Japan Tension in Tradition The Tokugawa Shogunate Tokugawa Shogunate 1600 – 1868 established military rule and class based society by controlling contact with outside world including giving the Dutch a limited trade monopoly and eliminating Christianity from Japan Loyalty was primary political value during this time and contributed to factionalism Motori Norinaga (1730-1801) articulated the ideology of kokutai as an expression of Japanese superiority in the Imperial way and rejected foreign influences such as Buddhism and Confucianism The Meiji Period Economic and social problems plagued late Tokugawa Japan including a famine that led to hundreds of thousands of deaths and the impoverishment of many in the samurai class Concessions to Commodore Matthew Perry to open trading ports to America ignited nationalist forces that would culminate in the Meiji Restoration – Revere the Emperor and Expel the Barbarians – Sonno Joi Brief civil war and drawing up of the Charter Oath to embrace a course of modernization – 1877 Samurai rebellion defeated The Meiji Period Itagaki Taisuke reorganized forces into the Jiyuto, the Liberal Party, in 1881 that eventually became the modern Liberal Democratic Party – parties in the 80s were more leader centered and did not represent mass interests The Meiji Constitution of 1889 asserted authority of emperor and was followed by the Imperial Rescript on Education that further articulated conservative values Japan succeeds in war against China 1894 and Russia 1905 and establishes itself as an imperial power in Korea in 1910 Korea at the Crossroads Korea and Japan had early contact but chose different cultural paths with Korea emphasizing Confucianism and Japan preserving a balance between Buddhism and Confucianism Early Twentieth Century Japanese colonialism is established and country is liberated by Russians and Americans setting the stage for the Korean War 1950-1953 Democratic People’s Republic is one of the few remaining authoritarian, communist states in the world Republic of Korea has worked through six constitutions with the 1987 permitting direct elections. Presently ROK is a multiparty democracy with the Grand National Party and the Democratic Party dominating electoral outcomes Civic activism plays an important role in ROK politics. Sometimes activism is directed against the United States The Twentieth Century: Pluralistic and Authoritarian Legacies Cleavages emerged between political elites who followed the Meiji reformers with those adhering to kokutai, State Shinto, and emperor worship prevailing Japan becomes integrated into global economy and becomes aware of need for resources and territorial expansion Cycles of economic recession hit Japan with labor market flexibility met by bringing women in during times of growth and pushing them out during recessions Early twenties sees the birth of labor unions, a Communist party, and a variety of other left leaning parties but these gro.

1. Japan
Tension in Tradition
The Tokugawa Shogunate
Tokugawa Shogunate 1600 – 1868 established military rule and
class based society by controlling contact with outside world
including giving the Dutch a limited trade monopoly and
eliminating Christianity from Japan
Loyalty was primary political value during this time and
contributed to factionalism
Motori Norinaga (1730-1801) articulated the ideology of
kokutai as an expression of Japanese superiority in the Imperial
way and rejected foreign influences such as Buddhism and
Confucianism
The Meiji Period
Economic and social problems plagued late Tokugawa Japan
including a famine that led to hundreds of thousands of deaths
and the impoverishment of many in the samurai class
Concessions to Commodore Matthew Perry to open trading ports
to America ignited nationalist forces that would culminate in
the Meiji Restoration – Revere the Emperor and Expel the
Barbarians – Sonno Joi
Brief civil war and drawing up of the Charter Oath to embrace a

2. course of modernization – 1877 Samurai rebellion defeated
The Meiji Period
Itagaki Taisuke reorganized forces into the Jiyuto, the Liberal
Party, in 1881 that eventually became the modern Liberal
Democratic Party – parties in the 80s were more leader centered
and did not represent mass interests
The Meiji Constitution of 1889 asserted authority of emperor
and was followed by the Imperial Rescript on Education that
further articulated conservative values
Japan succeeds in war against China 1894 and Russia 1905 and
establishes itself as an imperial power in Korea in 1910
Korea at the Crossroads
Korea and Japan had early contact but chose different cultural
paths with Korea emphasizing Confucianism and Japan
preserving a balance between Buddhism and Confucianism
Early Twentieth Century Japanese colonialism is established
and country is liberated by Russians and Americans setting the
stage for the Korean War 1950-1953
Democratic People’s Republic is one of the few remaining
authoritarian, communist states in the world
Republic of Korea has worked through six constitutions with the
1987 permitting direct elections. Presently ROK is a multiparty
democracy with the Grand National Party and the Democratic
Party dominating electoral outcomes
Civic activism plays an important role in ROK politics.

3. Sometimes activism is directed against the United States
The Twentieth Century: Pluralistic and Authoritarian Legacies
Cleavages emerged between political elites who followed the
Meiji reformers with those adhering to kokutai, State Shinto,
and emperor worship prevailing
Japan becomes integrated into global economy and becomes
aware of need for resources and territorial expansion
Cycles of economic recession hit Japan with labor market
flexibility met by bringing women in during times of growth
and pushing them out during recessions
Early twenties sees the birth of labor unions, a Communist
party, and a variety of other left leaning parties but these groups
are eclipsed by the emergence of state sponsored and
administered organizations
Japan expands into Manchuria through autonomous military
action and Prime Minister resisting such efforts is assassinated
Fundamentals of Our National Polity published in 1937
expresses militarism, statism, and superiority of Japanese way
to Occidental ways.
A New Constitutional Order
After catastrophe of war the Japanese focused on recovery and
became open to change
The Supreme Commander or the Allied Powers (SCAP) retained
emperor and bureaucracy and focused on demilitarization, land
reform, legalizing labor unions, and enfranchising women
Zaibatsu were disbanded but old economic elites such as
Mitsubishi and Sumitomo survived

4. Deconcentration policies shelved for Cold War objectives of
building a strong anti-communist alliance in Asia
Economic crisis has raised questions about basic institutions
established after World War II
Nihonjinron
Nihonjinron refers to the debate about what makes the Japanese
different than other people
Conservative forces such as Yukio Mishima have focused on the
martial spirit of the Japanese; whereas others such as the
Society for Textbook reform attempt to downplay or recast
Japan’s role in World War II
Others such as Miyazaki Hayao focus on environmental
degradation and Japanese values such as the heart-mind that
might be resources for resisting such degradation
The extraordinary economic performance during the 1980s
intensified the quest for the unique elements of Japanese
national identity. Economic troubles in the 1990s and
globalization have challenged these ideas of uniqueness
Yasukuni Shrine
Yasukuni Shrine established in 1869 to enshrine spirits of those
who died fighting for the country, including dozens of
convicted class A war criminals from World War II
Controversy over providing funds for Shrine runs into conflict
Articles 20 and 89 of the 1947 Constitution
Raises questions about civic religion as well as international
controversies when Japanese Prime Ministers have visited the
Shrine

5. Summary
Development of Japanese identity includes uniquely Japanese
elements such as kokutai and Shinto, as well as adapted
nonindigenous traditions such as Confucianism and
parliamentary democracy
Ambiguous feelings have emerged about outside influences
including rejection of Chinese influence and pan-Asian
resistance to Western influence
Ambivalent feelings Americans have for the Japanese are shared
by the Japanese towards Americans and the constitutional
legacy of 1947
Japan
Japan – Political Map

6. Japan – Population Density
Population Size and DistributionEstimated Population (in
millions)Percent UrbanPopulation Density (per
km2)Japan127.779343India1,149.328350China1,324745139
An Aging PopulationTotal Population (1,000)% 65 and over%
Average Annual Rate IncreaseLife Expectancy at Birth
Male/FemalePopulation Density (per
km2)195084,115,0004.91.5860/632261970104,665,0007.11.086
9/752811990123,611,00012.00.4276/823322007127,771,00021.
50.0079/86343Projected 2020122,735,00029.2-.0.35n/a/n/a329
An Aging Population
Mid 40’s life expectancy at birth was less than fifty years; Life
expectancies now 79 for men and 86 for women
1982 administrative action and 1986 amendment made elderly
and insurers responsible for a larger share of burden of health
care costs
Shortage of workers and reconsideration of attitude toward
foreign workers within Japan (300,000 illegal workers in the
country late 90s)
Economic slowdown increased unemployment rate, making it
more difficult to find jobs for college graduates and women

7. Gender
Japan imported Confucian values that emphasized ideal
feminine behavior as obedience and service to men
Until the end of World War II women were by custom and law
subordinate to male household heads
1947 Constitution affirmed important rights
Article 14 – all people equal under law
Marriages based on mutual consent
Article 24 - marriage and family law will be built around
individual dignity and essential equality of sexes
Gender - Continued
Traditional norms are difficult to change – Tea Pourers Revolt
of 1963 – Susan Pharr’s status politics describes norms still
present today
Despite governmental policies to respond to persistent
inequality, Japan ranks 54 out of 90 odd countries on the
Gender Empowerment Measurement that assesses gender
equality by the proportion of women holding seats in the
parliament, holding professional and technical jobs, and the
estimated ratio of female to male income
Minority Populations
Ainu – Indigenous ethnic group that inhabits the Northern
Island of Hokkaido
Shrinking population is a curious reminder of the past for most
Japanese
Minority issues dealing with the Burakumin and Koreans are

8. politically more salient
Burakumin
Japanese caste structure – samurai – peasants – merchants and
artisans
Burakumin – Hereditary outcastes – eta – filth – consigned to
ritually polluting jobs and segregated into hamlets to protect
rest of population from pollution
Detective agencies hired by corporations to find out if
prospective employees are tainted with this heritage
Shimazaki Tozon’s Broken Commandment explores the issue of
passing and the stigma of this heritage
Buraku Liberation League lobbies for community’s interest
Law on Special Measures for Integration adopted in 1969 but
Burkamin performance and completion of education lags behind
the Japanese population as a whole
Koreans
Koreans brought to Japan during colonial period from 1910
through 1945 – 90 percent of Koreans living in Japan have been
born in Japan though they do not receive legal status as
Japanese citizens
60% of Koreans are considered legal aliens and they make up
2/3 of Japan’s registered foreign nationals
1985 law permits Koreans of mixed parentage to become
Japanese citizens
Koreans are divided between those with links to North and
South Korea
Koreans suffer socio-economic disadvantage

9. Sexual slavery/comfort women issues are of concern
Religion
Secular materialist society filled with shrines and temples
Uji or clans formed Yamato Kingdom – 6th -7th century – kami
belief system – Shinto –Confucianism blended into system –
Ritsuryo – Amaterasu Omikami is the key ancestor
Confucianism and Buddhism come into country during the 7th
century – Shotoku introduced norms such as importance of
obeying the ruler
Christianity in East Asia
1% of Japanese are presently Christian
Christianity was persecuted and all but eliminated from Japan
by the Tokugawa Shogunate and all Japanese were required to
register with Buddhist temples
After persecution during the Cultural Revolution, China has
many Christians but the government seeks to have regulatory
authority over the churches
Koreans embraced Christianity as a progressive movement
supportive of their efforts to be free from the Japanese. 25-30%
of Koreans practice Christianity
Shinto
Imperial House Shinto – archaic, esoteric, tainted by militarism
Shrine Shinto – 100,00 shrines -rituals and ceremonial festivals

10. called matsuri emphasize reverence for kami associated with
shrine and mark important events
State Shinto made priests governmental officials and inculcated
the belief in the uniqueness and superiority of the Japanese
people
Sect Shinto – New religions centered around charismatic figures
New religions also include Buddhist centered groups such as
Soka Gakai and the cult group Aum Shinrikyo
Buddhism
Buddhism began as a religion of nobility and upper class and
became more widely diffused
Kamakura period saw the birth of both Zen and Nichiren – Zen
became associated with the samurai
Nichiren was indigenous to Japan and fed into Japanese
nationalism – Soka Gakkai is a modern politically influential
offshoot of this tradition and even created the Clean
Government Party (Komeito) in the 60s
Summary
Asian religions and indigenous tradition have played a subtle
role in the formation of Japanese political culture with Western
religious influence playing a less important role
Japanese women have a weak role in public life but some
scholars have argued women have a certain kind of freedom and
power within this system
Minorities demand grievances be redressed, new immigrants
create tensions, rural life patterns have been replaced by urban
life patterns, and aging populations strain the fabric of private

11. lives and public policy
Recreating the Chinese Nation-State
Confucianism: Social Harmony and Virtuous Rule
3,500 years of History with China conceptualized as the
Zhongguo (the Middle Kingdom)
Confucianism and human being as a web of social relations
Concrete performance of one’s role should be the focus of
human energies to generate harmony – hierarchy as opposed to
equality is a given
Governing and dynasty legitimacy is a matter of ethical conduct
– both patriarchal and elitist as well as critical and reformist –
human beings are educable – order is cyclical in conformance
with moral principles
Legalism acted as a compliment to Confucianism emphasizing
centralized administration, military power, and absolutist rule
Opium, Humiliation, and Failed Reform
Opium War 1839 – 1842 inaugurates period of foreign

12. imperialism and Chinese weakness and becomes symbol of
Chinese humiliation
The Treaty of Nanjing 1842 cedes Hong Kong to British and
gives British traders right to reside and trade in five treaty ports
– 1844 US presses for trading privileges and extraterritorial
jurisdiction
The nineteenth century included the White Lotus Rebellion
(1796 -1804), the Great Taiping Rebellion of the 1850s, and the
Boxer Uprising (1899-1900) and series of smaller peasant
rebellions and Muslim rebellions in the Northwest and
Southwest; Population pressures produced declining living
standards.
Opium, Humiliation, and Failed Reform
Tongzhi restoration attempted to reaffirm Confucian values and
Chinese leadership became aware of the need to bring together
Chinese essense (Ti) with Western learning for practical
improvements (Yong)
Sino Japanese War 1894-1895 brought Chinese failings into
clear light but efforts to institute necessary reforms in 1898
were blunted by the seeming contradictions of a Western world
view focused on material control and a progressive history and
a Chinese worldview focused on human relations and natural
cycles.
The defeat of the Boxer Uprising brought the Qing’s into
disrepute and Chinese such as Sun Yat-Sen began contemplating
the overthrow the Qing as a step in improving Chinese fortunes.
By sending officials abroad, the Qing ultimately laid the
foundation of their own demise

13. Republican and Communist Revolution
In 1911 revolts spread, and the Manchus are overthrown and the
Republic of China is born
Regional forces move the country toward warlordism by 1916
Intellectual ferment and rejection of the humiliation embedded
in the Chinese people the nationalist May 4th movement
Chinese Communist Party was founded in 1921 in Shanghai
Political-Military Conflicts: The Chinese Civil War
Conflict between the Nationalist and Communist Chinese
Both Kuomintang and Communists structured as Leninist parties
Chiang Kai-shek turns on Communist allies and succeeds in
campaign to reunite China but is slowed by the imposition of a
United Front against the Japanese
Nationalists and Communists pursued war against Japan but
Communists built some credibility during the war, whereas
Nationalist credibility was undermined by corruption
Building the Revolution
Social and ideological programs of the Communists
Communist commanders encouraged troops not to exploit local
farmers
During war, local governments were 1/3 communist, 1/3
progressive, and 1/3 independents
Low priority on social issues that might undermine support;
women mobilized for war effort
Laid foundation for future success in Civil War

14. Hong Kong: “One Country, Two Systems”
Treaty of Nanjing (1842), ceding Kowloon Peninsula (1860),
and New Territories leased to Britain for 99 years (1898) turn
over 350 square miles of prime coastal territory to Britain
In 1984, PRC agreed to create a special administration zone for
Hong Kong when lease was to end. 1988 Basic law for Hong
Kong was issued and has served as its constitution since 1997
Hong Kong: “One Country, Two Systems”
Transition went smoothly; some rights have eroded including
structuring legislative counsel to be dominated by
representatives viewed to be loyal to the PRC; activists pushed
for direct elections
Article 23 focuses on maintaining strict control of region and
limit interactions with foreign actors – Protest with 500,000
people against provision on July 1, 2003
SAR is autonomous but is dependent upon Chinese whim
Taiwan: Two Systems, Two Countries?
1895 Taiwan ceded to Japan
1949 Nationalists retreat to the island and keep the name of the
Republic of China
Korean War led United States to maintain support for Taiwan

15. until 1979 when it changed its official recognition to the PRC
Taiwan: Two Systems, Two Countries?
Chiang Ching-kuo liberalized system after the of his father,
Chiang Kai-shek
2000 a non KMT party won election – Chen Shui-bian
(Democratic Progressive Party)
DDP support of independence created frictions with PRC and
lost elections at 2008
PRC seeks unification and rejects military and political
autonomy
Summary
Need for centralization created by disintegration of the Qing
Communist party succeeded where earlier reformers failed
Traditional structures have survived Chinese nation building
efforts
Taiwan remains an unfinished component of the nation building
process
China

16. China – Political Map
China – Population Density
Population Size and Distribution
China’s population is 1.35 billion with a growth rate of .5%
compared to India’s growth rate of 1.6%
Population concentrated in Eastern regions of the country
Outer China is home to majority of ethnic minorities
China has 22% of the world’s population and only 7% of its
arable land
China is more urban than India, with 45% of it population living
in cities
Population Size and Distribution - Continued
Urbanization represents government’s commitment to
socioeconomic modernization – a consequence of this
commitment is a growing gap between urban and rural values
and life styles

17. Tradition of political rebellion is associated with the cities and
protests about corruption, environmental conditions, working
conditions, and illegal land grabs are frequent
Population Policies
Initial population surge viewed as a good thing – “It is a very
good thing that China has a big population. Even if China’s
population multiplies many times, she is fully capable of
finding a solution; the solution is production” Mao Zedong
Late Seventies direction switches to embrace a one child policy
– coercive methods used to enforce this policy
Result of policy is the aging of the population – 7% of China’s
population is over 65 in contrast to 4% of India’s population
Demographic Dilemmas
China and India have more men than women because of
traditional preferences for sons
Korea abolished 1958 inheritance law favoring men improving
sex ratio but not solving the problem
Many developed economies have aging populations with high
percentages of the populations over the age of 65 including
Italy (20%), Germany (19%), Sweden (17%), Japan (20%)
China is projected to have 16% of this category by 2030
Gender
China traditionally held women in subordinate conditions

18. including such actions as foot binding
Confucianism is believed to be one source of women’s
subordination
Women’s roles in the economy in the reproductive sector as
opposed to the productive sector is another reason viewed as
part of women’s status in Chinese society
Women have born the burden of state population policies with
iud’s and female sterilization accounting for 70% of
contraceptive methods
Gender
In 2000, in the age 0-4 category boys accounted for 120.2
persons in the population for every 100 girls – one child
modified to allow a second child if first child is a girl – 9-10
second pregnancies were terminated if fetus was a girl
Restrictions on labor mobility left many women behind to fend
for themselves under patriarchal family structures
Lives of women improved under Communism but not greatly
Regions, Religion, and Ethnic Minorities
Fifty five government designated minority nationalities in
China numbering as of 2000 about 106.4 million people– the
largest groups are Zhuang, Miao, and Yi in the South, the Hui
(Muslim), Uighur and Tibetan in the North and Northwest and
the Mongolian and Manchu in the North
Han are the dominant group (about 90% of population) and
share Sinitic languages and Chinese characters and a literary
tradition

19. Regions, Religion, and Ethnic Minorities
Some groups such as the Hakka are not recognized
Recognition of Han speaking Muslims as an ethnic group
reflects China’s history of Muslim rebellions and Muslim
protests over some governmental policies
Regions, Religion, and Ethnic Minorities
The Cultural Revolution of the mid 60’s and early 70’s attacked
religion but China’s 1982 Constitution provides for the freedom
of religion with provisions for protecting the state and
excluding foreign influence
Falun Gong Case Study
Uighur Case Study
Tibet
Tibet became a center of Mahayana Buddhism and preserved
that tradition after it was eliminated from India by Muslim
pressure and influence
Tibet entered into a relationship with the Qing Dynasty in the
Sixteenth Century but never had Chinese administrative forms
imposed upon it
Both Nationalist Chinese governments and the Communist
viewed Tibet as part of China and Communists invaded and
conquered Tibet in 1950

20. Tibet
Initially Beijing pursued conciliatory policy but cultural
tensions resulted in increased Tibetan resistance and the
eventual fleeing into exile of the Dalai Lama to India in 1959
Tensions between Chinese migrants and Tibetan natives
continue and Dalai Lama seeks Tibetan autonomy but Chinese
are likely to wait until Dalai Lama is dead as they continue to
integrate Tibet into greater Chinese society
Summary
Both China and India face the challenge of accommodating and
assimilating minority populations and have used preferential
policies to address these problems
Unlike India where the size of minority groups gives them
power, the predominance of the Han mean that minority issues
will be subordinated to larger issues
Sex ratio, size and aging of the population important issues for
China
Subordination of women is a common trait of both Chinese and
Indian societies