding little or
non-existent institutional framework for change control as well as the lack of a structural and
systematic approach for managing and controlling changes during project implementation. To
mitigate these situations, the author proffered recommendations aimed at helping project
organizations minimize budget and schedule overruns due to scope creep as well as project delays
resulting from unregulated change management and control practices in Liberia.
Assessment of Project Monitoring and Control Techniques in Ondo State Agency ...Dr. Amarjeet Singh
Monitoring and control is an essential process in
construction project management and delivery. It is
therefore imperative for construction companies to employ
the usage of the most effective monitoring and control
techniques available to meet project objectives. This study
examined project management techniques employed by
Ondo State Agency for Road Maintenance and
Construction, a construction company in Ondo State,
Nigeria.The research design that was used for this study is
the survey method where copies of a well-structured
questionnaire were distributed to elicit appropriate
information from respondents. The results showed
thatthere is a relationship existing between the type of
project monitoring and control technique used by a
construction company and project delivery/success and that
the use of Program Evaluation and Review Technique
(PERT) for time/schedule control and Earned Value
Management (EVM) (alongside other monitoring and
control techniques) for cost control as used by the company
are very effective in meeting set project objectives.Based on
the findings, a number of recommendations were made.
Among these are, that monitoring and control units should
be established withinconstruction companies and welltrained workers/professionals should be put in charge of
handling these units and the techniques and tools used
therein.
Successful change can be influenced by a variety of factors, which can affect the result of change itself, as well as the objectives of the project. Change management is the strategic and structured approach for transitioning individuals, teams and organizations from a current state to a desired future state.
Most project managers follow established project management methodologies in order to achieve success. However, some degree of failure is evident in most projects worldwide. One important reason for this failure, is that projects often implement change, and in its turn change may introduce new risk parameters.
Assessment of Project Monitoring and Control Techniques in Ondo State Agency ...Dr. Amarjeet Singh
Monitoring and control is an essential process in
construction project management and delivery. It is
therefore imperative for construction companies to employ
the usage of the most effective monitoring and control
techniques available to meet project objectives. This study
examined project management techniques employed by
Ondo State Agency for Road Maintenance and
Construction, a construction company in Ondo State,
Nigeria.The research design that was used for this study is
the survey method where copies of a well-structured
questionnaire were distributed to elicit appropriate
information from respondents. The results showed
thatthere is a relationship existing between the type of
project monitoring and control technique used by a
construction company and project delivery/success and that
the use of Program Evaluation and Review Technique
(PERT) for time/schedule control and Earned Value
Management (EVM) (alongside other monitoring and
control techniques) for cost control as used by the company
are very effective in meeting set project objectives.Based on
the findings, a number of recommendations were made.
Among these are, that monitoring and control units should
be established withinconstruction companies and welltrained workers/professionals should be put in charge of
handling these units and the techniques and tools used
therein.
Successful change can be influenced by a variety of factors, which can affect the result of change itself, as well as the objectives of the project. Change management is the strategic and structured approach for transitioning individuals, teams and organizations from a current state to a desired future state.
Most project managers follow established project management methodologies in order to achieve success. However, some degree of failure is evident in most projects worldwide. One important reason for this failure, is that projects often implement change, and in its turn change may introduce new risk parameters.
Running head IMPLEMENTATION STRATEGIESIMPLEMENTATION STRATEGIES.docxcowinhelen
Running head: IMPLEMENTATION STRATEGIES
IMPLEMENTATION STRATEGIES 4
Implementation Strategies
Michael Boddie
Application Implementation
CMGT/445
Michael Goyden
December 11, 2017
Introduction
Project communication is very critical to the success of any project. It is also critical to key project management soft-skill. As a project manager, project communication is one deliverable that they are personally responsible for and it was of the largest influence over the failure or project success. There are main elements of project communications examples are project sponsors, customers, project team members, project manager, and project management office.
Project communication plan
The major objectives of a communication plan are; to encourage the use of project management best practices, ensure a consistent, give accurate and timely information about the project, and to promote and gain support for the project management improvements.
Table 1 below shows the target audience
Project stakeholders
Message
Delivery method
Delivery Frequency
Communicator
Project Sponsor
Project plans and status report
Meeting
Report sent via mail to project sponsor
Weekly
Project manager
Project core team
Project plans
Meeting
Weekly
Project manager
Executive management
Project briefing
Oral briefing and presentation of slides
Monthly
Biweekly
Project manager
Programmers
Project briefing
Oral briefing
Daily
Project manager
Users
Project status
Meeting and presentation slides
Weekly
Project manager
Communication message contents
A project plan shoes a guide of project execution and project control. Then document also shows approved scope of the project, the cost, and schedule. Project plans shows the current and future plans. The documents also shows project problems and issues. Project plan also shows planned project deliverables for the next period. The status report, keeps the key project stakeholders informed. It is shows status summary, status budget, status scope, accomplishment, issues, and project team members. Project briefing shows project issues and problems, it also shows goals of project management improvement, and project checklist (Project Management Institute, 2017).
Documentation Required
There are eight essential documents required for this project. First is a project charter. This document formally recognizes the project creation and the formal contract between project sponsors, project stakeholders, and commercial agreement. Project charter documents gathers aspects related to the contracting and the contacted example is the project name, the goals of the project and the needs that the project it serves. Project charter also shows a brief description of the project, feasibility study, the project products i.e. training manuals, supporting, and monitoring post release of the project. A project charter also shows the intermediate products whic ...
Running head FINAL ASSIGNMENT1FINAL ASSIGNMENT.docxcowinhelen
Running head: FINAL ASSIGNMENT 1
FINAL ASSIGNMENT 7
FINAL ASSIGNMENT
Name:
Course Title:
Professor:
Date:
Scope changes occur when the request is made to change the project objectives and its scope to accompany needs and objectives that were not originally in the original plan (Arain & Low, 2009). Allowing scope changes when the project have already started usually adds cost, more risks, and longer duration or even project failure if the scope is not managed properly. Scope changes in a project occurs through the following ways; some scope changes may be necessary and minor and thus may not follow the approval procedure, a scope change should be made through a change request form, the form should address specific scope changes to be made, reviewed and authorized, once the change request form has been filled the project manager should pay attention to the nature to make sure if the changes are in scope, where the changes are in the projects lifecycle and which objective or deliverable will be affected. A benefit case should be made to analyses why the changes will be made and what impact they will have on the project timeline, risk, and cost. The Project Manager should send a mail to the project sponsor or through meeting him in person and explaining the importance of the change. Once the change has been approved, it should be documented and the changes controlled through the project phases.
Project timeline changes are the most common problem to a project manager which usually occurs when a project task or activity which is in the critical path takes more time than what was estimated or planned or changes in project scope (Arain & Low, 2009). Timeline changes can be managed through an addition of more resources a good example is when the sponsor demands the project to be finished one month earlier which will need the manager to request for two additional software developers for the remaining part of the project. The second way to manage changes in project timeline is through the critical path, where you add more resources to the tasks in the critical path which will shorten their duration, this is known as crashing the plan. Whenever a project timeline project changes it should be reported to all the project stakeholders and the sponsor through the following ways; providing an updated project plan with all the tasks affected by the project timeline changes, report about your project timeline in the current project status report.
Project budget changes is directed influenced by other changes such as timeline and scope which will make the project to require additional funding from the sponsor, project managers should continuously manage their budget to avoid an over-budget (Arain & Low, 2009), project manager should constantly revisit the project budget especially when other changes such as scope occurs since they direct contribute to the project cost, they should revisit the resources that the project is using, The ...
EFFECTS OF RISK MANAGEMENT METHODS ON PROJECT PERFORMANCE IN RWANDAN CONSTRUC...Sibo Kanyambari Aimable
Risks are very common in construction sector. Risk is the Possibility of suffering loss and the impact on the involved parties. According to APM (2006), all projects are inherently risky because they are unique, constrained, complex, based on assumptions, and performed by people. As a result, project risk management methods must be built into the management of projects and should be used throughout the project lifecycle.
Many construction projects fail because organizations assume that all the projects would succeed and they therefore do not identify, analyze, and provide mitigation or contingencies for the risk elements involved in the project.
Society desires that all projects should be performing and has become less tolerant of failure (Edwards and Bowen, 2005). Pressure is exerted on project managers to minimize the chance of project failure. This increasing pressure for performance which suggests that it is prudent for anyone involved in a project to be concerned about the associated risks and how they can be effectively managed.
Traditionally, performance of a project is analyzed on the criteria of quality, budget and time of completion. Two more criteria to determine the performance of a project were added by Kerzner (2001). Firstly, the project would effectively and efficiently manage risks and, secondly, it should be accepted by the customer.
It is known that the cause of the projects failure can be directly related to the extent of risk management methods undertaken. Besides, the level of risk management methods undertaken during project lifecycle impacts directly on the performance or otherwise of the project. Furthermore, using risk management methods effectively to manage risk should be continuously undertaken throughout the project lifecycle to enhance project performance. Risk management methods are thus an important tool to cope with such substantial risks in projects performance.
The main objective of the enquiry work that underpins this research is to investigate the effect of risk management methods on project performance. In this paper, a case study of RSSB multi-storey already executed project is considered.
Towards Innovate Methods of Construction Cost Management and Controlcivejjour
Project cost is one of the three main challenges for the construction manager, where the success of a
project is judged by meeting the criteria of cost with budget, schedule on time, and quality as specified by
the owner. Many projects experience extensive delays and thereby exceed initial time and cost estimate.
Available information, good estimating practice and experienced personnel are some of the factors found
to have considerable impact on estimation accuracy. The successful execution of construction projects and
keeping them within estimated cost and prescribed schedules depend on a methodology that requires sound
engineering judgment. So the research aim is to conduct research study and process of exploring the
existing model related to above three types of estimate and their contribution to civil engineering cost
management and control especially getting motivated with the verification and validation component of
CRASP methodology. The objective of this paper or scope of this research in this paper is to conduct
literature study and review towards exploring innovative techniques such as Artificial Intelligence
Techniques or Expert System Techniques available and applicable to make decision making or decision
support regarding construction cost management and control at three levels: (i) before the actual civil
engineering project design begins (ii) after detailed design but before execution and (iii) during project
execution
Towards Innovate Methods of Construction Cost Management and Controlcivej
Project cost is one of the three main challenges for the construction manager, where the success of a
project is judged by meeting the criteria of cost with budget, schedule on time, and quality as specified by
the owner. Many projects experience extensive delays and thereby exceed initial time and cost estimate.
Available information, good estimating practice and experienced personnel are some of the factors found
to have considerable impact on estimation accuracy. The successful execution of construction projects and
keeping them within estimated cost and prescribed schedules depend on a methodology that requires sound
engineering judgment. So the research aim is to conduct research study and process of exploring the
existing model related to above three types of estimate and their contribution to civil engineering cost
management and control especially getting motivated with the verification and validation component of
CRASP methodology. The objective of this paper or scope of this research in this paper is to conduct
literature study and review towards exploring innovative techniques such as Artificial Intelligence
Techniques or Expert System Techniques available and applicable to make decision making or decision
support regarding construction cost management and control at three levels: (i) before the actual civil
engineering project design begins (ii) after detailed design but before execution and (iii) during project
execution
The simplified electron and muon model, Oscillating Spacetime: The Foundation...RitikBhardwaj56
Discover the Simplified Electron and Muon Model: A New Wave-Based Approach to Understanding Particles delves into a groundbreaking theory that presents electrons and muons as rotating soliton waves within oscillating spacetime. Geared towards students, researchers, and science buffs, this book breaks down complex ideas into simple explanations. It covers topics such as electron waves, temporal dynamics, and the implications of this model on particle physics. With clear illustrations and easy-to-follow explanations, readers will gain a new outlook on the universe's fundamental nature.
Macroeconomics- Movie Location
This will be used as part of your Personal Professional Portfolio once graded.
Objective:
Prepare a presentation or a paper using research, basic comparative analysis, data organization and application of economic information. You will make an informed assessment of an economic climate outside of the United States to accomplish an entertainment industry objective.
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Running head IMPLEMENTATION STRATEGIESIMPLEMENTATION STRATEGIES.docxcowinhelen
Running head: IMPLEMENTATION STRATEGIES
IMPLEMENTATION STRATEGIES 4
Implementation Strategies
Michael Boddie
Application Implementation
CMGT/445
Michael Goyden
December 11, 2017
Introduction
Project communication is very critical to the success of any project. It is also critical to key project management soft-skill. As a project manager, project communication is one deliverable that they are personally responsible for and it was of the largest influence over the failure or project success. There are main elements of project communications examples are project sponsors, customers, project team members, project manager, and project management office.
Project communication plan
The major objectives of a communication plan are; to encourage the use of project management best practices, ensure a consistent, give accurate and timely information about the project, and to promote and gain support for the project management improvements.
Table 1 below shows the target audience
Project stakeholders
Message
Delivery method
Delivery Frequency
Communicator
Project Sponsor
Project plans and status report
Meeting
Report sent via mail to project sponsor
Weekly
Project manager
Project core team
Project plans
Meeting
Weekly
Project manager
Executive management
Project briefing
Oral briefing and presentation of slides
Monthly
Biweekly
Project manager
Programmers
Project briefing
Oral briefing
Daily
Project manager
Users
Project status
Meeting and presentation slides
Weekly
Project manager
Communication message contents
A project plan shoes a guide of project execution and project control. Then document also shows approved scope of the project, the cost, and schedule. Project plans shows the current and future plans. The documents also shows project problems and issues. Project plan also shows planned project deliverables for the next period. The status report, keeps the key project stakeholders informed. It is shows status summary, status budget, status scope, accomplishment, issues, and project team members. Project briefing shows project issues and problems, it also shows goals of project management improvement, and project checklist (Project Management Institute, 2017).
Documentation Required
There are eight essential documents required for this project. First is a project charter. This document formally recognizes the project creation and the formal contract between project sponsors, project stakeholders, and commercial agreement. Project charter documents gathers aspects related to the contracting and the contacted example is the project name, the goals of the project and the needs that the project it serves. Project charter also shows a brief description of the project, feasibility study, the project products i.e. training manuals, supporting, and monitoring post release of the project. A project charter also shows the intermediate products whic ...
Running head FINAL ASSIGNMENT1FINAL ASSIGNMENT.docxcowinhelen
Running head: FINAL ASSIGNMENT 1
FINAL ASSIGNMENT 7
FINAL ASSIGNMENT
Name:
Course Title:
Professor:
Date:
Scope changes occur when the request is made to change the project objectives and its scope to accompany needs and objectives that were not originally in the original plan (Arain & Low, 2009). Allowing scope changes when the project have already started usually adds cost, more risks, and longer duration or even project failure if the scope is not managed properly. Scope changes in a project occurs through the following ways; some scope changes may be necessary and minor and thus may not follow the approval procedure, a scope change should be made through a change request form, the form should address specific scope changes to be made, reviewed and authorized, once the change request form has been filled the project manager should pay attention to the nature to make sure if the changes are in scope, where the changes are in the projects lifecycle and which objective or deliverable will be affected. A benefit case should be made to analyses why the changes will be made and what impact they will have on the project timeline, risk, and cost. The Project Manager should send a mail to the project sponsor or through meeting him in person and explaining the importance of the change. Once the change has been approved, it should be documented and the changes controlled through the project phases.
Project timeline changes are the most common problem to a project manager which usually occurs when a project task or activity which is in the critical path takes more time than what was estimated or planned or changes in project scope (Arain & Low, 2009). Timeline changes can be managed through an addition of more resources a good example is when the sponsor demands the project to be finished one month earlier which will need the manager to request for two additional software developers for the remaining part of the project. The second way to manage changes in project timeline is through the critical path, where you add more resources to the tasks in the critical path which will shorten their duration, this is known as crashing the plan. Whenever a project timeline project changes it should be reported to all the project stakeholders and the sponsor through the following ways; providing an updated project plan with all the tasks affected by the project timeline changes, report about your project timeline in the current project status report.
Project budget changes is directed influenced by other changes such as timeline and scope which will make the project to require additional funding from the sponsor, project managers should continuously manage their budget to avoid an over-budget (Arain & Low, 2009), project manager should constantly revisit the project budget especially when other changes such as scope occurs since they direct contribute to the project cost, they should revisit the resources that the project is using, The ...
EFFECTS OF RISK MANAGEMENT METHODS ON PROJECT PERFORMANCE IN RWANDAN CONSTRUC...Sibo Kanyambari Aimable
Risks are very common in construction sector. Risk is the Possibility of suffering loss and the impact on the involved parties. According to APM (2006), all projects are inherently risky because they are unique, constrained, complex, based on assumptions, and performed by people. As a result, project risk management methods must be built into the management of projects and should be used throughout the project lifecycle.
Many construction projects fail because organizations assume that all the projects would succeed and they therefore do not identify, analyze, and provide mitigation or contingencies for the risk elements involved in the project.
Society desires that all projects should be performing and has become less tolerant of failure (Edwards and Bowen, 2005). Pressure is exerted on project managers to minimize the chance of project failure. This increasing pressure for performance which suggests that it is prudent for anyone involved in a project to be concerned about the associated risks and how they can be effectively managed.
Traditionally, performance of a project is analyzed on the criteria of quality, budget and time of completion. Two more criteria to determine the performance of a project were added by Kerzner (2001). Firstly, the project would effectively and efficiently manage risks and, secondly, it should be accepted by the customer.
It is known that the cause of the projects failure can be directly related to the extent of risk management methods undertaken. Besides, the level of risk management methods undertaken during project lifecycle impacts directly on the performance or otherwise of the project. Furthermore, using risk management methods effectively to manage risk should be continuously undertaken throughout the project lifecycle to enhance project performance. Risk management methods are thus an important tool to cope with such substantial risks in projects performance.
The main objective of the enquiry work that underpins this research is to investigate the effect of risk management methods on project performance. In this paper, a case study of RSSB multi-storey already executed project is considered.
Towards Innovate Methods of Construction Cost Management and Controlcivejjour
Project cost is one of the three main challenges for the construction manager, where the success of a
project is judged by meeting the criteria of cost with budget, schedule on time, and quality as specified by
the owner. Many projects experience extensive delays and thereby exceed initial time and cost estimate.
Available information, good estimating practice and experienced personnel are some of the factors found
to have considerable impact on estimation accuracy. The successful execution of construction projects and
keeping them within estimated cost and prescribed schedules depend on a methodology that requires sound
engineering judgment. So the research aim is to conduct research study and process of exploring the
existing model related to above three types of estimate and their contribution to civil engineering cost
management and control especially getting motivated with the verification and validation component of
CRASP methodology. The objective of this paper or scope of this research in this paper is to conduct
literature study and review towards exploring innovative techniques such as Artificial Intelligence
Techniques or Expert System Techniques available and applicable to make decision making or decision
support regarding construction cost management and control at three levels: (i) before the actual civil
engineering project design begins (ii) after detailed design but before execution and (iii) during project
execution
Towards Innovate Methods of Construction Cost Management and Controlcivej
Project cost is one of the three main challenges for the construction manager, where the success of a
project is judged by meeting the criteria of cost with budget, schedule on time, and quality as specified by
the owner. Many projects experience extensive delays and thereby exceed initial time and cost estimate.
Available information, good estimating practice and experienced personnel are some of the factors found
to have considerable impact on estimation accuracy. The successful execution of construction projects and
keeping them within estimated cost and prescribed schedules depend on a methodology that requires sound
engineering judgment. So the research aim is to conduct research study and process of exploring the
existing model related to above three types of estimate and their contribution to civil engineering cost
management and control especially getting motivated with the verification and validation component of
CRASP methodology. The objective of this paper or scope of this research in this paper is to conduct
literature study and review towards exploring innovative techniques such as Artificial Intelligence
Techniques or Expert System Techniques available and applicable to make decision making or decision
support regarding construction cost management and control at three levels: (i) before the actual civil
engineering project design begins (ii) after detailed design but before execution and (iii) during project
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MANAGING AND CONTROLLING PROJECT CHANGES IN POST-CONFLICT COUNTRIES: THE CASE OF LIBERIA
1. International Journal of Managing Value and Supply Chains (IJMVSC) Vol. 13, No. 4, December 2022
DOI:10.5121/ijmvsc.2022.13403 21
MANAGING AND CONTROLLING PROJECT
CHANGES IN POST-CONFLICT COUNTRIES: THE
CASE OF LIBERIA
Teakon J. WILLIAMS, PMP
Institute for Sustainable Development, School of Global Affairs,
CuttingtonUniversity, Monrovia, Liberia
ABSTRACT
Ineffective change management and control practices in donor and government-funded projects
served as the major impediment to meeting project completion timelines and possible project failures.
Project management professionals globally have attributed multiple requests for cost, scope, or
schedule changes to classical project management issues, including cost overruns, schedule overruns,
and scope creeps when managing traditional-driven projects. In post-conflict countries, including
Liberia, multiple change requests or variation orders are prevalent in various types of projects often
driven by political interests, corruption, and other fraudulent practices. In this paper, the author
examined some critical change management and control issues, especially regarding little or
non-existent institutional framework for change control as well as the lack of a structural and
systematic approach for managing and controlling changes during project implementation. To
mitigate these situations, the author proffered recommendations aimed at helping project
organizations minimize budget and schedule overruns due to scope creep as well as project delays
resulting from unregulated change management and control practices in Liberia.
KEYWORDS
Unregulated change management, Change management board (CCB), Multiple change order, Variation
order, Regulatory authority for change, Institutional framework,
1. INTRODUCTION
Change management is a systematic process of identifying, documenting, approving, and
implementing changes when executing a donor or government-funded project (Wanner, 2013). It
is an essential aspect of project management and its application to ensure that a systematic
change process is followed in a controlled and coordinated manner. This approach will minimize
disruptions in project implementation and increase the chance of project success (Wanner, 2013).
Generally, the objectives of change management are to refine, adjust, and effectively manage the
change process. Effective change management enhances organizational performance ability and
capability through organized actions that can help reduce changes to minimize scope creep or
cost overrun (Elton, 2018). The overall goal is to ensure that the cost, scope, and schedule are
properly controlled. Project managers should be able to properly communicate the needed scope
changes, along with contracts containing those changes to minimize the chance of introducing
more scope changes (Elton, 2018).
Changes are inevitable during the project lifecycle given project complexities and
unpredictability. These intricacies and improbabilities of events are due to frequent changes in
2. International Journal of Managing Value and Supply Chains (IJMVSC) Vol. 13, No. 4, December 2022
22
requirements and other risk factors that can affect major project constraints – cost, scope,
schedule, and quality. As a result of these complications, contemporary project management
professionals are now turning to Agile Methodologies, which are new iterative, adaptive, or
incremental methodologies that deliver values earlier for the client. Unlike the predictive
(traditional or waterfall) methodology, where values are delivered after project deployment, the
Agile methodologies deliver values in increments using several phases or sprints (Loayan, 2022).
The Agile approach is a new phenomenon and software-driven, therefore most donor and
government-funded projects in post-conflict countries utilize the predictive (traditional) approach
which includes initiation, planning, execution, and closing. Monitoring and control, an inherent
part of the project lifecycle used in most of these phases, is designed to ensure that inputs, tools,
techniques, and outputs (ITTO) during project intervention are properly planned, monitored, and
controlled to achieve project success. To achieve this, project managers should adhere to the
integrated change management approach detailed in the Project Management Book of Knowledge
(PMBOK) by following an effective and efficient change management and control process.
Mojica (2018) listed the following as essential steps in implementing change management during
project execution:
Identifying the need for change: Identification is the first step requiring whether the need
for change is justified. Change request, in this regard, may be derived from changes in
project scope, project environment, implementation changes, or other factors.
Documenting the change: This step is relevant for describing the change and providing
justification for such change. It includes providing any relevant information and analysis
concerning the change's impact on cost, schedule, and quality.
Obtaining change approval: After documenting the change, the next step is to send the
change request(s) to the Change Management Board (CMB) or Change Control Board
(CCB) for reviewal for possible approval or rejection.
Implementing the change: Change approval requires revising the project plan, updating
project documents, and associated artifacts, and communicating the change to the project
team for implementation.
Monitor and Control change: During the implementation of the change by the project
team, the quality analyst or manager monitor and control the change. This process
involves tracking change progress, revising the project plan as needed, and conducting
periodic reviews to ensure that the change is on track.
The effective planning, execution, management, and control of the change process are critical for
achieving project success. The lack, thereof, can lead to scope creep, an uncontrolled change in
scope that increase schedule and cost. A study by Khahro et al. (2017) found that multiple change
orders, especially in construction projects are due to inadequate drawings and details,
specification changes, conflict in contract documents, inadequate designs, and design changes,
and errors. Therefore, project management professionals should follow the necessary project
management steps including effective scope planning, scope verification, scope control, and
integrated change control to minimize scope creep during project implementation.
2. LITERATURE REVIEW
Change Management in project management involves all of the necessary steps required to
effectively manage changes that are derived from design errors, scope change, environmental
factors, and risk factors, among others. Change management is a complex process requiring the
implementation of sets of measures from project initiation to closing (Zachko et al., 2020). The
complexity of change is manifested in an organization's inability to predict accurately all of the
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resources, scope, cost, schedule, stakeholders, and other project inputs amid varieties of risks and
other endogenous and exogenous factors.
In light of this unpredictability of inputs, tools, and outputs, Project Management Institute (2017)
asserted that change is inevitable and will be prevalent in different types of projects. Effective
management of change will lead to project success knowing that change initiatives are
time-consuming and costly. Change Management (CM) in post-conflict countries is more
challenging requiring a disciplined approach and effective planning for change. The complexity
of CM in post-conflict countries is due to inherent constraints – roads, infrastructure, manpower,
institutional capacity, etc. For example, a study by Earnest (2019) asserted that international aid
agencies do not work effectively in a service delivery post challenges in various processes of
project implementation, stakeholder coordination, communications, cost, quality, procurement,
and risk management.
Given the inevitability of change in projects, including post-conflict countries, changes should be
properly planned, monitored, and controlled. Change management is elaborated under the process
group, Monitoring and Control, by providing useful guidance on how to manage and control
changes along the 10 project management knowledge areas – project integration management,
project scope management, project schedule management, project cost management, project
quality management, project resource management, project communications management, project
risk management, project procurement management, and project stakeholder management. The
overall application of the monitoring and control process group is manifested under the project
integration knowledge area with emphases on the utilization of an integrated change control and
monitor andcontrol project works (Project Management Institute, 2021).
Integrated change control is an elaborate and coordinated process that allows for the
documentation of all requested, approved, or rejected changes to the project in consideration of
reducing project risks, cost, and schedule without impacting the overall project plans (Karimi &
Munyori, 2018). The change control board (CCB) is responsible for approving and rejecting
changes. If the change is approved, all of the associated documents, including project documents,
project plans, and schedule baselines, among others are updated to reflect the change. In
post-conflict countries, most projects are implemented in an emergency manner reflecting some
of the urgencies associated with civil conflict, environmental factors, famine, and other binding
constraints. Therefore, most projects are implemented without the CCB or an institutional
framework, therefore, changes are implemented by the project manager in concert with the
supervising contractor/consultant and the project steering committee.
Effective utilization of an integrated change management project should consider the formulation
of a CCB to receive, review, analyze, and approve/reject changes. The CCB will comprise a
group of stakeholders from different backgrounds that meet periodically to review changes. This
approach can minimize fraud and corruption in the change process. Most post-conflict projects
are susceptible to conflict of interest, fraud, and corruption, given that they usually lack a CCB to
ably manage the change process.
Project management changes should be handled with adequate levels of planning, monitoring,
and control. Planning involves effective scope management, and scope definition while
monitoring and control involve scope validation and scope control (Project Management
Institute, 2021). Without an effective scope planning, monitoring, and control process, there are
consistent and persistent requests for change to project scope, referred to as change order.
Some of these consistent change orders lead to scope creep, an uncontrolled change in the scope
resulting in increased cost and time. Scope creep can lead to increase project costs and increased
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project timelines. Khahro et al. (2017) stated that change orders disrupt workflow and can lead to
cost and schedule overruns at the highest proportion. Some projects in post-conflict countries can
have schedule overruns as high as 575% due to a temporarily halt in project implementation
(Kanniappan, 2022).
Project scope management is a key project management knowledge area that drives changes.
Therefore, effective scope planning, scope definition, scope validation, and scope control are
essential for minimizing the changes in projects. The lack thereof can lead to scope creep which
increases project cost and schedule. To properly manage change, it should be considered from the
period of project initiation and continued up to project closure (Wanner, 2013). In Figure 1,
Wanner (2013) displayed integrated change management relating to project management, project
scope, and change management.
Figure 1: Integration of Project and Change Management
Figure 1 depicts the relevance of change at all levels of the project lifecycle from initiation to
closing. Overall, the Project Management Institute (2013) listed four distinct steps in planning,
monitoring, and controlling changes in projects. They include:
Prepare for the change
Plan the change
Manage the change
Reinforce and sustain the change
2.1. Define the Change Objectives
Change management should be handled from the perspective of processes, technologies, or
organizational changes. Overall, the project manager must examine the proposed change and
determine the effect the change will have on the project as a whole before allowing the change
request to be implemented. To implement change, project managers should be able to properly
communicate needed scope changes, along with contracts containing those changes to minimize
the chance of introducing more scope changes (Elton, 2018).
Once the objective of the change is clearly defined, the project manager and his team assess the
stakeholders who will be impacted by the change to ensure readiness and support. Stakeholder
planning and engagement, throughout the project lifecycle, are critical to the survivability of the
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project (Riahi, 2017). Scope change impacts cost and schedule, therefore, project managers
should also assess the needed resources to manage the team. Thereafter, he/she should be able to
properly communicate needed scope changes, along with contracts containing those changes to
minimize the chance of introducing more scope changes (Elton, 2018). Finally, the project
manager conducts a detailed analysis to assess the impact of the change on the project
stakeholders.
2.2. Plan the Change
To effectively manage change, the needed strategy and plan are required to ensure cost, scope,
and schedule control. Mulholland (2022) listed eight strategies for effective change management
including:
Define the change: this involves setting the definition of what you want to change;
Keep it simple: provide a simple change management process that can be easily
understood by everybody;
Start at the top: provision of justification to the project executive board or steering
committee for implementing the change.
Don’t forget the frontlines: Also include those who will be an inherent part of the
change you want to make;
Use culture to your advantage: Make the best use of culture by utilizing
organizational culture and culture outside your organization;
Tie change to strategic objectives: Implementation of change should be tied to
achieving your strategic objectives including your Development Objectives (DO) and
other intermediate and immediate objectives.
Encourage behavioral shifts: mobilize everybody on board to achieve this change,
even if it means diverting from original responsibilities;
Provide a formal framework: design a formal process for change.
2.3. Manage the Change
A literature review of institutional authority for project change is the change control board
(CCB). Project Management Institute (2021) stated that the CCB is a chartered group responsible
for reviewing, evaluating, approving, delaying, or rejecting change to a project and for recording
and communicating any decision from the process. All levels of change are channeled through
the CCB for effective coordination and communication of the results of the change.
Change management via CCB is not a common practice in most post-conflict countries including
Liberia. However, in most donor and government-funded projects, changes are controlled mainly
by the project manager/project coordinator with requests from contractors or consultants. The
development of CCB or CMB is necessary to curtail fraud, corruption, and other fraudulent
behavior by projects. The CCB or CMB must be set up for all projectized or matrix organizations
for effective control of project costs, scope, and schedule and should comprise stakeholders that
are relevant to the project.
The designation of different stakeholder members as members of the CCB will provide checks
and balances and minimize the chance of fraud. For example, a CCB or CMB will be able to
convene and assess whether the requested changes are necessary or not. The board will include
diverse members from multi-dimensional backgrounds that would contribute to the overall
change effort by determining whether changes are necessary or not. Overall, this process
minimizes the chances of fraud and corruption. An effective change management and control
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process provides a systematic process for change requests, change reviews, change
approval/rejections, and change implementation. In Figure 2, Martin (2022) displayed a process
flow for change requests including change request analysis and approval/rejection by the CCB.
Figure 2: Change Request Process Flow
2.4. Reinforce and Sustain the Change
At this stage, the project manager and team collect feedback on the impact of change
implementation, and if necessary, take corrective actions to reinforce the needed changes that will
deliver a quality product. To sustain the change, the project manager and team use lessons learned
to develop artifacts that can be reused for the implementation of similar changes for the
sustainability of the process. Figure 3, elaborated by Project Management Institute (2013)
displayed the change management and control processes.
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Figure 3: Structural Change Management Process
2.5. Implementing Variation Order
A variation or change order is a formal document for implementing a process or implementation
changes. Multiple variation orders during project executive cause increase in project costs
(negative cost variance) and schedule overruns. There are numerous factors attributed to variation
or change orders during project execution. Islamic Development Bank (2020) listed some of the
factors for variation:
Variation based on change of the original design;
Variations based on quantities of materials and work;
Variations from the original scope of work;
Variations to proposed and actual working conditions; and
Variations to quality.
Effective change management is the managing of variation orders to minimize scope creep and
cost overruns. Ephrem et al. (2019) asserted that cost overruns, especially in construction projects,
are due to too many changes in owner's requirements or definitions resulting in many
variation/change orders that increase costs. McCord (2015) revealed further that excessive use of
variation orders is one of the main causes of overruns and failure of projects.
Variation or change order involves a series of steps for implementation or non-implementation.
They are initiated by the Consulting Engineer or Supervision Consultant, based on a request from
the contractor, who issues a change or variation proposal (Islamic Development Bank, 2020). The
variation proposal includes the justification for the change order, the initial and new cost, and the
effect on the project’s overall cost, scope, and/or schedule. However, processes for implementing
variation orders vary by organization.
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3. MANAGING CHANGES IN POST-CONFLICT CONTEXT
The Project Management Institute (PMI) proposed the formulation of a program governance
board (PGB), change control board (CCB), or change management board (CMB) to facilitate
the process of change from planning to its final decision of accepting or rejecting (Project
Management Institute, 2017). The role of the program governance or change control board is to
assist the approving authority in the review of change requests consistent with projects ’baselines
performance requirements, budgeted cost, and schedule (Pollack, 2017). Moreover, the board
ensures that the prospective changes are clearly defined and fall within the approved cost,
schedule, and performance parameters (Pollack, 2017).
In post-conflict countries administering World Bank (WB), African Development Bank (AfDB),
USAID, UNDP, and other donor-funded projects, there are similar institutional frameworks to
guide the change process from inception to closing. The World Bank's procurement guidelines
required that a change order may be issued if it is necessary to make changes in the Work or the
contract due to unforeseen situations at the time of the signing of the contract (World Bank,
2018). This action may be predicated on the fact that neither party was at fault for this
occurrence, therefore minor changes in the Work that will not significantly alter the scope, cost,
or project completion timelines may be carried out (World Bank, 2018).
The World Bank uses the Project Implementation Manual (PIM) or Project Operational Manual
(POM) derived from the Procurement Guide: Contract Management Practices (World Bank,
2018). The PIM or POM guides the entire project implementation relating to financial,
procurement, administrative, change management, and communications management, among
others. Other donor organizations use similar project implementation guides relating to
administrative procedures, procurement, and financial procedures.
The World Bank implementation in post-conflict countries follows a similar change management
process provided by the PMI. World Bank (2018) listed the following steps for implementing
change management:
Have appropriate forms and clear procedures for implementing change/variation orders
Assessing the effect on project scope, cost, implications, and risks
Clarify who (designated authority) is responsible for implementing changes
Identify areas susceptible to change, evaluate risk, proactively manage those areas, and
Ensure timely communication of change information to relevant stakeholders.
Other donor organizations, like the AfDB, UNDP, and USAID follow similar steps for change
management specifically when dealing with change orders. For example, like the World Bank,
the AfDB provides that a change order may be issued to modify the original contract based on
unforeseen circumstances at the time of the award of the control (AfDB, 2015). Similarly,
USAID ascribes to comparable provisions like the World Bank and the AfDB. For example,
USAID makes provision for change orders if it is necessary to make changes in the scope of
work, budget, or period of performance of a contract, including a grant (USAID, n.d.).
Despite these change order provisions by these donor institutions, there are threshold limits that
cannot be exceeded. For example, both the World Bank and AfDB propose between 15-20% of
the total contractual cost as the maximum threshold of the change order value. Other
organizations set values that are higher than 20%. These provisions are provided in the Project
Implementation Manual (PIM) or Project Operational Manual (POM) developed by these
institutions in concert with the partner organizations. However, in most post-conflict countries,
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especially in other donor and government projects, cost variance resulting from change order can
go as high as 400%. For example, the cost variance, from multiple change order requests, for the
construction of Geekan Market in Grand Kru County, Liberia, was 400%, while the cost variance
of construction of 3 markets in Compound #3 in Grand Bass County, Liberia was 307%
(Williams, 2021). These high-cost variances are an indication of the effect of multiple change
orders on project implementation.
To minimize high cost and schedule variance derived from multiple change or variation orders,
the PMI proposed the setting up of a PGB, CCB, or CMB. However, setting up these institutions
is not a common practice in most post-conflict countries including Liberia. In post-conflict
countries, including Liberia, the processes of issuing change orders are usually complex due to
the often fragile political and economic situation in these countries (USIP, n.d.). However,
change order requests in these countries are essential in responding to unexpected challenges or
opportunities that arise during the implementation of the project. Moreover, the designation of
different stakeholder members as members of the CCB or CMB will provide checks and balances
and minimize the chance of fraud. These institutions, when formulated, will be able to convene
and assess whether the required changes are necessary or not. The board will include diverse
members from multi-dimensional backgrounds that would contribute as to whether changes are
necessary or not. Overall, this process minimizes the chances of fraud and corruption.
In Liberia, there are reports of CCB or CMB in a few government institutions including the
Ministries of Health and Public Works. However, in most donor and government-funded projects,
changes are controlled mainly by the project manager/project coordinator with requests from
contractors or supervising consultants. Another change management issue of frequent occurrence
in post-conflict countries involves the use of multiple change or variation orders. Variable or
change order in post-conflict environments mainly Liberia is of serious concern given its
excessive use.
There are many instances of excessive variation orders in donor-funded and government projects.
However, this situation is more pronounced in very large government or donor-funded projects
mainly infrastructure projects relating to construction and road rehabilitation. For example, it was
revealed that the Central Bank of Liberia (CBL) project's planned value was US$16 million.
However, after the project, it was estimated at US$24 million, a 50% overrun resulting from
many variation orders resulting in a change in scope (Central Bank of Liberia, 2015). There are,
however, reports that the entire project including furnishing summed up to US$32 million.
There have been many instances of excessive variation orders in various projects in Liberia. For
example, CENTAL (2018) reported that the initial cost of the Bong Technical College located in
Gbarnga, Bong County was $4.3 million which later increased to $7.6 million, reflecting is 77%
cost overrun. There are other instances of excessive cost overruns resulting from changes in other
infrastructure projects in Liberia. However, given technological challenges like reliable databases
for storing records in some cases and deliberate attempts to hide the contract values in other
cases, there are no reliable data available to support cost and schedule overruns data.
4. LESSONS LEARNED AND RECOMMENDATIONS
To effectively manage project management changes, the following recommendations are
proposed:
Set up Effective Mechanism for Change: Donor organizations should work with project
stakeholders in establishing boards or committees to manage change – CCB, CMB, or PGB.
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These institutional frameworks will help projects streamline the change processes in
minimizing unnecessary changes that may cause increases in cost and schedule.
Minimizing Change Order: Project implementers should discourage the use of multiple
change orders through effective verification of technical drawings, bills of quantities (BoQs),
and other planning documentation. Effective verification of products at the project initiation
and planning stages will minimize the chances of multiple change requests at the project
execution stage.
Effective Stakeholder Engagement: Project management teams need to consult with project
stakeholders before initiating projects. Some changes are a result of stakeholders’
disagreement often leading to changes in the original designs which can lead to increased
costs and schedule.
Detailed Risk Management Plan: Project planners should carry out effective risk
identification, planning, and execution to minimize risk impact which leads to changes in
project plans and activities. Effective risk planning and management are essential in
minimizing multiple change requests derived from scope changes.
Effective Scope Control: the effective management of scope through the scope management
plan to minimize the change of unmanageable scope control or scope creep. Scope creep can
lead to increase costs and schedule delays. Project managers should effectively manage scope
to minimize changes and project delays. Management of scope involves verification of
technical drawings, BoQs, and Terms of Reference (ToRs) to minimize changes to these
documents during project execution.
Effective Planning and Schedule Management: Effective planning and schedule
management are essential for minimizing changes resulting from scope change. Project
managers should put in place an effective schedule management plan to minimize changes
associated with ineffective planning. To foster effective planning and schedule management,
project managers and implementers should be trained to use the basic tool (MS-Project) for
project planning and scheduling. These tools are essential for effective cost estimations and
the development of needed implementation tools for project scheduling.
Cost Control: Cost overrun is detrimental to the success of the projects. Therefore, project
planners and implementors should put in place effective cost control mechanisms that will
discourage scope change and other change requests. One of the major cost control mitigation
is the provision of requisite training and practices to effectively manage costs (budget
tracking, budget revision, and budget control) to minimize cost overruns that cause delays to
projects.
5. CONCLUSION
Effective change planning, monitoring, and control, during project execution remains a daunting
challenge in post-conflict countries, including Liberia. There are inherent financial benefits for
project managers and implementers due to the lack of effective structures to plan, manage and
control changes. There is often a form of collusion among the project manager, project
implementer(s), and supervising consultant in varying forms. Donors and government
organizations should work collaboratively to put in place effective change mechanisms to
properly plan, assess, and approve/reject changes. Without an effective structure, like a change
management board, projects will continue to incur unnecessary costs, scope, and schedule
overruns that would delays project implementations and foster project failures.
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12. International Journal of Managing Value and Supply Chains (IJMVSC) Vol. 13, No. 4, December 2022
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AUTHOR
Dr. Teakon J. Williams is a certified Project Management Professional and has
been working as a project management practitioner for over 22 years spanning from
1999. Dr. Williams currently works as Lecturer at the School of Global Affairs at
Cuttington University and the Stella Maris Polytechnic University in Liberia. He
previously served as lecturer of project planning and management at the Liberia
Institute of Public Administration (LIPA) in Liberia.Dr. Williams also worked as
Senior Researcher for the Liberia Institute of Policy Studies and Research (LiPSR)
at the University of Liberia. On a part-time basis he works as project coordinator for
both the African Development Bank (AfDB) and World Bank (WB) funded projects in Liberia. For the last
10 years, Dr. Williams has worked as consultant for the UNDP, UN-Women, Office of the UN High
Commissioner of Human Rights (OHCHR), the International Labor Organization (ILO), United Nations
Fund for Population Activities (UNFPA), Ministry of Youth and Sports (MoYS), Ministry of Education
(MoE), Ministry of Agriculture (MOA), and Ministry of Finance and Development Planning (MFDP).