2. Content
Morpho-functional peculiarity of
respiratory system
Methods of clinical investigation
Methods of paraclinical investigation
Semiology of diseases
Nursing of sick children
3. The Function of Respiratory System
I. Respiratory -
to deliver the air to organism for gas
exchange, to get the oxygen and to
excrete the carbon dioxide.
II. Nonrespiratory
4. The Nonrespiratory Function of
Respiratory System
Production and regulation of hormone’s and biological active substance’s
activities
production of prostaglandins E, F2-alpha
angiotensin II (arterial blood pressure)
regulation of aldosteron secretion (water and electrolytes metabolism)
inactivation of noradrenalin (sympatric nerves system)
Regulation of blood rheology
Water metabolism
Thermoregulation
Influence the concentration of biologically active substances and drugs
used in medicine in arterial blood
Filter out small blood clots formed in veins
Filter out gas micro-bubbles occurring in the venous blood stream during
diving decompression
Protection for the heart
5. Major elements of the respiratory system
Chest wall
Airways
Alveolar-capillary
units (Lungs)
Pleura
Pulmonary and
bronchial
circulations
Nerves
Lymphatics
8. Lung Embryogenesis
Postnatal development
T
T
h
h
e
e
f
i
r
r
s
e
t
s
p
p
h
a
i
r
s
a
e
to-a
ry
d
i
s
sp
y
r
o
sp
to
er
t
mi
o
n
a
isli
n
oc
r
re
iga
s
ini
n
ag
to
ef
dt
h
e
frs
ou
mr
f
a
c
thee
a
n
e
d
n
v
d
o
l
o
u
m
d
e
e
r
o
m
fth.e
compartments. Capillary volume increases more rapidly than air space volume, and this,
in turn, increases more rapidly than solid tissue volume. The configuration of the air
s
A
p
l
a
l
c
s
e
s
u
b
p
e
p
c
o
o
m
r
e
t
s
i
n
p
g
r
o
g
s
r
e
t
r
s
u
s
i
v
c
e
t
l
u
y
rm
eo
sr
e
(c
vo
em
sp
sl
e
ex
,
lsn
,o
t
po
len
l
uy
rb
ae
,c
a
tu
hs
ee
s
o
f
e
t
h
p
e
ta
d
l
e
v
n
e
e
l
o
tp
w
m
oe
rn
k
t
o
of
f
n
t
h
e
w
es
l
u
e
p
n
t
g
as
b
u
,t
t
a
h
l
e
s
o
s
b
m
e
c
o
a
u
o
s
t
e
h
o
m
f
t
h
ue
sl
ce
n
leg
t
,h
ce
n
ai
n
rtg
ilaa
n
gd
ef
o
al
d
ni
n
dgo
cf
ot
h
ne
ne
ex
ci
s
tt
ii
vn
g
ea
cl
v
oe
vo
l
ea
r
rsof
structures - alveolar septation.
the airways), originate from the mesenchyme.
The second phase - all compartments grow more proportionately to each
S
o
t
h
u
e
rr
.
fa
A
l
c
v
e
ta
o
l
n
a
r
ta
s
n
y
dsc
a
tp
ei
ml
l
a
r
y
ss
tau
r
rf
ta
sc
e
is
tse
x
sp
ya
nn
d
thi
n
ep
sa
isr
a
l
al
e
tlw
2i
2t
h
-2s
o
4m
wa
t
ei
c
eg
kr
o
sw
t
oh
f.However,
the final size of the lungs dependences on many other factors such as the subject's level
gestation.
9. Respiratory Distress Syndrome(Pathophysiology)
At birth the pressure needed to expand the lungs requires high
inspiratory pressure.
Normal surfactant - lungs retain 40% of the residual volume
after exhale
Deficiency of surfactant - lungs collapse between breaths, it
makes each inhale as hard as the first breath.
On further - the pulmonary capillary membranes become more
permeable, letting in fibrin, fluid accumulates between the
alveolar spaces - a hyaline membrane is formed - barrier for
gas exchange, caused hypoxemia and carbon dioxide retention
10. Anatomophysiological peculiarities
of respiratory system in children
The nose is relatively small and short
The nasal passage is narrow
In the newborn the lower nasal passage
is absent, it is formed only on the age of
four years.
The nasal mucous is very delicate and
intensively vascularized.
The cavernous portion of the submucosa
of the nasal cavity is under differentiated,
developing only by the age of 8-9 years,
and particularly during puberty.
11. Anatomophysiological
peculiarities
of paranasal sinuses
in children
The frontal sinus is absent in babies younger than 1-year, it
appears after 2 yr, attaining its full development by 12-15 yr
The maxillare sinuses are present at birth, but they are very
small, it enlarges gradually to reach its maximum dimensions
about the 21 year (eruption of the upper wisdom tooth)
The ethmoid sinus is present in newborn, but its cells are very
weakly differentiated
The sphenoid sinus occupies the body of the sphenoid bone,
and may be absent or present at birth as a small indentation of
nasal mucosa
12. Anatomophysiological
peculiarities
of upper respiratory tract
in children
The lymphatic ring surrounding the pharynx is not clearly defined
Tonsils are not visible before the end of the first year of life
The lymphatic ring attain its maximum development between 4-10 years
A process of resorption occurs from 14-15 years
Chronic inflammations of the tonsils
and adenoiditis are typical pathology for children
13. Anatomophysiological
peculiarities
of middle respiratory tract in
children
The larynx passage is narrow, its cartilages are soft,
vascularization is intensive larynx stenosis
(croup)
The trachea bifurcates - at the level of the 3rd thoracic
vertebra in the newborn, descending by adolescence to
the level of the 5th .
14. Stridor
is an inspiratory musical wheeze heard
loudest over the trachea during inspiration.
Stridor suggests an obstructed trachea or
larynx.
15. Anatomophysiological peculiarities
of middle respiratory tract in children
(bronchi)
The bronchial passage is narrower than in
adults
The elastic fibres are less defined
The cartilages are soft
The mucous is extensively vascularized
The bronchial lumens become constricted
more easily than in adults
16. Anatomophysiological peculiarities
of lower respiratory tract in children
The lungs are not formed
completely at the moment of
birth, it’s development and
differentiation continues up to
puberty period
The interstitial pulmonary tissue
is better developed and more
vascularized than in adults
Capillaries and lymphatic
sinuses are wider
The lungs of infants are poor in
elastic tissue, particularly in
vicinity of the alveoli
17. The clinical methods of examination
Interrogation
Observation
Palpation
Percussion
Auscultation
18. The common complains:
Cough
Dyspnea
Voice change
Hemoptysis (the coughing with blood)
Chest pain
Wheezing, Stridor, and Snoring - audible
sounds that can be heard without a stethoscope
19. Cough description
Dry or Moist
Onset- acute or slow
Frequency –seldom or often
Regularity –irregular is the most common, regular
(pertussis, chronic diseses)
Pitch/loudness- loud/quiet, high or low pitch
Postural
Quality- hoarse with croup, inspiratory whoop with
pertussis
22. Observation / Inspection of the respiratory system
Physical development
Cyanosis
Position (hands on the knees)
Rate and pattern of breathing
Visible abnormalities of the thoracic cage
Depth and symmetry of lung expansion
Direction of abdominal wall movement
Using of accessory muscles of respiration
Ability to speak
Voice
Digital clubbing
Smell of breath
23. The pattern of breathing
= respiratory rate + rhythm+ depth of breathing+ relative amount
of time spent in inspiration and expiration
Respiratory rate
- Normal
newborn
1-2 years
5-6 years
10 years
adults
40-60 per min
30-35
up to 25
18-20
14-16
- Tachypnea / bradypnea
Tidal volume – 5 ml/kg
Ratio of inspiratory to expiratory time - 2:3
25. Normal chests of children and adults
Movement of the chest wall is minima and symmetrical.
Expansion of chest and abdomen
Use of accessory muscles (intercostal, stenocleidomastoid)
indicates pulmonary impairment
Chest’s observation
26. Digital clubbing -
PAINLESS – FINGERNAILS CURVED AND ENLARGEMENT OF THE CONNECTIVE TISSUES
IN THE TERMINAL PHALANGES OF THE FINGERS >TOES
29. Palpation of Thorax
Feel for pulsations
Areas of induration, bulges, depressions, unusual
movements
Crepitus-crackly or crinkly sensation
Tactile fremitus
30. Tactile fremitus
Condition Tactile
fremitus
Consolidation or atelectasis
(with patent airway)
Increased
Consolidation or atelectasis
(with blocked airway)
Decreased
Asthma Normal
Interstitial lung disease Normal
Emphysema Decreased
Pneumothorax Decreased
Pleural effusion Decreased
33. Boundaries of the lungs
Front
Right lung: the V rib on
the mammilary line.
the IX rib on the axillary
line
Left lung: at the IX rib on
the axillary line
Back
Both lungs:
at the level of the spinous
process of the X – XI thoracic
vertebrae.
34. TOPOGRAPHIC PERCUSSION
DIAPHRAGMATIC EXCURSION
•Patient takes a deep breath
and holds
•Percuss on scapular line until
dullness is heard
• Mark this point
• Allow patient to breath
normally
•Repeat deep breath then
exhale and hold
• Percuss up from the mark until
resonance is heard
• Mark the area
•Diaphragmatic excursion is the
distance between these two
points
NORMAL 3 – 6 CM
35. Comparative Percussion
Compare bilaterally
Use one side as control for the other
Move systematically side to side at intervals
of several centimeters
36. Typical Chest Percussion Sound
in Selected Clinical Conditions
Condition Percussion
Normal Resonant
Consolidation or atelectasis Dull
Asthma Hyperresonant
Interstitial lung disease Resonant
Emphysema Hyperresonant
Pneumothorax Hyperresonant
Pleural effusion Dull
40. Abnormal Breath Sounds
ADVENTITIOUS SOUNDS
To determine:
Loudness, pitch/ and duration (summarized
as fine or coarse)
Number (few to many)
Timing in the respiratory cycle
Location on the chest wall
Persistence of their pattern from breath to
breath
Any change after a cough or a change in the
patient's position
41. Abnormal Breath Sounds
ADVENTITIOUS SOUNDS
Crackles (crepitation) - heard during middle
or end of inspiration, not cleared by cough
Rhonchi - loud, low, coarse, coughing may
clear
Wheeze - musical-louder during inspiration
A more significant finding is heard in expiration
Pleural Friction rub- dry rubbing
42. VOCAL FREMITUS
THE PATIENTS VOICE IS HEARD
THROUGH A STETHOSCOPE PLACED
ON THE PATIENTS CHEST –
NORMALLY THE SOUNDS ARE
INDISTINCT
ABNORMALITIES – SOUND MUCH
LOUDER THAN NORMAL -
BRONCHOPHONY
43. The main methods of paraclinical
examination
examination of secretions
pulmonary function testing
sweat testing
microbiology
blood gas analysis
chest roentgenograms
computer tomography and magnetic resonance imaging
laryngoscopy, bronchoscopy with bronchoalveolar
lavage, thoracoscopy
contrast studies - bronchograms, pulmonary
arteriograms
percutaneous lung tap, lung biopsy
54. Restrictive syndrome
occurs if the lungs are limited in the capability to
broadening
Reasons:
pneumosclerosis
abundant effusion in exudative pleurisy
limited motility due to rib affection (osteomyelitis, fracture
of ribs) or muscle affections (myopathy, paresis and
paralysis of intercostal nerves)
55. Croup syndrome
Voice change
Dry backing cough
Inspiratory dyspnea
It can occur in virus laryngotracheitis,
diphtheritic laryngotracheitis, and measles.
57. PNEUMOTHORAX
INSPECTION – LAG AFFECTED SIDE
PALPATION – ABSENT FREMITUS
PERCUSSION – TYMPANIC
AUSCULTATION – ABSENT BREATH SOUNDS
PNEUMOTHORAX
58. Care for children with respiratory diseases
hygienic regime: temperature regime,
fresh air, cleanliness
accurate nutrition
cleaning of airways
various methods of oxygenation (oxygen
mask, incubator, oxygen supply through
nasal, tracheal tube, AVL)
treatment according to the etiology and
pathogenesis of the disease