Kidney stones, or nephrolithiasis, are hard mineral formations in the kidneys caused by the crystallization of substances such as calcium, oxalate, and uric acid in urine. They can lead to complications including urinary tract infections, impaired kidney function, and increased risk of blockage. Symptoms include abdominal pain, hematuria, and difficulty urinating.

1. • Kidney stones (Nephrolithiasis) is the formation of hard crystalline , a solid
mineral within the kidney of urinary tract.
• Urine naturally contains substances that promote the development of
crystals. These include calcium, oxalate, sodium, phosphorus, and uric
acid. When these excess minerals can no longer dissolve , they from
stones.
• These stones cause many problems by blocking the urinary tract, causing a
kidney
malfunction and causing infections in some cases
• Kidney stones vary in size from a few millimeters to several centimeters.
What is a kidney stone?

2. There are different types of stones:
• Calcium stones (occurs in people with high levels of vit D or overactive
parathyroid glands)
• Uric acid stones (occurs due to too much uric acid in the urine, a diet
high in protein)
• Struvite stones (forms after urinary tract infection)
• Cystine stones (hereditary)
Types of kidney
stones

3. How kidney stones are formed
Increased urinary supersaturation
(hyperoxaluria, hypercalciuria, low urine
volume and increased urine pH)
Oxidative stress
Crystal growth
Crystal aggregation
Crystal retention
Stone formation
and growth

4. CaOX crystal deposition in kidney and urine
Urinary calcium, oxolate and phosphate
Urinary citrate and creatinine clearance
Serum urea and creatinine clearance
Urinary output and pH
Urolithiasis
— Kidney stones
— Ureteral stones
— Bladder stones
— Urethral stones

5. Symptoms of kidney stones
• Abdominal or groin pain
• Blood in urine (Hematuria)
• Urinating difficulty that causes
penile pain or testicular pain
• Fever, chills from infection
• Infection causes cloudy or foul
smelling urine

6. Complications of kidney stones
• Kidney stones can block the ureters or make them narrower. This increases the risk of
infection, or urine may build up and put added strain on the kidneys.
• People with blockages in their urinary tract, such as a kidney stone, are more likely
to get UTIs. An enlarged prostate gland in a man can also block the flow of urine
and cause a UTI.
• In urolithiasis (kidney stones in urinary tract), the calculi deposition in urinary tract
obstructs glomerular filtration rate (GFR) and consequently urine outflow decreases.
Due to this, the waste products particularly nitrogenous substances like creatinine
and BUN may get accumulated in blood.

7. Complications of kidney stones
• The elevated level of nitrogenous substances in serum also indicates possibility of
damage to the kidneys
• Cystitis is most often caused by a bacterial infection of the bladder, but it can also
occur as a reaction to certain treatments or irritants such as radiation treatment,
hygiene sprays, or spermicides. Common symptoms of cystitis include dysuria
(urination accompanied by burning, discomfort, or pain), pyuria (pus in the urine),
hematuria (blood in the urine), and bladder pain.