LESSONS IN BEHAVIOURAL SCIENCES FOR THE STUDENT NURSE - RICHARD OPOKU ASARE

LESSONS
IN
BEHAVIOURAL SCIENCES
FOR
THE STUDENT NURSE
RICHARD OPOKU ASARE

LESSONS
IN
BEHAVIOURAL SCIENCES
FOR
THE STUDENT NURSE
RICHARD OPOKU ASARE
M.Phil, B.Ed. (Hons), RN (Dip-RMN), Cert.Ed., Dip.MH (Alison), ENCS, NCF
College of Nursing and Midwifery, Ntotroso
Ahafo Region, Ghana
Copyright ©2024
All rights reserved.
ISBN: 978 – 9988 – 3 – 7544 – 7
Author contact: 024 080 3140 / 020 908 2000
Email: asareor@gmail.com / asareor@yahoo.com
https://www.linkedin.com/in/richard-asare-b6931584/
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9392-9569
Designed and Printed by Forsamuel Printing Press, Fiapre, Sunyani
Email: samuelakakpo53@gmail.com
Tel: 024 507 9342 / 055 196 4635

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I appreciate the support given to me by colleagues, friends, and students to put pieces of my
lecture notes into a handout for the knowledge of all.
Exceptional thanks go to my family for the financial support to produce this piece of
knowledge.
To Mrs. Martha Asare, God bless you for doing the typing for this handout.
I am grateful to the students of College of Nursing and Midwifery, Ntotroso, for their strong
support for and showing great interest in this course.
Finally, I acknowledge and thank all institutions, authors, and publishers whose valuable
materials I tapped into and referenced to make this handout a success.
God’s work done God’s way shall never lack God’s supply.
Thank you.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .............................................................................................. i
TABLE OF CONTENTS .................................................................................................ii
LIST OF TABLES........................................................................................................... vi
LIST OF FIGURES........................................................................................................vii
PREFACE.......................................................................................................................viii
INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................. 1
CHAPTER ONE ............................................................................................................... 3
DEVELOPMENT AND SCOPE OF PSYCHOLOGY AND SOCIOLOGY .................... 3
1.1 Introduction to Psychology ....................................................................................... 3
1.1.1 Key Terms in the Definition of Psychology..............................................................4
1.1.2 Meaning of Behaviour...............................................................................................5
1.1.3 The Scope of Psychology ..........................................................................................5
1.1.4 Applications of Psychology.......................................................................................8
1.1.5 The Models of Psychology........................................................................................8
1.1.6 Goals of Psychology..................................................................................................9
1.1.7 Importance of Psychology to Nursing.....................................................................10
1.2 Introduction to Sociology........................................................................................ 12
1.2.1 Scope of Sociology..................................................................................................13
1.2.2 Importance of Sociology .........................................................................................13
CHAPTER TWO ............................................................................................................ 15
INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT ........................... 15
2.1 Basic Concepts........................................................................................................ 15
2.1.1 Human Development...............................................................................................15
2.1.2 Development............................................................................................................15
2.1.3 Biological Processes of Development .....................................................................16
2.2 Principles of Human Growth and Development ..................................................... 16
2.2.1 Principles of Growth................................................................................................16
2.2.2 Principles of Development ......................................................................................17
2.3 Aspects of Development ......................................................................................... 18
2.3.1 Biological Process/Physical Development/Biosocial Domain................................18
2.3.2 Cognitive Process/Intellectual Development/Cognitive Domain............................19
2.3.3 Socio-emotional Process/Psychosocial Domain/Personality and Social
Development.....................................................................................................................19
2.4 Prenatal Development – Conception to Birth ......................................................... 19
2.4.1 Stages of Prenatal Development..............................................................................20

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2.5 The Growth Cycle – Prenatal to Old Age ............................................................... 22
2.5.1 Life-span Development – Prenatal to Old Age.................................................... 23
2.6 Adolescence and Puberty – Physical Growth and Changes.................................... 29
2.6.1 Sexual Maturation in Males.....................................................................................29
2.6.2 Sexual Maturation in Females .................................................................................29
2.7 Concepts of Age...................................................................................................... 30
CHAPTER THREE........................................................................................................ 32
PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT................................................................................. 32
3.1 Introduction to Personality...................................................................................... 32
3.2 Personality Theories................................................................................................ 32
3.2.1 Theory of Humours (Body Fluids) ..........................................................................33
3.2.2 Somatotypes (Bodily Shapes)..................................................................................34
3.2.3 Trait Theory of Personality......................................................................................36
3.2.4 Narrow-Band Theories of Personality.....................................................................39
3.2.5 Psychoanalytic Theory of Personality.....................................................................40
3.2.6 Psychosexual Stages of Personality Development ..................................................44
3.2.7 Erikson’s Stage Theory ...........................................................................................48
3.2.8 Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development ............................................................49
3.2.9 Kolhberg’s Moral Development Theory .................................................................53
3.3 Authoritarian Personality ........................................................................................ 58
CHAPTER FOUR........................................................................................................... 60
LEARNING AND MEMORY ......................................................................................... 60
4.1 Explanation to Learning.......................................................................................... 60
4.1.1 Definitions ...............................................................................................................60
4.1.2 Nature/Qualities of Learning...................................................................................60
4.2 Factors Influencing Learning .................................................................................. 61
4.3 Laws of Learning .................................................................................................... 63
4.4 Memory................................................................................................................... 64
4.4.1 Constructing memories............................................................................................66
4.5 Explanations to Some Theories of Forgetting......................................................... 67
4.6 SQ3R Method of Learning...................................................................................... 68
4.7 Theories of Learning............................................................................................... 69
4.7.1 Behaviourism...........................................................................................................69
4.7.2 Cognitive Theory.....................................................................................................75
4.7.3 Social Learning Theory ...........................................................................................76
CHAPTER FIVE ............................................................................................................ 80
MOTIVATION................................................................................................................. 80

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5.1 Introduction............................................................................................................. 80
5.2 Theories of Motivation............................................................................................ 80
5.3 Types of Motivation................................................................................................ 88
5.4 Components of Motivation...................................................................................... 89
5.5 Uses of Motivation.................................................................................................. 89
CHAPTER SIX ............................................................................................................... 90
SOCIALIZATION............................................................................................................ 90
6.1 Introduction to Socialization................................................................................... 90
6.2 Types of Socialization............................................................................................. 90
6.2.1 Primary Socialization ..............................................................................................90
6.2.2 Secondary Socialization ..........................................................................................91
6.3 The Hospital as an Agent of Socialization for the Student Nurse........................... 91
6.4 Professional Socialization of the Student Nurse ..................................................... 91
6.4.1 Anticipatory Socialization.......................................................................................92
6.4.2 Exposure Stage ........................................................................................................92
6.5 Functions/Importance of Socialization.................................................................... 92
CHAPTER SEVEN......................................................................................................... 94
HEALTH CARE TEAM................................................................................................... 94
7.1 Introduction............................................................................................................. 94
7.2. Definition of a Health Team................................................................................... 94
7.3. Levels of Organization of the Health Team........................................................... 94
7.3.1 Functions of the National Health Management Team.............................................95
7.4 Regional Health Management Team (RHMT)........................................................ 95
7.5 District Level........................................................................................................... 96
7.5.1 Management Team at the District Level .................................................................96
7.6 Sub-District Level ................................................................................................... 97
7.6.1 Sub-District Management Team..............................................................................97
7.7 What is the Healthcare Team? ................................................................................ 98
CHAPTER EIGHT....................................................................................................... 104
HOSPITAL AS A SOCIAL SYSTEM........................................................................... 104
8.1 Introduction........................................................................................................... 104
8.1.1 Some Elements of a Social System .......................................................................104
8.2 The Nurse and the Patient ..................................................................................... 105
8.2.1 The Nurse ..............................................................................................................106
8.2.2 The Patient.............................................................................................................106
8.3 The Nurse and Patient Relationship...................................................................... 106
8.4 The Hospital Organization .................................................................................... 107

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CHAPTER NINE.......................................................................................................... 110
CONFLICT AND CONFLICT MANAGEMENT......................................................... 110
9.1 Explanation of Conflict......................................................................................... 110
9.1.1 Definition...............................................................................................................110
9.2 Types of Conflict................................................................................................... 110
9.2.1 Approach-approach Conflict .................................................................................110
9.2.2 Avoidance-avoidance Conflict ..............................................................................111
9.2.3 Approach-avoidance Conflict................................................................................111
9.2.4 Multiple Approach-avoidance Conflict.................................................................111
9.3 Internal Conflicts................................................................................................... 112
9.4 Management of Conflict (Resolution of Frustration)............................................ 112
BIBLIOGRAPHY......................................................................................................... 113

vi
LIST OF TABLES
Table 2.1: Typical Physical Changes in Adolescence ...................................................... 30
Table 3.1: Kretschmer’s Classification of Personality ..................................................... 35
Table 3.2: Sheldon’s Classification of Personality........................................................... 35
Table 3.3: Characteristics of Type A and Type B Personalities....................................... 40
Table 3.4: The Six Substages of Object Permanence ....................................................... 52
Table 4.1: Important Terms in Classical conditioning...................................................... 73
Table 4.2: Key Terms in Operant Conditioning ............................................................... 75

vii
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1.1: Evolution of meaning of psychology ............................................................... 4
Figure 1.2: Branches of Psychology................................................................................... 6
Figure 3.1: Sheldon’s Three Basic Somatotypes .............................................................. 36
Figure 3.2: Eysenck’s Model of Personality Traits .......................................................... 38
Figure 3.3: The Topographical Model of the Structure of the Mind ................................ 44
Figure 3.4: Psychosexual Stages....................................................................................... 46
Figure 3.5a: Fixation at the Psychosexual Stages............................................................. 47
Figure 3.5b: Fixation at the Psychosexual Stages............................................................. 47
Figure 3.6: Testing for Conservation................................................................................ 53
Figure 3.7a: Moral Development Theory ......................................................................... 56
Figure 3.7b: Moral Development Theory......................................................................... 57
Figure 3.7c: Moral Development Theory ......................................................................... 58
Figure 4.1: Systems of Long-Term Memory.................................................................... 67
Figure 4.2: Unconditional and Conditional Responses..................................................... 70
Figure 4.3: A Comparison of Classical Conditioning and Hull’s Theory ........................ 72
Figure 4.4: Reinforcement and Punishment...................................................................... 74
Figure 4.5: Differences between Behaviourist and Cognitive Models of Learning ......... 78
Figure 5.1a: Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs ...................................................................... 85
Figure 5.1b: Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs...................................................................... 86
Figure 5.1c: Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs ...................................................................... 87
Figure 5.1d: Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs...................................................................... 88
Figure 8.1: Hospital Organization................................................................................... 108
Figure 9.1: Approach-approach conflict......................................................................... 110
Figure 9.2: Avoidance-avoidance conflict...................................................................... 111
Figure 9.3: Approach-avoidance conflict ....................................................................... 111
Figure 9.4: Multiple approach-avoidance conflict.......................................................... 112

viii
PREFACE
The behavioural sciences is a new course that has been introduced into the new curriculum for
the registered general nursing and registered midwifery programmes (August 2021) by the
Nursing and Midwifery Council, Ghana. The course captures elements of psychology and
sociology for the student in nursing and midwifery to help him or her appreciate the behaviours
of clients and families in a sociocultural context as they interact with them, and to be better
equipped as members of the heath care team.
The knowledge of behavioral sciences is instrumental in advancing nursing and midwifery
practice. Nurses and midwives can benefit from a thorough understanding of factors of health
behaviour change. Thus behavioural sciences can provide an understanding of client behaviour;
it helps to appreciate factors determining health behaviour and health service delivery, and it
can offer alternative approaches to nursing and midwifery practice that may improve the
effectiveness of client care.
The content of this handout is a compilation of lecture notes aligned with the new curriculum.
The handout discusses the development of psychology and sociology, human growth and
development, and some theories that explains the uniqueness of the individual’s personality. It
explains some of the theories of learning, memory and motivation, and further explains
socialization.
More so, the handout will help the student nurse/midwife acquire the needed skills and attitude
to relate with other members of the health care team as they perform their various roles.
Besides, it allows the student nurse/midwife to recognize the hospital as part of the social
system and helps him or her to gain knowledge in managing conflict, and to identify social
factors that influence health.
It is worth noting that other health professionals may find the handout useful and develop an
interest in getting an overview of the course in behavioural sciences.
All constructive suggestions from readers in making this handout more valuable and helpful is
earnestly solicited. I am confident that the content reflect what students and instructors need
and want: a handout that motivates students to understand and apply psychology and sociology
to their own lives as they practice nursing and midwifery.
Richard Opoku Asare

1
INTRODUCTION
An activity is a manifestation of life and behaviour is a collective name for these activities. The
term behaviour includes the following:
 Motor or conative activities, such as walking, running, swimming, dancing, etc.
 Cognitive activities, such as thinking, talking, reasoning, imagining, etc.
 Affective activities, such as feeling happy, sad, angry, crying, etc.
One should note that behaviour includes not only the conscious behaviour and activities of the
human mind, but also the subconscious and unconscious. It covers not only the overt behaviour,
but also the covert behaviour involving all the inner experiences and mental processes.
Behaviour, therefore, refers to the entire life activities and experiences of all living organisms
(Sreevani, 2013).
According to the report of a consultative group meeting on application of behavioural sciences
in health services in developing countries, behavioural sciences were defined as “that branch
of organized knowledge that seeks to describe, understand, modify and predict the determinants
and functions of human behaviour”. The primary behavioural sciences are anthropology,
psychiatry, psychology, and sociology. Certain aspects of economics, geography, political
science, and public health may also be considered as behavioural sciences (World Health
Organization [WHO], 1985).
Behavioural science studies how human behaviour impacts personal thoughts, decisions,
interactions, and actions. A well-developed understanding of human behaviour can serve as a
powerful tool for those who wish to influence people’s health choices. For example, many
chronic diseases are the result of personal behaviours. By addressing those behaviours, many
leading risk factors for illnesses can be prevented or controlled. The Centers for Disease
Control and Prevention (CDC) reports that one in three adults has high blood pressure, a major
risk factor for cardiovascular disease. Changing a personal behaviour to eat less sodium can
lower high blood pressure. By examining what influences people’s decisions about their
sodium consumption, health professionals (for that matter, nurses and midwives) can better
address an important health risk factor. They can also examine other disease risk factors
brought on or aggravated by people’s behaviours, then use behavioural health science to
encourage people to make healthier choices.
Activity levels, diet, alcohol use, sleeping habits, helmet and seatbelt use: all of these factors
and many more affect people’s well-being. It helps to understand the psychology and other
motivations behind people’s actions. With such knowledge, health professionals can develop
strategic initiatives that shift people’s choices and behaviours, and ultimately improve their
health.
What then are the influences of behaviour? Many factors influence people’s choices.
Behavioural science studies factors such as the following:
Psychological Influences
 Factors such as motivation can determine what a person chooses to do or not do.
 Unmet needs tend to motivate people into action and affect their behaviour.
 A belief in one’s ability to achieve a task also plays a role in influencing choices and

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behaviour.
Biological Influences
 Factors such as age, sex, and genetics can influence people’s behaviour and emotions.
For example, people inherit characteristics that influence behaviour traits such as
impulsiveness or reticence (or being reserved).
Societal Influences
 People may change their behaviour and ideas to fit into a social group.
 People may also shift their decisions or attitudes to meet the demands of their own
social roles or perceived authority.
Behavioural Influences
 People’s values, their assessment of risk, the extent to which a choice conflicts with
their beliefs or attitudes, and their culture can all play a role in how people behave and
the choices they make.
Once that the influences of behaviour are known to appreciate people’s behaviour in a non-
judgemental manner, it is incumbent on the nurse/midwife to apply his or her knowledge in
behavioural sciences to modify the maladaptive behaviour of the client to an adaptive one for
a better and improve health outcome.
This handbook briefly covers areas such as development of psychology and sociology, human
growth and development, and personality development. It, again, focuses on some theories of
learning, memory, motivation, and talks about professional socialization of the nurse/midwife.
More so, it equips the student nurse/midwife with appropriate skills and attitude to relate with
other team members of the health care team and recognize the hospital as a social system.
The handbook helps the student in nursing/midwifery to gain knowledge in managing conflict,
identify social factors that influence health and national health policy.

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CHAPTER ONE
DEVELOPMENT AND SCOPE OF PSYCHOLOGY AND SOCIOLOGY
1.1 Introduction to Psychology
Can brain damage be cured by the transplantation of brain tissue? Do children or working
mothers suffer ill effects? Do eye witnesses give accurate testimony? Is there a heart attack
prone personality? Does pornography incite violence against women? Does the family shape
our character? The science that seeks the answers to these and many other diverse questions
about human behaviour and mental processes could be explained by psychology.
But what then is psychology? Psychology is an offspring of subject philosophy. The word
psychology was coined in the 16th
Century from the Greek terms Psyche, meaning ‘soul,’ and
Logos, meaning ‘the study of or knowledge of a subject.’ Thus, the initial meaning of
psychology was the “the study of the soul” (La Pointe, 1970). The word soul was used vaguely
and there were many interpretations that could be given to it. In fact Aristotle, even, described
psychology as “the breath of life.” This reflected the early interest of theologians in topics that
are now considered the province of psychologists. William James, later on, used the term
‘mind’, which replaced ‘soul’. As years went by, the meaning of psychology changed. Those
who studied, what was called ‘mind’ found that they could neither see it nor understand it
(Sreevani, 2013). In view of this, psychology has continued to be defined by its subject matter,
which has changed over time. By the late 19th
Century, when psychology emerged as science,
it had become ‘the Science of Mental Life (James, 1890, 1981).
Many psychologists currently believe that a true science can study only directly observable,
measurable events, and have, therefore, abandoned the study of the mind in favour of the study
of overt and covert behaviour, involving all the inner experiences and mental processes. This
meant that most psychologists moved from studying mental experiences, such as thirst or anger,
to studying their observable manifestations in overt behaviours, such as drinking or aggression.
Thus the activities of human beings come into play over here. Hence the influence of
physiology made some scientists like Wilhelm Wundt of Germany defined psychology as the
study of ‘consciousness’. However, this was also discarded in the course of time (Sreevani,
2013). Wundt was the first to measure human behaviour accurately and is known as the ‘Father
of Psychology’.
Consequently, by the 1920s psychology was commonly defined as ‘the scientific study of
behaviour’. This definition was widely accepted until the 1960s, when there was a revival of
interest in studying the mind. As a result, psychology is now more broadly defined as “the
science of behaviour and mental process.” Currently, psychology is seen as the systematic
study of human and animal behaviour (Sreevani, 2013).

4
Figure 1.1: Evolution of meaning of psychology
1.1.1 Key Terms in the Definition of Psychology
A look at the definition of psychology has three key terms:
- Science: Psychology is considered a science because psychologists attempt to
understand people not only by thinking about them, but by learning about them through
careful, controlled observation. This reliance on rigorous scientific methods of
observation is the basis of all sciences, including psychology. Science is the approach
to knowledge based on systematic observation.
- Behaviour: The behaviour refers to all of a person’s overt actions that others can directly
observe. When you walk, speak, throw a ball into the air, or show a facial expression,
you are behaving in this sense. Behaviour is directly observable and measurable human
actions.
- Mental process: This term refers to the private (secret) thoughts, emotions, feelings,
and motives that others cannot directly observe. Your private thoughts and feelings
about your friend, for instance, catching the ball you threw in mid-air are mental
process. Mental processes are private psychological activities that include thinking,
perceiving, and feeling.
Study of
breath of life
Study of mind
Study of science
of mental life
Study of behaviour
Study of behaviour
and mental process
Study of
consciousness
Study of human and
animal behaviour
mental process
Study of soul

5
1.1.2 Meaning of Behaviour
An activity is a manifestation of life and behaviour is a collective name for these activities. The
term behaviour includes the following:
 Motor or conative activities, such as walking, running, swimming, dancing, etc.
 Cognitive activities, such as thinking, talking, reasoning, imagining, etc.
 Affective activities, such as feeling happy, sad, angry, crying, etc.
One should note that behaviour includes not only the conscious behaviour and activities of the
human mind, but also the subconscious and unconscious. It covers not only the overt behaviour,
but also the covert behaviour involving all the inner experiences and mental processes.
Behaviour, therefore, refers to the entire life activities and experiences of all living organisms
(Sreevani, 2013).
1.1.3 The Scope of Psychology
The phenomena that psychology takes as its province cover a wider range. Some border on
biology, others touch on social sciences such as anthropology and sociology. Some concern
behaviour in animals, many others pertain to behaviour in humans. Some are about conscious
experience, others focus on what people do regardless of what they may think or feel inside.
Some involve humans or animals in isolation; others concern what they do when they are in
groups. Psychologists are also interested in individual differences, either they be genetically
determined or occurring as a result of learning. The subject matter covers how individuals and
society interact and how they behave as members of small groups and large groups.
Psychology covers the study of all living creatures, irrespective of species, colour, race,
ethnicity, tribe, age, sex, mental or physical state. It also take into consideration the study of
normal, abnormal, children, adolescents, youth adults, old persons, criminals, patients,
workers, officials, students, teachers, parents, consumers, and many others. Notwithstanding,
it takes into consideration the behaviour of animals, birds, insects and plant life.
The scope of psychology is too vast and no limit can be imposed upon it. The subject
psychology, therefore, has many branches, fields and subfields. Briefly, psychology may
broadly be divided into pure psychology and applied psychology.
Pure psychology provides the framework and theory. It deals with the formulation of
psychological principles and theories. It suggests various methods and techniques for the
assessment, analysis, modification and improvement of behaviour.
In applied psychology, theory generated through the pure psychology finds its practical shape.
It discusses ways and means of the applications of psychological rules, principles, theories and
techniques with reference to the real practical life situations.

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Figure 1.2: Branches of Psychology
General Psychology: General psychology deals with the fundamental rules, principles and
theories of psychology in relation to the study of behaviour of a normal adult.
Abnormal Psychology: Abnormal psychology deals with the behaviour of individuals who are
unusual. It studies mental disorders, their causes and treatment.
Social Psychology: Social psychology deals with the group behaviour and interrelationships of
people with other people (how an individual is influenced by others and how an individual
influences others behaviour). It studies various types of group phenomena such as public
opinion, attitudes, beliefs and crowd behaviour. Social psychologists study the ways in which
individuals are affected by other people.
Physiological Psychology: This branch of psychology describes and explains the biological
and physiological basis of behaviour. It concerns the structure and functions of sense organs,
nervous system, muscles and glands underlying all behaviour. It emphasizes on the influence
of bodily factors on human behaviour.
Parapsychology: Parapsychology deals with extra-sensory perceptions, causes of rebirth,
telepathy and allied problems.
Geopsychology: This branch of psychology describes and explains the relation of physical
environment particularly weather, climate and soil with behaviour.

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Developmental Psychology: This branch of psychology describes the processes and factors that
influence the growth and development in relation to the behaviour of an individual from birth
to old age. It is further subdivided into branches like child psychology, adolescent, adult and
old age psychology. Development psychologists try to understand complex behaviours by
studying their beginning and the orderly ways in which they change or develop over the
lifespan.
Experimental Psychology: This branch of psychology studies the ways and means of carrying
out psychological experiments by using scientific methods. Experimental psychologists do
basic research in an effort to discover and understand the fundamental and general causes of
behaviour. They study basic processes such as learning, memory, sensation, perception and
motivation.
Educational Psychology: Educational psychology is a branch of applied psychology, which
tries to apply the psychological principles, theories and techniques to human behaviour in
educational situations. The subject matter of this branch covers psychological ways and means
of improving all aspects of the teaching/learning process. Educational psychologists are most
often involved in the increase in efficiency of learning in schools by applying psychological
knowledge about learning and motivation.
Clinical Psychology: This is the largest subfield of psychology. This branch of applied
psychology describes the causes of mental illness, abnormal behaviour of a patient and suggests
treatment and effective adjustment of the affected person in society.
Industrial Psychology: This branch of applied psychology tries to seek application of the
psychological principles, theories and techniques for the study of human behaviour in relation
to industrial environment. Industrial psychologists apply psychological principles to assist
public and private organizations with their hiring and placement programs, the training and
supervision of their personnel and the improvement of communication within the organization.
They also counsel employees within the organization, who need help with their personal
problems.
Legal Psychology: Legal psychology is a branch of applied psychology, which tries to study
the behaviour of persons like clients, criminals, witnesses, etc. with the help of applications of
psychological principles and techniques. The root cause of crime, offence, dispute or any legal
case can be properly understood through the use of this branch of psychology.
Military Psychology: This branch of psychology is concerned with the use of psychological
principles and techniques in military science. How to keep the morale of the soldiers and
citizens high during war time, how to secure better recruitment of the personnel for the fighting
capacities and organizational climate and leadership, etc. are the various topics that are dealt
with in this branch of psychology.
Political Psychology: This branch of psychology relates itself with the use of psychological
principles and techniques in studying politics and deriving political gains.

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1.1.4 Applications of Psychology
In the Field of Education: Theories of learning, motivation and personality, etc. have been
responsible for shaping and designing the educational system according to the needs and
requirements of the students. The application of psychology in the field of education has helped
the students to learn, the teachers to teach, administrators to administer and educational
planners to plan effectively and efficiently.
In the Field of Medicine: A doctor, nurse or any person who attends the patient, needs to know
the science of behaviour to achieve good results. Psychology has contributed valuable
therapeutic measures like behaviour therapy, play therapy, group therapy, psychoanalysis, etc.
for the diagnosis and cure of patients suffering from psychosomatic, as well as mental diseases.
In the Field of Business and Industry: It has highlighted the importance of knowledge of
consumer’s psychology and harmonious interpersonal relationship in the field of commerce
and industry.
In the Field of Criminology: It has helped in detection of crimes and in dealing with criminals.
In the Field of Politics: It has proved useful to the politicians and leaders to learn the qualities
of leadership for leading the masses.
In the Field of Guidance and Counseling: It has provided valuable help in relation to guidance
and counseling in educational, marital, personal as well as vocational areas.
In the Field of Military Science: Psychology helps in the selection, training, promotion and
classification of defense personnel. In fighting the enemy, the morale of the defense personnel
and of citizens must at all costs be high and this can only be achieved by providing suggestions,
insight and confidence.
In the Field of Human Relationship and Self-Development: Finally it has helped human beings
to learn the art of understanding their own behaviour, seeking adjustment with their self and
others and enhancing, as well as actualizing their potentialities to the utmost possible.
1.1.5 The Models of Psychology
These are key perspectives or theories of modern psychology. These are:
 The Biological Perspective (Blood, Sweat and Fears)
Behaviour is carried out by living creatures made up of skin and guts. According to the
biological perspective, the behaviour of both people and animals should be considered in terms
of their biological functioning (i.e., how the individual nerve cells are joined together, how the
inheritance of certain characteristic from parents and other ancestors influences behaviour, how
the functioning of the body affects hopes and fears, what behaviours are due to instincts, and
so forth). Even more complex kinds of behaviours, such as a baby’s response to strangers, are
viewed as having critical biological components by psychologists using the biological
perspective. In effect, the biological model seeks to explain that all behaviours have an organic
pathology and the root causes of a person’s overt actions can be traced medically.

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 The Cognitive Perspective (Comprehending the Roots of Understanding)
The route to understanding behaviour leads some psychologists straight into the mind. The
cognitive perspective focuses on the processes that permit people to know, understand, and
think about the world. The emphasis here is on learning how people understand and represent
the outside world within themselves. This theoretical model, therefore, seeks to explain how
we process information and how our ways of thinking about the world influence our behaviour.
 The Psychodynamic Perspective (Understanding the Inner Person)
Proponents of the psychodynamic perspective believe that behaviour is motivated by inner
forces and conflicts over which the individual has little awareness and control. Dreams and
slips of the tongue are viewed as indications of what a person is truly feeling within a seething
cauldron of unconscious psychic activity. Sigmund Freud is the father of the psychodynamic
model.
 The Behavioural Perspective (Observing the Outer Person)
This psychological model suggests that observable behaviour should be the focus of study.
Proponents of this model believed optimistically that by controlling a person’s environment, it
was possible to elicit any desired sort of behaviour. As J. B. Watson (1875 – 1958) said “Give
me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my own specified world to bring them up in and
I’ll guarantee to take any one at random and train him to become any type of specialist I might
select – doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant-chief, and yes, even beggar-man and thief, regardless
of his talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations and race of his ancestors” (Watson,
1924). From this statement, it can be concluded that people learn new behaviours out of
experience and from the manipulation of environmental stimuli.
 The Humanistic Perspective (The Unique Qualities of Homo sapiens)
The humanistic model rejects the view that behaviour is determined largely by automatic
biological forces, by unconscious processes, or solely by the environment. Rather, it suggests
that people are naturally endowed with the capacity to make decisions about their lives and to
control their behaviour. This theoretical model maintains that everyone has the power to
develop higher levels of maturity and fulfillment. It has the view that people will strive to reach
their full potential if given the opportunity. The emphasis, then, is on free will, the ability to
make decisions about one’s life. This perspective, therefore, assumes that people have the
ability to make their own choices about their behaviour, rather than relying on societal
standards. In this view, someone who strives only for an unchallenging, menial job would be
no worse, or no better, than a person who has higher aspirations.
1.1.6 Goals of Psychology
Psychology aims to describe, predict, understand, and to influence behaviour and mental
processes.
1. Description – The information gathered in scientific research helps us describe
psychological phenomena more accurately and completely. For example, information

10
gathered in a survey on the frequency of sexual behaviour among nursing students
without the protection of a condom would tell us if they are at high risk for the spread
of STDs such as AIDS.
2. Prediction – In some cases, one is able to predict behaviour, such as predicting how
much anxiety a group of students will experience from knowing how much stress they
are under on their academic work.
3. Understanding – This is to add explanation to our descriptive and predictive knowledge
of facts and relationships, based on theories, hypotheses and laws. A theory is a
tentative explanation of facts and relationships in science. A proposed explanation for
a phenomenon that can be tested becomes hypothesis. Hence, if the prediction borne
out of the theory is strongly and consistently, and widely accepted, it gains the status of
law.
4. Influence – When we are able to influence behaviour from maladaptive to adaptive,
then that psychology completely fulfills its promise.
1.1.7 Importance of Psychology to Nursing
Psychology has become necessary in every profession including nursing today. This is because
of increasing emphasis being laid out on the interplay of body, mind and spirit in the health
status of every individual.
The learning of psychology helps a nurse in the following ways:
To Understand Her Own Self: The knowledge of psychology will help the nurse to get an
insight into her own motives, desires, emotions, feelings, attitudes, personality characteristics
and ambitions. She will realize how her personality is highly individualistic and complex,
arrives at decisions in her life and solves her own problems. This knowledge also helps her to
understand her strengths and weaknesses. By knowing these aspects, she can not only try to
overcome such weaknesses, which affect her work, but also develop good personality
characteristics, abilities to carry on her responsibilities and perform her duties effectively and
efficiently. This will let her direct her own life more productively and relate more easily with
others, enabling her to control situations and attain self-discipline.
To Understand Patients: The nurses are professionals meant for providing care to patients. The
patient may be suffering from acute or chronic disease; may be male or female, young or old
and come to the hospital with so many physical and psychological problems. They may also
have tensions, worries, pains and also many doubts about their illness. The knowledge of
psychology will help the nurse to understand the problems and needs of patients and attend to
them. She can understand the motives, attitudes, perceptions and personality characteristics of
patients in a better way. This will help the patient to attain quick relief and cure, which is the
basic motto of a nurse.
To Recognize Abnormal Behaviour: Psychology is relevant not only in physical health care,
but also highly relevant in the field of mental health. Presently more and more people are
suffering from mental illness. While some patients may have minor problems, others suffer

11
with serious illness. The knowledge of psychology will help nurses to understand abnormal
behaviours and help the patient in management of mental illnesses. Nurses working in mental
hospitals definitely need an adequate knowledge of normal and abnormal psychology. The
knowledge of psychology helps the nurses in recognizing mental illnesses at general hospitals
and community health centers and provide appropriate guidance to deal with stress, anxiety
and other life problems.
To Understand Other People: The student nurse has to study, work and live with other nurses,
doctors, patients and their family members. With her scientific knowledge of human nature,
she will understand them better and thus achieve greater success in interpersonal relationships.
She will learn why others differ from her in their likes and dislikes, in their interests and
abilities or in their reactions to others. She will realize how differences in behaviour to some
extent, are due to differences in customs and beliefs or cultural patterns of the groups to which
she belongs or to the way she has been brought up during her early years.
To Provide Quality Care to Patients: A nurse with good knowledge of human psychology can
understand what fears or anxieties the patient faces, what he feels, what he would like to know
and why he behaves the way he does. It will help the nurse to anticipate and meet requirements
of the patients and his relatives, thus help patients and relatives adjust to the unavoidable
circumstances in the best possible way. A good understanding of these patients by the nurse
can be of best support to him.
Help Patients Adjust to the Situation: Illness and physical handicaps often bring about the need
for major adjustments. Many diseases such as heart disease and cancer, etc. require special
coping skills and health care. A nurse trained in psychology can be an effective health educator
and help in these kind of adjustments.
Help the Student Nurse to Appreciate the Necessity for Changing the Environment or
Surroundings: Good nursing care depends upon the ability of a nurse to understand the
situations properly and also in obtaining the cooperation of other people concerned. The change
in the environment is sometimes necessary for better adjustment and happiness. For example,
a boy who is completely denied the affectionate care of his parents may do better if he is given
the care of foster parents.
Help for Effective Studying: The nurse has to learn many new things during her training. She
has to obtain the knowledge of correct facts about disease conditions and their treatment. The
study of psychology of learning will help the nurse to acquire knowledge in an effective way.
Readjustment: Every profession and career requires readjustment. A nurse needs to make the
following kinds of adjustments for success in the nursing career:
a) Overcoming homesickness and self-reliance is needed if she has to live smoothly in a
hostel or a hospital.
b) Adjusting to sick persons, who may cry or be desperate or even ventilate their anger by
making the nurse a target of their abuses and curses.
c) Trying to work and study together.

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In these efforts knowledge of psychology can be helpful, as an insight into the emotions will
clear lots of problems. The well-being of a patient is the prime responsibility of a nurse. She
must not only treat him physically, but also instill confidence in his capacity to improve and
recover fully. For this, knowledge of human psychology is essential. The physical and mental
well-being of a patient mainly depends on the nurse. She has to deal with different people
having different problems both physical and mental. To serve them satisfactorily, knowledge
of psychology is quite essential.
1.2 Introduction to Sociology
Sociology is often defined as the scientific and systematic study of society interaction. It is also
described as the study of human behaviour, helping the individual to learn and understand how
human beings are woven as social beings into the fabric of their societies (Nukunya, 2003). In
this way it also helps in understanding what social forces are at work as human beings go about
their daily and routine business and other activities. Furthermore, sociology enables its students
and practitioners to examine aspects of our social existence, which we often ignore or take for
granted.
Auguste Comte (1798-1857), a Frenchman, was the one who in 1838 put two words together
to form sociology. The first part of the term is a Latin, socius, that may variously mean society,
association, togetherness, ally or companionship. The other word, logos, is of Greek origin. It
literally means to speak about or word. Though the two words together do not add up to what
the subject was meant to do and what it does today, Comte was never in any doubt at all about
the subject’s meaning and goals: the scientific study of society.
Nonetheless, the term is generally understood as study or science (Indrani, 1998). Thus, the
etymological, literal definition of sociology is that it is the word or speaking about society. A
simple definition here is that it is the study of society and culture.
The American Sociological Association, (ASA) (2006) describes “sociology as the study of
social life, social change and social causes and consequences of human behaviour.” The ASA
contends that “sociologists investigate the structure of groups, organizations, and societies, and
how people interact within these contexts.” Sociology therefore is the scientific study of society
and human behaviour. Moreover, the subject also is concerned with the study of social rules
and processes that bind and separate people not only as individuals, but as members of
associations, groups and institutions. This implies that the subject studies all of a given society,
its history, culture, marriage and family issues, religion and other belief systems, farming,
education, language and communication system, and so on. It is therefore one of the most broad
and diverse social science disciplines in academia whereby virtually every domain is critically
examined and analyzed.
Although the term “sociology” was first used by the French social philosopher Auguste Comte,
the discipline was more firmly established by such theorists as Emile Durkheim, Karl Marx
and Max Weber (Nobbs, Hine & Flemming, 1978).
Before going any further, let us note that the concepts “society and “culture” are central in
sociology. It is appropriate to help students differentiate between these two important concepts.

13
Society generally refers to the social world with all its structures, institutions, organizations,
etc., around us, and specifically to a group of people who live within some type of bounded
territory and who share a common way of life. This common way of life shared by a group of
people is termed as culture (Stockard, 1997). Thus, culture is common way of life shared by a
society or a group.
1.2.1 Scope of Sociology
The scope of sociology is extremely wide ranging, from the analysis of passing encounter
between individuals on the street up to the investigation of global social processes. The
discipline covers an extremely broad range that includes every aspect of human social
conditions; all types of human relationships and forms of social behaviour (Indrani, 1998).
Sociologists are primarily interested in human beings as they appear in social interaction and
the effects of this interaction on human behaviour. Such interaction can range from the first
physical contacts of the new born baby with its mother to a philosophical discussion at an
international conference, from a casual passing on the street to the most intimate of human
relationships (World Book Encyclopedia 1994. Vol. 18, pp. 564-567). Sociologists are
interested to know what processes lead to these interactions, what exactly occurs when they
take place, and what their short run and long run consequences are.
The major systems or units of interaction that interest sociologists are social groups such as the
family or peer groups; social relationships, such as social roles and dyadic relationships, and
social organizations such as governments, corporations and school systems to such territorial
organizations as communities and schools (Broom & Selzinki, 1973).
Sociologists are keen to understand, explain, and analyze the effect of social world, social
environment and social interaction on our behaviour, worldviews, lifestyle, personality,
attitudes, decisions, etc., as creative, rational, intelligent members of society; and how we as
such create the social reality.
Other subjects which study society and social interaction include Anthropology, Psychology,
Social Psychology and other social sciences.
1.2.2 Importance of Sociology
Sociology is a source of useful information which helps us to understand our social
environment and to give a critical view of what happen around us. It helps us to liberate
ourselves from superstition, biases, and ethnocentrism and to discover the underlying aspects
of everyday social life.
The functions or importance of sociology can be summarized as follows:
 Sociological knowledge helps us to analyze and classify the different types of social
relationship in our society or the world at large.
 Sociology explains the relationship between the different aspects of social life and the
effects that one has on the other, e.g., the effect of unemployment on the mental health
of the members of a society.

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 Sociological knowledge is very useful in formulating theories or laws, about man’s
social life, which are universally applicable.
 Sociology brings together the findings of other specializations within the social field,
such as history and economics, politics and anthropology, to relate them to each other
and examine how their findings affect the society.
 Sociology brings to fore the ability to understand your personal problems in a broader
social context.
 Sociology enables the individuals to bear the norms, customs and traditions of the
society in which he lives as well as others. Norms, customs and other forms of
traditional beliefs can either positively or negatively influence one’s life.
 The knowledge in sociology enables the nurse to contribute meaningfully to society’s
improvement.
 The knowledge in sociology increases the individual’s ability to integrate and apply
knowledge wisely; such an approach makes the nurse innovative.
 Sociology helps in understanding group dynamics as we work as members of the
multidisciplinary health care team.

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CHAPTER TWO
INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
2.1 Basic Concepts
Human growth and development depend exclusively on the mutually interactive role between
the organism’s genetic code and the environment in which it develops. The question as to which
of the two is a greater force in determining behaviour and development generated age-long
controversies known as nature-nurture; nativist-empiricist; innate-acquired; maturation-
learning (experience); performed-epigenetic; and heredity-environment debates. Resolving the
controversy, it was stressed the interactive role of the two by indicating that the organism’s
genetic code that it inherits from the parents sets the upper and lower limits of one’s
developmental potential but the eventual level it attains depends on the specific environment
on which it grows and develops. Thus, the totality of changes as life progresses is called Growth
and Development. Human growth and development is, therefore, the scientific study of the
changes that occur in the behaviour of individuals through the ages. This is termed Ontogeny,
from conception to death.
2.1.1 Human Development
This is the scientific study of how people change and how they stay the same over time (Papalia
& Olds, 1992). It is the study of the life-span. Change is most obvious in childhood but occurs
throughout life. It takes two forms, quantitative and qualitative.
Quantitative change is a change in the number or amount of something, such as height and
weight (or the increase in the number of words, phrases, and sentences that a person uses).
Qualitative change is a change in kind, structure, or organization, such as the nature of a
person’s intelligence, the way the mind works, or a person’s development from a nonverbal
infant to a child who understands and speaks a language. Qualitative change is marked by the
appearance of new phenomena that could not have been predicted from earlier functioning.
Speech is one such phenomenon.
2.1.2 Development
This can be defined as the changes in the structure, thought, or behaviour of a person which
occur as a function of both biological and environmental influences (Papalia & Olds, 1992).
Santrock (2005) defined development as the pattern of change that begins at conception and
continues through the life span. Jordan, Carlile and Stack (2008) reiterated that development is
shaped by the idea that human growth involves the unfolding of some innate human, cognitive
or biological potential towards a final destination.
Usually these changes are progressive and cumulative. They result in increased size of the
person, increased complexity of activity, and integration of organization and function. For
example, the motor development of infant progresses from random waving of arms and legs to
purposeful reaching, grasping, creeping, and walking. The development of cognitive processes

16
moves toward the ability to conceptualize and to think in abstract terms. The acquisition of a
vocabulary is a first step in the use of symbols, a kill which paves way for learning to read and
deal with number concepts.
Some development, such as prenatal growth, is primarily biological while other development
may be highly dependent on the environment. Learning a foreign language while residing in a
foreign country, or acquiring the speech patterns and accent of one’s family, are examples of
development which is strongly related to the environment.
Most development, however, cannot be as neatly categorized as either biological or
environmental, since it involves an interaction of both elements.
2.1.3 Biological Processes of Development
Biological changes in the structure and function of an organism consist of growth, aging, and
maturation.
Growth – Is an increase in size, function, or complexity up to some point of optimal maturity.
It also means the changes in physical size or quantity (Lefrancois, 1979). Thus, as the fertilized
cell can later be developing to a child, increases in weight or size, we say it is experiencing
growth.
Aging – On the other hand, refers to the same kind of biological evolution beyond the point of
optimal maturity. Aging does not necessarily imply decline or deterioration. Just as aging often
improves the qualities life, it may also contribute to the improvement of human judgement and
insight.
Maturation – Is the orderly sequence of changes dictated by the genetic blueprint we each
have. It, thus, refers to the emergence of an organism’s genetic potential. It consists of a series
of pre-programmed changes which comprise alterations (changes) not only in the organism’s
structure and form but also in its complexity, integration, organization, and function. For
instance, just as a plant grows in an orderly way, so does a human being grow in orderly way.
The maturational approach argues that genetic blueprint produces commonalities in our growth
and development. We walk before we talk, speak one word before two words, grow rapidly in
infancy and less so in early childhood, experience a rush of sexual hormones in puberty after a
lull in childhood, reach the peak of our physical strength in late adolescence and early
adulthood and then decline, and so on.
Faulty nutrition or illness may delay the process of maturation, but proper nutrition, good
health, or even encouragement and teaching will not necessarily speed it up dramatically. This
holds true across the life span and for such seemingly unrelated processes as infant’s motor
development and an adolescent’s development of secondary sex characteristics come with their
accompanying emotional complications.
2.2 Principles of Human Growth and Development
2.2.1 Principles of Growth
Growth is marked by quantitative changes in size, height, etc. of an organism.

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1. Growth is continuous – growth occurs at all times though height has its limits. Neurons
retain their capacity of growth throughout life.
2. Growth is asynchronous – growth is not uniform. It varies within an individual and
between individuals. Genetic code and environmental factors may speed up or delay
the growth of individuals born on the same day, hence individual difference.
3. Growth is characterized by critical periods – there are certain time periods in human
ontogeny when one is highly susceptible to either positive or negative growth patterns,
e.g., visual, auditory and mental deformities from German measles acquired in the first
trimester of pregnancy; and also emotional development in the first 6 months of child’s
life.
4. Growth is epigenetic – new feature appears from the existing one’s, e.g., break in voice,
breast and language development.
5. Growth follows a normative sequence – motor, language and intellectual development
generally follow a sequence that is similar for most people, e.g., crying, babbling,
repetition of words, use of 2-to-3 or more words to complete a sentence.
6. Growth is significantly influenced by maturation – organisms participate in a given act
or perform a task for which they are mature enough to do. Training, thus, has marginal
or no impact on the acceleration of the onset of behaviour.
7. Growth is directional:
 Cephalocaudal, growth proceeds in a head-to-toe direction, i.e., that upper parts
of the body develop before lower parts; and
 Proximodistal, growth proceeds from within to without, i.e., that parts of the
body near the centre develop before the extremities.
2.2.2 Principles of Development
Development is the qualitative changes observed in type or kind. Development in this case
refers to the period from birth to the end of the adolescent period. After adolescence, further
changes in growth and development are insignificant.
1. Development is influenced by both heredity and environment, i.e., every individual is
a phenotype.
2. Development follows an orderly sequence. Example: motor development
 2 months – an infant raises his head.
 4-7 months – shows improvement in hand and eye coordination.
 7 months – can sit up and stand up holding or a chair.
3. Different parts of the body develop at different rates, i.e., asynchronous growth.
4. Development is continuous, i.e., it is imperceptible – very small and therefore unable
to be seen or felt.
5. There are stages in the process of development, a lower level leads to a higher one.

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 Example: In cognitive (mental) development the progress is from sensory
knowledge to abstract thinking.
6. Development proceeds in a given direction, i.e.,
 goes from undifferentiated to differentiated
 goes from general to specific
 body control goes from the head down to the legs.
7. There are critical/sensitive periods in development – critical period is a specific time
during development when a given event will have the greatest impact on an aspect of
development, i.e., physical, intellectual, and personality and social developments.
e.g., 1st
Trimester – critical period
a. Birth to 2 years – emotional development, i.e., critical period for bonding.
b. 2 to 4 years – social development, i.e., the child expands its interactions with
people.
c. 2 to 7 years – language development.
8. There are individual differences in development.
9. Any break(s) which occur in the continuity of development are a result of
environmental factors.
10. Development is irreversible:
 It is uni-directional
 It does not switch back and forth.
 Under normal condition we expect mental and social developments to go with
biological development.
2.3 Aspects of Development
One reason for the complexity of human development is that growth and change occur in
different aspects of self. Physical, intellectual, and personality and social developments are
actually intertwined strands in human growth and development. Each aspect of development
affects the others. Other descriptions given to these aspects of development are biological
process/biosocial domain, cognitive process/cognitive domain, and socio-emotional process,
or psychosocial domain.
2.3.1 Biological Process/Physical Development/Biosocial Domain
This involves changes in the individual’s physical nature. Genes inherited from parents, the
development of the brain, height and weight gains, change in motor skills, the hormonal
changes of puberty, and cardiovascular decline all reflect the role of biological process in
development. It also includes nutritional and health factors that affect those developments. It
involves everything from grasping-erector to driving a car.
Social and cultural factors that affect these areas such as duration of breast-feeding, education
of children with special needs, attitudes about ideal shape and health habits that extend or
shorten life are also part of biosocial development.

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For instance, a child who has a hearing loss is at risk of delayed language development. In late
adulthood, physical changes in the brain, as in Alzheimer’s disease, can result in intellectual
and personality deterioration.
2.3.2 Cognitive Process/Intellectual Development/Cognitive Domain
This involves changes in the individual’s thought, intelligence, and language. It also includes
all the mental processes that are used to obtain knowledge or to become aware of the
environment. In addition to these are perception, imagination, judgement and memory. The
processes people use to think, decide and learn form part of the cognitive domain.
Aspects of intellectual development (learning, memory, reasoning, thinking, and language) are
closely related to both motor and emotional development. A baby’s growing memory, for
example, is related to separation anxiety, the fear that the mother will not return once she has
gone away. If children could remember the past and anticipate the future, they could not worry
about the mother’s absence. Memory also affects babies’ physical actions. For example, a one
year old boy who remembers being scolded for knocking down his sister’s food may refrain
from doing it again.
2.3.3 Socio-emotional Process/Psychosocial Domain/Personality and Social Development
It includes development of emotions, temperament and social skills. It also involves changes
in the individual’s relationships with other people, changes in emotions, and changes in
personality. The influences of family, friends, the community, the culture and the larger society
are particularly central to the psychosocial domain. For instance, an infant’s smile in response
to her mother’s touch, a young boy’s aggressive attack on a playmate, a girl’s development of
assertiveness, an adolescent’s joy for being given a special attention at school, and the affection
of an older couple all reflect the role of the socio-emotional processes in development.
Personality and social development affects both the cognitive aspects and the physical aspects
of functioning. For example, anxiety about taking a test can impair performance; and social
support from friends helps people cope with the negative effects of stress on their physical and
mental health. On the other hand, the physical and intellectual also affect the social, e.g.,
children who do not speak well may hit people to try to get what they want or have temper
tantrums because of frustration over their inability to express their needs. Inevitably, each
domain or aspect of development is affected by the other two.
2.4 Prenatal Development – Conception to Birth
Of the many influences that affect a new life, some of the most far-reaching come during the
nine months before birth. What turns a single fertilized ovum into a creature with a specific
shape and pattern? It has been found that an identifiable group of genes is responsible for this
transformation in vertebrates, presumably including human beings. These genes produce
molecules called morphogenes, which are switched on after fertilization and begin sculpting
arms, hands, fingers, vertebrae, ribs, a brain, and other body parts.
Consequently, environmental influences such as the characteristics of the mother and that of
the father contribute to the growing and development of the foetus. The three stages of

20
gestation, or prenatal development, are the germinal, the embryonic, and the foetal stages
respectively.
2.4.1 Stages of Prenatal Development
 Germinal Stage (Fertilization to about 2 weeks)
During the germinal stage, the organism divide becomes more complex, and is implanted in
the wall of the uterus. Within 36 hours after fertilization, the single celled zygote enters a period
of rapid cell division, a process called mitosis. Seventy-two hours after fertilization, it has
developed into 32 cells; a day later it has reached 64 cells. This division continues until the
original single cell has developed into the 800 billion or more specialized cells that make up
the human body.
While the fertilized ovum is dividing, it is also making its way down the fallopian tube to the
uterus, a journey of 3 or 4 days. By the time it gets there, its form has changed into a fluid-
filled sphere, known as blastocyst, which then floats freely in the uterus for a day or two. Some
cells around the edge of the blastocyst cluster on one side to form the embryonic disk, a
thickened cell mass from which the baby will develop. This mass is already differentiating into
two layers – the upper and lower layers.
The upper layer, the ectoderm, will become the outer skin, the nails, hair, teeth, sensory organs,
and the nervous system, including the brain and spinal cord. The lower layer, the endoderm,
will become the lungs, digestive system, liver, pancreas, salivary glands, and respiratory
system. Later a middle layer, the mesoderm, will develop and differentiate into the inner layer
of skin, muscles, skeleton, and excretory and circulatory systems.
During the germinal stage, other parts of the blastocyst develop into organs that nurture and
protect the unborn child. These are the placenta, the umbilical cord, and the amniotic sac. The
placenta, which has several functions, is connected to the embryo by the umbilical cord.
Through this the placenta delivers oxygen and nourishment to the developing baby and
removes its body waste. The placenta also helps to combat internal infection and gives the
unborn child immunity to various diseases. It produces hormones that support pregnancy,
prepare the mother’s breasts for lactation, and eventually stimulate the uterine contractions that
will expel the baby from the mother’s body. The amniotic sac is a fluid-filled membrane that
encases the developing baby, protecting it and giving it room to move.
The outer cell layer of the blastocyst, trophoblast, produces tiny threadlike structures that
penetrate the lining of the uterine wall and enable the blastocyst to cling there until it is
implanted (attached to the uterine lining). When it is fully implanted in the uterus, the
blastocyst, which by that time has about 150 cells, is now known as an embryo.
 Embryonic Stage (2 to 8-12 weeks)
The second stage of gestation is the embryonic stage. During this stage, the organs and major
body systems (respiratory, digestive and nervous) develop rapidly. This is a critical period,
when the embryo is most vulnerable to influences of prenatal environment. An organ system
or structure that is still developing at the time of exposure is most likely to be affected; a

21
structure or organ that is already formed is in least danger. Almost all developmental birth
defects (such as cleft palate, incomplete or missing limbs, blindness, and deafness) occur
during the first trimester (3-month period) of pregnancy; defects that occur later in pregnancy
are likely to be less serious than those occurring in the first 3 months.
The most severely defective embryos usually do not survive beyond the first trimester. A
spontaneous abortion, commonly called a miscarriage, is the expulsion from the uterus of an
embryo or foetus that is unable to survive outside the womb. Women are at higher risk of
miscarriage if they smoke, drink alcohol or coffee, have miscarried in the past, experience
vaginal bleeding during pregnancy, are over 35 years, or have uterine abnormalities, endocrine
problems, or certain infections.
Males are more likely than females to be spontaneously aborted or stillborn (dead at birth).
Thus, although about 120 to 170 males are conceived for 100 females, only 106 boys are born
for every 100 girls. Males’ greater vulnerability continues after birth: more of them die early
in life, and at every age they are more susceptible to many disorders, with the result that there
are only 96 males for every 100 females in the United States (U.S. Department of Health and
Human Services, USDHHS, 1982, 1996). Part of the explanation for male vulnerability may
be that all zygotes start out with female body plan. The fact that males undergo more alteration
than females during early development may account at least in part for their poorer survival
rates. Other possibilities are that the X chromosome may contain genes that protect females,
that the Y chromosome may contain harmful genes, or that the sexes may have different
mechanisms for providing immunity to infections and diseases.
 Foetal Stage (8-12 weeks to Birth)
With the appearance of the first bone cells at about 8 weeks, the embryo begins to become a
foetus, and by 12 weeks the developing baby is fully in the foetal stage, the final stage of
gestation. During this period, the foetus grows rapidly to about 20 times its previous length,
and organs and body systems become more complex. Right up to birth, “finishing touches”
such as fingernails and eyelids develop. The face, forehead, nose, and chin are distinguishable,
as are the upper arms, lower arms, hands, and lower limbs, and genitals can be identified as
male or female.
Foetuses are not passive passengers in their mother’s womb. They kick, turn, flex their bodies,
do somersaults, squint, swallow, make fists, hiccup, and suck their thumbs. They respond to
sound and vibrations, showing that they can hear and feel. Their brains continue to develop,
and they seem to be able to learn in amount and kind, and their heart rates vary in regularity
and speed. Some of these patterns seem to persist into adulthood, supporting the idea that
temperament is inborn.
Males develop more slowly than females from the early foetal period into adulthood. At 20
weeks after conception, males are, on average 2 weeks behind females; at 40 weeks they are 4
weeks behind; and they continue to lag behind till maturity.

22
2.5 The Growth Cycle – Prenatal to Old Age
1. Prenatal Stage (conception to birth): - This period is marked by the formation of
basic body structure and organs. Physical growth is most rapid of the life span.
However, vulnerability to environmental influences is great.
2. Infancy and Toddlerhood (birth to 3 years): - Here, the new born is dependent but
competent. All senses operate at birth. Physical growth and development of motor skills
are rapid. The ability to learn and remember is present, even in early weeks of life.
Attachments to parents and others form toward the end of the first year. Self-awareness
develops in the second year. Comprehension and speech develop rapidly and the
infant’s or toddler’s interest in other children increases.
3. Early Childhood (3 to 6 years): - During this stage, the family is still the focus of life,
although other children become more important. Fine and gross motor skills as well as
strength improve. Play, creativity, and imagination become more elaborate. The child’s
behaviour, at this level, is largely egocentric, but understanding of other people’s
perspective grows. The child may have many “illogical” ideas about the world due to
his cognitive immaturity. However, independence, self-control, and self-care increase.
4. Middle childhood (6 to 12 years): - At this phase, physical growth slows down, but
strength and athletic skills improve. Egocentrism diminishes and children begin to think
logically, although largely concrete. Memory and language skill increase and self-
concept develops, affecting their self-esteem. Cognitive gains improve their ability to
benefit from formal schooling. Peers assume central importance in their lives.
5. Adolescence (12 to 20 years): - At this period, physical changes are rapid and
profound, and reproductive maturity is attained. The ability to think abstractly and use
scientific reasoning develops. However, adolescent egocentrism persists in some
behaviours. The search for identity becomes central in their lives. Peer groups also help
to develop and test self-concept. They generally have good relationships with their
parents.
6. Young Adulthood (20 to 40 years): - During this stage, physical health peaks, then,
declines slightly. Intellectual abilities assume new complexity. Their sense of identity
continues to develop. Career choices are made; and decisions are made about intimate
relationships. Over here, most people marry and most become parents.
7. Middle Age (40 to 65 years): - this period is marked by some deterioration of physical
health, stamina, and decline of prowess. The search for meaning in life assumes central
importance. Wisdom and practical problem solving skills are high. However, the ability
to solve novel problems declines. Women at this period experience menopause. Double
responsibilities of caring for children and elderly parents may cause stress. Launching
of children typically leave leaves empty nest. Typically, women become more assertive,
and men more nurturant and expressive. For some, career success and earning powers
peak, but for others, “burnout” occurs. For a minority, there is a midlife “crisis.” Time
orientation, however, changes to “time left to live.”

23
8. Late Adulthood (65 years and over): - Most people, at this phase, are healthy and
active, although health and physical abilities may decline somewhat. Most people are
mentally alert, although intelligence and memory deteriorate somewhat, most find ways
to compensate. Slowing of reaction time affects many aspects of functioning.
Retirement from work force creates more leisure time but may reduce economic
circumstances. However, there is also the need to cope with losses in many areas of
life, such as loss of one’s own faculties; loss of loved ones, etc. Moreover, the need
arises to find purpose in life to face impending death.
2.5.1 Life-span Development – Prenatal to Old Age
This is a repetition of the growth cycle. However, the biological, cognitive and psychosocial
aspects of each stage of the human development have been further explored over here.
1. Prenatal Stage (conception to birth): - This period is marked by the formation of
basic body structures and organs.
a) Germinal: Conception to 2 weeks
b) Embryonic: 2 weeks to 8 weeks
c) Foetal: 8 weeks to 40 weeks (Birth)
Physical growth is most rapid of the life span. However, vulnerability to environmental
influences is great.
2. Infancy and Toddlerhood (birth to 2 years):
- BIOLOGICAL
a) Body doubles in height and quadruples in weight.
b) Neurons grow in increasingly dense connections, becoming coated with layers
of myelin, and enabling faster and more efficient message transmission.
c) Experiences help to fine tune the brain's responses to stimulation.
d) Motor skills progress from simple reflexes to coordinated motor abilities, such
as grasping and walking.
e) Sensory and perceptual abilities develop rapidly.
- COGNITIVE
a) Basic structure of language learned through baby talk with adults.
b) First communication emerges through crying, then cooing and babbling.
c) Language skills progress from speaking a few words by age 1, to constructing
sentences by age 2.
d) Awareness of world progresses through immediate sensorimotor experiences to
mental representations of events.
e) Thinking includes concept of object permanence: objects still exist when out of
sight or awareness.
f) Ability to grasp conceptual categories begins; by age 2 numerous definite
concepts develop.
- PSYCHOSOCIAL
a) Emotional responses change from basic reactions to more complex, self-
conscious responses.

24
b) Independent behaviours increase with parental encouragement around feeding,
dressing, and toilet training.
c) Parents and infants respond to each other by synchronizing their behaviour.
d) Development of secure attachment sets stage for child's increasingly
independent exploration.
e) Ability to relate to playmates emerges by end of period.
f) Early personality traits, such as introversion and extroversion, develop.
3. Early Childhood (3 to 6 years):
- BIOLOGICAL
a) Brain attains 90% of its adult weight by age 5, developing faster than any other
body part.
b) Myelination proceeds at different rates in various areas of the brain, resulting in
different rates of readiness for certain types of activities.
c) Physical strength increases and body proportions become more adult-like.
d) Athletic skills, such as running, jumping, and hopping, dramatically improve.
e) Fine motors skills, such as writing and drawing, develop slowly.
f) Gender differences in motor skills begin to emerge.
- COGNITIVE
a) Use of mental representations and symbols, such as words, begins.
b) Ideas about the world continue to be somewhat illogical.
c) Social interactions with parents and playmates teach about the world.
d) Language abilities develop rapidly, resulting, on average, in a 14,000-word
vocabulary and extensive grammatical knowledge by age 6.
e) Ability to adjust communication to audience begins.
f) Metacognition, the ability to think about thought, forms.
- PSYCHOSOCIAL
a) Play alone or with others becomes increasingly complex and imaginative.
b) Increased energy fosters ability to initiate new activities, especially if child
receives praise for actions.
c) First awareness of gender roles emerge.
d) Desire for independence and control over environment increases, making
parents’ supervisory role more challenging.
e) Parenting style influences child's psychosocial development.
f) Socialization in school encourages thinking about world outside the home.
4. Middle childhood (7 to 9 years):
- BIOLOGICAL
a) Brain growth slows.
b) Physical growth slows, but slight height spurts occur.
c) Expansion of heart and lung capacities supports more physical endurance.
d) Athletic and fine motor skills become more refined.

25
- COGNITIVE
a) Ability to understand logical principle develops.
b) Memory capacity and ability to use mnemonics expands.
c) Metacognition, the ability to think about thought, enables organization of own
learning.
d) Use of language becomes more analytical.
e) Proficiency in more than one language code may begin, sometimes resulting in
bilingualism.
- PSYCHOSOCIAL
a) Peer group becomes more significant as dependence shifts to friends for help,
loyalty, and sharing of mutual interests.
b) Awareness of and involvement in outside world increases awareness of family,
economic, and political conditions.
c) Motivational systems build around achievement, competence, and affiliation.
d) Coping strategies develop for problem solving and stress tolerance.
e) Interpersonal strategies develop to aid in understanding others’ behaviour.
5. Late childhood (10 to 12 years):
- BIOLOGICAL
a) Puberty begins with rising hormone levels.
b) Girls’ growth spurt begins with gains in height, weight, and musculature.
c) Gender specific physical changes appear within first year: enlargement of
breasts in girls and testes in boys.
d) In physical maturation, boys lag, on average, 2 years behind girls.
e) Variations in onset of puberty impact personality development.
- COGNITIVE
a) Logical thought progresses to abstract thinking.
b) Planning skills and memory strategies improve.
c) Long-term knowledge base grows.
d) Language skills expand to include synonyms, categories, double meanings,
metaphors, humor, and complex grammatical structure.
- PSYCHOSOCIAL
a) Changes in physique, sexuality, cognitive functioning, and society's treatment
may challenge sense of self.
b) Appreciation of connection between moral rules and social conventions
strengthens.
c) Peer groups often divide into cliques.
d) Awareness of gender stereotypes continues to increase.
e) Issues increase around autonomy, sibling rivalry, and separation from family.
6. Early Adolescence (13 to 15 years):
- BIOLOGICAL
a) Body continues to grow in height and weight.
b) Girls’ growth spurt peaks, while boys typically begin it.

26
c) Motor performance gradually increases, but often levels off for girls.
d) Girls usually start to menstruate and boys to ejaculate.
- COGNITIVE
a) Formal operational reasoning, the capacity for abstract, scientific thought,
emerges.
b) Thinking becomes more self-conscious, idealistic, and critical.
c) Metacognition and self-regulation further develop.
d) Vocabulary expands to include abstract words.
e) Understanding and grasp of complex grammar continues to improve.
f) Ability to grasp irony and sarcasm develops.
- PSYCHOSOCIAL
a) Issues of identity emerge, potentially leading to crisis in sense of self
b) Sexual orientation begins to emerge.
c) Psychological disorders and sociocultural-adaptational disorders may emerge.
d) Strives for autonomy in relation to family continues to increase, and parent-
child conflicts more likely to occur.
e) Friendships have greater emphasis on intimacy and loyalty.
f) Conformity to peer pressure increases.
7. Late Adolescence (16 to 19 years):
- BIOLOGICAL
a) Boys’ growth spurt peaks, and growth is mostly complete by end of this period.
b) Boys develop deeper voices and patterns of facial hair, and typically grow taller
than their female peers.
c) Girls tend to grow wider in the hips, and breast development continues for
several years.
d) Girls’ motor performance peaks, while boys continue to improve.
- COGNITIVE
a) Reasoning through problems in symbolic terms and through use of formal logic
improves.
b) Fluid intelligence, the ability to cope with new problems and situations, is
reached by the end of this period.
c) Ability to understand and integrate rules into sense of self becomes basis for
character development.
- PSYCHOSOCIAL
a) Development of identity continues in relation to adult world.
b) First dating begins process of developing and maintaining intimate
relationships.
c) Cliques decline in importance.
d) Identity achievement greatly influenced by personal factors, including family
and peer relationships with family and peers, and economic and political
circumstances.
e) Increased assertiveness and lack of self-discipline often create conflicts with
parents.

27
f) Sexual orientation continues to develop.
g) Introduction begins to the world of work and career planning.
8. Young/Early Adulthood (20 to 40 years):
- BIOLOGICAL
a) Physical functioning increases through the 20's and peaks at about age 30, but
can be maintained through exercise.
b) Body shape changes, with gradual increases in weight and body fat and
decreases in lean muscle mass.
c) Efficiency of many organ systems begins to diminish at the rate of about 1% a
year.
d) Sexual responsiveness remains high throughout this period, with some slowing
in men.
e) Physical appearance changes; gray hair and wrinkles develop toward end of this
period.
- COGNITIVE
a) Thinking may become practical and dialectical to adapt to the inconsistencies
and complexities in daily experiences.
b) Short-term memory peaks.
c) Wisdom and expertise begin to develop.
d) Vocabulary and knowledge continue to grow through work interactions and
everyday problem-solving.
- PSYCHOSOCIAL
a) Issues of identity and intimacy peak by age 30.
b) Need for affiliation filled by friends and often a marriage/partner.
c) Friendships become particularly important for people who are single.
d) Need for achievement often met through satisfactory work consistent with
personality and abilities.
e) Personality traits most likely to change up to age 30, with additional maturation
continuing into the 40’s.
9. Middle Age (40 to 65 years):
- BIOLOGICAL
a) Gradual changes continue in appearance of skin, hair, and body shape.
b) Gradual changes occur in hearing and vision, including presbyopia, the inability
to focus on near objects.
c) Menopause begins in women.
d) Health and potential onset of disease affected by preventive behaviors, many of
which vary by social class.
- COGNITIVE
a) Fluid intelligence declines while crystallized intelligence remains steady or
increases.
b) Intellectual abilities dependent on speed and novelty decrease, while abilities
involving knowledge about the world and vocabulary increase.

28
c) Reaction time and mental processing speed slow.
d) Short and long-term memory remain relatively stable.
e) Cognitive abilities related to experience and intelligence flourish, leading to
further formation of expertise.
f) Maintenance of cognitive skills as well as opportunities for intellectual growth
impacted by social class.
- PSYCHOSOCIAL
a) Mid-life crisis occurs in a small minority of cases, because most men and
women experience gradual transitions in sense of self and in relationship with
the world.
b) Personality traits tend to remain stable.
c) Friendship and marriage/partnership continue as primary sources of affiliation.
d) Marital satisfaction often rises as children move away from home.
e) Maintenance phase in career may allow for greatest productivity at work, may
also cause burn-out.
f) Experiences of facing age discrimination more likely.
10. Late Adulthood (65 years and over):
- BIOLOGICAL
a) Brain becomes physically smaller and functions more slowly.
b) Gradual changes continue in appearance, along with weakening of the body
sense organs and major body systems.
c) Losses continue in visual and hearing abilities.
d) Decreases in immune system and overall muscle strength put older adults at risk
of chronic and acute illness.
e) Short-term memory may decline, but active exercise of mental abilities helps to
maintain functioning.
f) Age-related changes impact sexual functioning, but not pleasure.
- COGNITIVE
a) Abilities to receive information, store it in memory, and organize and interpret
it decline.
b) Some short-term memory abilities declined, but methods can help compensate
for memory loss and slower thinking.
c) Aesthetic, philosophical, or spiritual interests emerge or intensify.
d) Language abilities based on memory and processing speed decline, but overall
vocabulary continues to grow.
e) Driving-related abilities dependent on information-processing speed decrease,
while skills based on experience increase.
f) Wisdom, experience-based problem solving, and semantic knowledge increase.
- PSYCHOSOCIAL
a) Retirement experience shaped by social class and gender factors, including
income, health, and amount of previous planning.
b) Abilities to cope with stress, reduce negative emotions, and manage personal
relationships improve broader perspective on life.

29
c) Subjective sense of well-being tends to be higher than at all previous periods.
d) Satisfaction with life largely dependent on family involvement.
e) Bereavement for spouse, friends, and families stressful, but most people are able
to integrate a loss into their lives within one year after it happens.
f) End-of-life care that incorporates pain management and psychological support
greatly impacts well-being.
2.6 Adolescence and Puberty – Physical Growth and Changes
Physiologically, adolescents ranks with the fetal period and infancy as a time of extremely
rapid biological change. The biological hallmarks of adolescents are marked increase in the
rate of growth, rapid development of the reproductive organs, and the appearance of secondary
sex characteristics such as body hair, increases in body fat and muscle, and enlargement and
maturation of genitalia. Some changes are the same for boys and girls, such as increased size,
improved strength and stamina, but most changes are sex-specific.
Puberty refers to the attainment of sexual maturity and the ability to have children. For females,
the approach of puberty is marked by the first menstrual period, or menarche, although
contrary to popular belief, the first ovulation may occur a year or more later. For boys, puberty
is marked by the first emission of semen containing viable sperm cells. The average age at
puberty for girls is 151
/2 years.
2.6.1 Sexual Maturation in Males
In males the first indication of puberty is accelerating growth of the testes and scrotum. The
penis undergoes a similar acceleration in growth about 1 year later. In the meantime, pubic hair
begins to appear but does not mature completely until after genital development is complete.
During this period there are also increases in the size of the heart and lungs. Because of the
presence of testosterone (a male sexual hormone), boys develop more red blood cells than girls.
The extensive production of red blood cells may be one factor in the average superior strength
and athletic ability of adolescent boys. The first emission of semen may take place as early as
age 11 or as late as age 16. A boy’s first ejaculation usually occurs during the growth spurt and
may be a result of masturbation or come in a “wet dream.” These first emissions generally do
contain fertile sperm.
Characteristically, descriptions of adolescent boys include their awkward cracking voices. The
actual voice change takes place relatively late in their sequence of pubertal changes, however,
and in many boys it occurs too gradual to constitute a developmental milestone.
2.6.2 Sexual Maturation in Females
In girls the “breast buds” are usually the first signal that changes leading to puberty is
underway. The uterus and vagina also begin to develop, accompanied by enlargement of the
labia and the clitoris.
Menarche, which is the most dramatic and symbolic sign of a girl’s changing status, actually
occurs late in the sequence, after the peak of the growth spurt. It may occur as early as age 91
/2
or as late as age 161
/2. Menarche typically occurs when a girl is nearing her adult height and

30
has stored some body fat. For a girl of average height, menarche typically occurs when she
weighs about 100 pounds.
The first few menstrual cycles vary greatly from one girl to another; they tend to vary from one
month to another. In many cases the cycles are regular and anovulatory, i.e., a mature ovum is
not produced. However, it is thoroughly unwise for a young teenage girl to assume that she is
infertile.
Menstruation is accompanied by menstrual “cramping” in nearly half of teenage girls.
Premenstrual tension is common and is often accompanied by irritability, depression, crying,
bloating, and breast tenderness.
Below summarizes physical changes associated with puberty for girls and for boys.
Table 2.1: Typical Physical Changes in Adolescence
Changes in Girls Changes in Boys
Breast development Growth of testes and scrotal sac
Growth of pubic hair Growth of pubic hair
Growth of under arm hair Growth of facial and underarm hair
Body growth Body growth
Menarche Growth of penis
Change in voice (soft tone) Change in voice (deep tone)
Broadening of hips First ejaculation of semen
Less muscular Large muscle development
Increased output of oil and sweat-producing
glands
Increased output of oil sweat-producing
glands
2.7 Concepts of Age
To what extent has age been conceptualized? We have 70-year old students, 35-year old
grannies, and 25-year old ministers of states, and many other varieties of ages in diverse roles
in the society. Life-span expert Bernice Neugarteen has conceptualized age into chronical age,
biological age, psychological age and social age (Santrock, 2005).
 Chronological age is the number of years that have elapsed since birth. That is, it is the
number of years you have existed on earth since you were given birth to.
 Biological age is a person’s age in terms of biological health. Determining biological
age involves knowing the functional capacities of a person’s vital organs. One person’s
vital capacities may be better or worse than those of others of comparable age. The
younger the person’s biological age, the longer the person is expected to live, regardless
of chronological age.
 Psychological age is an individual’s adaptive capacities compared with those of other
individuals of the same chronological age. Thus, older adults who continue to learn, are
flexible, are motivated, control their emotions, and think clearly are engaging in more

LESSONS IN BEHAVIOURAL SCIENCES FOR THE STUDENT NURSE - RICHARD OPOKU ASARE

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