This document summarizes information about anti-epileptic drugs. It discusses the classification of seizures including generalized seizures like tonic-clonic and absence seizures, as well as partial seizures. Common anti-epileptic drugs are also described, including their mechanisms of action, pharmacokinetics, uses, and side effects. Barbiturates like phenobarbital, hydantoins like phenytoin, and succinimides like ethosuximide represent older drug classes, while newer drugs include valproic acid, benzodiazepines, lamotrigine, gabapentin, topiramate, and levetiracetam. The choices of first, second, and alternative
This document provides an overview of various anti-epileptic drugs classified into different categories. It describes the mechanism of action, pharmacokinetics, adverse effects and uses of common anti-epileptics such as phenobarbitone, primidone, phenytoin, carbamazepine, oxcarbazepine, ethosuximide, valproic acid, clonazepam, clobazam, lamotrigine, gabapentin, pregabalin, topiramate, zonisamide and levetiracetam. The summary highlights the classification of anti-epileptics and briefly discusses the properties and clinical applications of select first-line drugs
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This document summarizes information on sedative and hypnotic drugs. It discusses the mechanisms and effects of benzodiazepines, barbiturates, and other drugs such as zolpidem, zaleplon, zopiclone, melatonin, and buspirone. It provides details on the pharmacokinetics, therapeutic uses, and side effects of these classes of drugs. The document also covers topics like tolerance, dependence and withdrawal symptoms, overdose treatment, and newer non-benzodiazepine hypnotics.
The document discusses the history and development of treatments for seizures from the 1850s to present day. It describes how early treatments in the 1850s were based on flawed theories, while phenobarbital became the first effective treatment in the 1910s. From the 1930s to 1990s, treatments improved with the development of drugs like phenytoin, carbamazepine, and valproate. In the 1990s, newer antiepileptic drugs were developed with fewer side effects. The document then provides details on the mechanisms of action, uses, and side effects of several common antiepileptic drugs including carbamazepine, phenytoin, fosphenytoin, oxcarbazepine
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This document discusses the pathophysiology of epilepsy and drugs used to treat it. It begins by defining seizures as transient alterations in behavior due to abnormal neuronal firing. Epilepsy is characterized by unpredictable seizures. Several types of seizures are described including partial and generalized seizures. Common anti-seizure drugs are discussed along with their mechanisms of action, clinical uses, pharmacokinetics, and side effects. These include GABA analogues like gabapentin, tiagabine, and vigabatrin. Glutamate analogues like felbamate and perampanel are also covered. Calcium channel blockers, sodium channel blockers, and other broad spectrum drugs and their roles in epilepsy treatment are summarized.
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This document summarizes information about anti-epileptic drugs. It discusses the classification of seizures including generalized seizures like tonic-clonic and absence seizures, as well as partial seizures. Common anti-epileptic drugs are also described, including their mechanisms of action, pharmacokinetics, uses, and side effects. Barbiturates like phenobarbital, hydantoins like phenytoin, and succinimides like ethosuximide represent older drug classes, while newer drugs include valproic acid, benzodiazepines, lamotrigine, gabapentin, topiramate, and levetiracetam. The choices of first, second, and alternative
This document provides an overview of various anti-epileptic drugs classified into different categories. It describes the mechanism of action, pharmacokinetics, adverse effects and uses of common anti-epileptics such as phenobarbitone, primidone, phenytoin, carbamazepine, oxcarbazepine, ethosuximide, valproic acid, clonazepam, clobazam, lamotrigine, gabapentin, pregabalin, topiramate, zonisamide and levetiracetam. The summary highlights the classification of anti-epileptics and briefly discusses the properties and clinical applications of select first-line drugs
General anesthetics act by modifying the electrical activity of neurons at a molecular level through effects on ion channels. The most widely accepted theory is that they bind directly to ion channels or disrupt proteins that maintain channel function. Common intravenous anesthetics like propofol and benzodiazepines enhance the effects of the inhibitory neurotransmitter GABA. They produce dose-dependent decreases in heart rate, blood pressure and respiratory function.
This document summarizes information on sedative and hypnotic drugs. It discusses the mechanisms and effects of benzodiazepines, barbiturates, and other drugs such as zolpidem, zaleplon, zopiclone, melatonin, and buspirone. It provides details on the pharmacokinetics, therapeutic uses, and side effects of these classes of drugs. The document also covers topics like tolerance, dependence and withdrawal symptoms, overdose treatment, and newer non-benzodiazepine hypnotics.
The document discusses the history and development of treatments for seizures from the 1850s to present day. It describes how early treatments in the 1850s were based on flawed theories, while phenobarbital became the first effective treatment in the 1910s. From the 1930s to 1990s, treatments improved with the development of drugs like phenytoin, carbamazepine, and valproate. In the 1990s, newer antiepileptic drugs were developed with fewer side effects. The document then provides details on the mechanisms of action, uses, and side effects of several common antiepileptic drugs including carbamazepine, phenytoin, fosphenytoin, oxcarbazepine
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This document discusses the pathophysiology of epilepsy and drugs used to treat it. It begins by defining seizures as transient alterations in behavior due to abnormal neuronal firing. Epilepsy is characterized by unpredictable seizures. Several types of seizures are described including partial and generalized seizures. Common anti-seizure drugs are discussed along with their mechanisms of action, clinical uses, pharmacokinetics, and side effects. These include GABA analogues like gabapentin, tiagabine, and vigabatrin. Glutamate analogues like felbamate and perampanel are also covered. Calcium channel blockers, sodium channel blockers, and other broad spectrum drugs and their roles in epilepsy treatment are summarized.
The document discusses different types of depression including unipolar, bipolar, and endogenous depression. It also discusses mania, describing it as a pathological change in mood state with increased amine levels. The causes and symptoms of mania are outlined. The document then classifies and describes different types of antidepressant drugs including tricyclic antidepressants, selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors, atypical antidepressants, serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors, and monoamine oxidase inhibitors. It discusses their mechanisms of action and side effects.
Antiepileptic drugs are used to treat epilepsy and seizure disorders. They work by stabilizing neuronal membranes, enhancing GABA inhibition of neurons, or inhibiting calcium channels. Common antiepileptic drugs include carbamazepine, valproate, phenytoin, phenobarbital, ethosuximide, and newer drugs like lamotrigine and topiramate. Each drug has distinct mechanisms of action, pharmacokinetics, clinical uses, and side effect profiles. The choice of drug depends on the type of seizures.
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This document discusses epilepsy and seizure treatment and management. It covers the goals of treatment, which are to achieve seizure freedom without side effects through monotherapy when possible. It also discusses classifying seizures, commonly used anticonvulsant drugs and their side effects, non-pharmacological management options like diets and surgery, and special considerations for patient populations such as women, pregnant women, those with liver or kidney issues, and discontinuing anticonvulsant drugs. Activity modifications for safety are also addressed.
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This document provides an overview of antiepileptic drugs including their classification, mechanisms of action, therapeutic uses, and adverse effects. It discusses common antiepileptics like phenytoin, carbamazepine, valproic acid, clonazepam, and newer drugs. Generalized seizures include tonic-clonic, absence, atonic, and myoclonic seizures. Partial seizures can be simple or complex. Status epilepticus is treated with intravenous diazepam. Adverse effects vary between drugs but can include sedation, gastrointestinal issues, rashes, and liver problems. Nursing care focuses on safety during seizures and gradual withdrawal from medications.
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This document discusses anti-convulsant drugs used to treat epilepsy. It describes how epilepsy is caused by an imbalance between excitation and inhibition in the brain. It classifies seizures and anti-convulsants. Several specific anti-convulsant drugs are discussed, including their mechanisms of action, uses, and side effects. Carbamazepine acts as a sodium channel blocker and is used for partial seizures and neuralgia. Phenytoin also blocks sodium channels and is used for seizures and arrhythmias. Sodium valproate increases GABA levels and is used for generalized seizures and migraine prevention.
This document discusses several classes of sedative-hypnotic drugs, including benzodiazepines, barbiturates, newer hypnotics like zolpidem and eszopiclone, ramelteon, and buspirone. It covers their mechanisms of action, pharmacokinetics including absorption, distribution, metabolism and excretion, factors affecting these processes, and side effect profiles. The metabolism and elimination of these drugs varies significantly based on properties like lipid solubility and specific cytochrome P450 isoenzyme involvement.
ANTI EPILEPTIC DRUGS (WITHOUT VOICE OVER).pptxShumailaQadir2
This document provides information about the clinical pharmacy course on antiepileptic drugs. It discusses the learning objectives, classification, mode of action, choice of drugs for different seizure types, and drug profiles of common antiepileptic drugs including carbamazepine, phenytoin, ethosuximide, benzodiazepines, and phenobarbitals. Key details covered include their therapeutic uses, pharmacokinetics, adverse effects, and dosing.
The document discusses drugs acting on the central nervous system (CNS). It first introduces that CNS drugs are used for both medical and non-medical purposes to act on the brain and spinal cord. It then discusses the major neurotransmitters of the CNS including noradrenaline, dopamine, serotonin, and acetylcholine. For each neurotransmitter, it briefly describes their physiological functions. The document also provides information on drugs used for Parkinson's disease, epilepsy, and schizophrenia, outlining their mechanisms of action, therapeutic uses, and common medications employed to treat each condition.
Parkinson's disease (PD) is a neurodegenerative disorder that affects predominately dopamine-producing (“dopaminergic”) neurons in a specific area of the brain called substantia nigra. ... People with PD may experience: Tremor, mainly at rest and described as pill rolling tremor in hands .
This document discusses several antiepileptic drugs including carbamazepine, phenytoin, and sodium valproate. It defines epilepsy as a neurological disorder marked by recurrent seizures. The drugs are classified and their mechanisms of action, pharmacokinetics, clinical uses, and adverse effects are described. Carbamazepine works by blocking sodium channels to prevent seizure spread. Phenytoin also blocks sodium channels and calcium channels. Sodium valproate increases GABA levels in the brain to have an antiseizure effect.
S1 cns therapeutics_000 /certified fixed orthodontic courses by Indian dental...Indian dental academy
The Indian Dental Academy is the Leader in continuing dental education , training dentists in all aspects of dentistry and offering a wide range of dental certified courses in different formats.
Indian dental academy provides dental crown & Bridge,rotary endodontics,fixed orthodontics,
Dental implants courses.for details pls visit www.indiandentalacademy.com ,or call
0091-9248678078
This document summarizes key information about several neurotransmitters and psychopharmacological drugs. It describes the functions and effects of neurotransmitters like dopamine, norepinephrine, serotonin, GABA, and acetylcholine. It then discusses several classes of psychotropic medications like antipsychotics, antidepressants, mood stabilizers, benzodiazepines, and stimulants. For each drug class, it provides examples of specific medications, their indications, mechanisms of action, side effects, and important considerations for monitoring safety and efficacy.
Epilepsy is a chronic neurological disorder characterized by recurrent seizures without provocation. Seizures occur due to abnormal neuronal activity in the brain and can cause changes in motor function, sensations, or behavior. Common manifestations include altered consciousness and abnormal motor activity. Epilepsy has various causes including congenital defects, head injuries, infections, tumors, and drug withdrawal. Treatment involves use of anticonvulsant drugs like carbamazepine, valproate, phenytoin, and phenobarbital to control seizures.
• Anticonvulsants drugs PRESENTED BY M.Velveenavelveenamaran
• Anticonvulsants are a diverse group of pharmacological agents used in the treatment of epileptic seizures.
• Anticonvulsants are also increasingly being used in the treatment of bipolar disorder and borderline personality disorder, since many seem to act as mood stabilizers, and for the treatment of neuropathic pain.
• Group of drugs used primarily in the treatment of epilepsy.
• Supress seizures by maintaining an effective plasma drug concentration and in brain minimising the side effects.
• Single drug is best to be administered, rapid withdrawal can cause rebound seizures.
• Major molecular targets of marked anticonvulsants are voltage gated sodium channels, calcium channels, components of GABA system and synaptic vesicle glycoprotein 2A(SV2A).
CLASSIFICATION
1.BARBITURATES : eg: Phenobarbital, Mephobarbital
2.HYDANTOIN DERIVATIVES : eg: Phenytoin, Phenylethyl hydantoin
3. OXAZOLIDINEDIONE DERIVATIVES : eg: Trimethadione, Paramethadione
4. SUCCINIMIDES : eg: Phensuximide, methsuximide
5. BENZODIAZEPINES : eg: Diazepam, Clobazepam
6. GABA ANALOGUES : eg: Progabide, Tiagabin
7. MISCELLANEOUS : eg: Carbamazepine, Valproate
8. NEWER ANTICONVULSANTS : eg: Denzimol, Denzinamide
ANTICONVULSANT THERAPY
1.Emergency therapy
2.Maintainence therapy
1.Emergency therapy
a. Status epilecticus
b. A single generalised seizure persists for greater than 5 minutes.
c. More than one seizure per hour for 3 consecutive hours , regardless of seizure length.
d. More than 3 seizures per day , regardless of seizure length
2.Maintenance therapy
• Usually designed to help a primary treatment succeed.
• Minimizes the recurrence of the seizures episodes.
• Generally oral route is preferred for long term therapy.
• Generally a single drug is given during therapy.
• If control is not satisfactory then either the dose is increased or a second drug is added as per recommended protocol.
This document provides information about antiepileptic drugs. It defines epilepsy as a disorder characterized by seizures resulting from neuronal discharges in the brain. Current drugs effectively control seizures in 70% of cases but have side effects. The document discusses the nature and types of epilepsy, including partial and generalized seizures. It explains the mechanisms of action of antiepileptic drugs, including enhancing GABA action, inhibiting sodium channels, and inhibiting calcium channels. Several major antiepileptic drugs are described, including phenytoin, carbamazepine, valproate, and ethosuximide. The document classifies antiepileptic drugs and discusses newer agents with improved side effect profiles.
Parasympatholytics/ Anticholinergic/ Muscarinic blockers/ Atropinemayur kale
This document summarizes the properties and uses of anticholinergic/parasympatholytic drugs. It describes how these drugs work by antagonizing acetylcholine receptors, including classification based on receptor blockade. The prototype drug atropine is discussed in detail, including its pharmacological actions on various organ systems, pharmacokinetics, side effects, interactions, contraindications, and therapeutic uses such as pre-anesthesia, peptic ulcer disease, motion sickness, mydriasis, and bronchodilation. Other long-acting quaternary ammonium anticholinergic drugs like atropine methionitrate and hyoscine butylbromide are also summarized briefly.
Management of adverse effect of antipsychotics 1sadaf89
The document summarizes the management of adverse effects of antipsychotics. It discusses neurological side effects like neuroleptic induced movement disorders including acute dystonia, akathisia, parkinsonism, and tardive dyskinesia. It also discusses non-neurological side effects. For each side effect, it covers clinical presentation, risk factors, pathophysiology, treatment options and implications. The management of adverse effects is an important aspect of antipsychotic treatment.
Walmart Business+ and Spark Good for Nonprofits.pdfTechSoup
"Learn about all the ways Walmart supports nonprofit organizations.
You will hear from Liz Willett, the Head of Nonprofits, and hear about what Walmart is doing to help nonprofits, including Walmart Business and Spark Good. Walmart Business+ is a new offer for nonprofits that offers discounts and also streamlines nonprofits order and expense tracking, saving time and money.
The webinar may also give some examples on how nonprofits can best leverage Walmart Business+.
The event will cover the following::
Walmart Business + (https://business.walmart.com/plus) is a new shopping experience for nonprofits, schools, and local business customers that connects an exclusive online shopping experience to stores. Benefits include free delivery and shipping, a 'Spend Analytics” feature, special discounts, deals and tax-exempt shopping.
Special TechSoup offer for a free 180 days membership, and up to $150 in discounts on eligible orders.
Spark Good (walmart.com/sparkgood) is a charitable platform that enables nonprofits to receive donations directly from customers and associates.
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Antiepileptic drugs are used to treat epilepsy and seizure disorders. They work by stabilizing neuronal membranes, enhancing GABA inhibition of neurons, or inhibiting calcium channels. Common antiepileptic drugs include carbamazepine, valproate, phenytoin, phenobarbital, ethosuximide, and newer drugs like lamotrigine and topiramate. Each drug has distinct mechanisms of action, pharmacokinetics, clinical uses, and side effect profiles. The choice of drug depends on the type of seizures.
Diazepam is a benzodiazepine used to treat status epilepticus and convulsive disorders by increasing the inhibitory neurotransmitter GABA. It is metabolized in the liver and has a high oral bioavailability. Common side effects include sedation, drowsiness, and respiratory depression. Diazepam levels can be affected by interactions with other CNS depressants, antidepressants, anticonvulsants, and CYP3A4 inhibitors. Improving communication between healthcare professionals through team-based rounding and establishing treatment plans can help ensure patient safety.
This document discusses epilepsy and seizure treatment and management. It covers the goals of treatment, which are to achieve seizure freedom without side effects through monotherapy when possible. It also discusses classifying seizures, commonly used anticonvulsant drugs and their side effects, non-pharmacological management options like diets and surgery, and special considerations for patient populations such as women, pregnant women, those with liver or kidney issues, and discontinuing anticonvulsant drugs. Activity modifications for safety are also addressed.
DMARDs or disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs are a heterogeneous group of drugs used to treat rheumatoid arthritis. Methotrexate is a common first-choice DMARD with a more rapid onset than others. It works by inhibiting folic acid metabolism. Other DMARDs discussed include sulfasalazine, gold compounds, penicillamine, chloroquine, and leflunomide. While they have different mechanisms of action and chemical structures, DMARDs may halt or reverse the underlying disease process in rheumatoid arthritis.
This document provides an overview of antiepileptic drugs including their classification, mechanisms of action, therapeutic uses, and adverse effects. It discusses common antiepileptics like phenytoin, carbamazepine, valproic acid, clonazepam, and newer drugs. Generalized seizures include tonic-clonic, absence, atonic, and myoclonic seizures. Partial seizures can be simple or complex. Status epilepticus is treated with intravenous diazepam. Adverse effects vary between drugs but can include sedation, gastrointestinal issues, rashes, and liver problems. Nursing care focuses on safety during seizures and gradual withdrawal from medications.
Anti convulsant drugs or drugs or medicine used in convulsionfoyzur Rahman
This document discusses anti-convulsant drugs used to treat epilepsy. It describes how epilepsy is caused by an imbalance between excitation and inhibition in the brain. It classifies seizures and anti-convulsants. Several specific anti-convulsant drugs are discussed, including their mechanisms of action, uses, and side effects. Carbamazepine acts as a sodium channel blocker and is used for partial seizures and neuralgia. Phenytoin also blocks sodium channels and is used for seizures and arrhythmias. Sodium valproate increases GABA levels and is used for generalized seizures and migraine prevention.
This document discusses several classes of sedative-hypnotic drugs, including benzodiazepines, barbiturates, newer hypnotics like zolpidem and eszopiclone, ramelteon, and buspirone. It covers their mechanisms of action, pharmacokinetics including absorption, distribution, metabolism and excretion, factors affecting these processes, and side effect profiles. The metabolism and elimination of these drugs varies significantly based on properties like lipid solubility and specific cytochrome P450 isoenzyme involvement.
ANTI EPILEPTIC DRUGS (WITHOUT VOICE OVER).pptxShumailaQadir2
This document provides information about the clinical pharmacy course on antiepileptic drugs. It discusses the learning objectives, classification, mode of action, choice of drugs for different seizure types, and drug profiles of common antiepileptic drugs including carbamazepine, phenytoin, ethosuximide, benzodiazepines, and phenobarbitals. Key details covered include their therapeutic uses, pharmacokinetics, adverse effects, and dosing.
The document discusses drugs acting on the central nervous system (CNS). It first introduces that CNS drugs are used for both medical and non-medical purposes to act on the brain and spinal cord. It then discusses the major neurotransmitters of the CNS including noradrenaline, dopamine, serotonin, and acetylcholine. For each neurotransmitter, it briefly describes their physiological functions. The document also provides information on drugs used for Parkinson's disease, epilepsy, and schizophrenia, outlining their mechanisms of action, therapeutic uses, and common medications employed to treat each condition.
Parkinson's disease (PD) is a neurodegenerative disorder that affects predominately dopamine-producing (“dopaminergic”) neurons in a specific area of the brain called substantia nigra. ... People with PD may experience: Tremor, mainly at rest and described as pill rolling tremor in hands .
This document discusses several antiepileptic drugs including carbamazepine, phenytoin, and sodium valproate. It defines epilepsy as a neurological disorder marked by recurrent seizures. The drugs are classified and their mechanisms of action, pharmacokinetics, clinical uses, and adverse effects are described. Carbamazepine works by blocking sodium channels to prevent seizure spread. Phenytoin also blocks sodium channels and calcium channels. Sodium valproate increases GABA levels in the brain to have an antiseizure effect.
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The Indian Dental Academy is the Leader in continuing dental education , training dentists in all aspects of dentistry and offering a wide range of dental certified courses in different formats.
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This document summarizes key information about several neurotransmitters and psychopharmacological drugs. It describes the functions and effects of neurotransmitters like dopamine, norepinephrine, serotonin, GABA, and acetylcholine. It then discusses several classes of psychotropic medications like antipsychotics, antidepressants, mood stabilizers, benzodiazepines, and stimulants. For each drug class, it provides examples of specific medications, their indications, mechanisms of action, side effects, and important considerations for monitoring safety and efficacy.
Epilepsy is a chronic neurological disorder characterized by recurrent seizures without provocation. Seizures occur due to abnormal neuronal activity in the brain and can cause changes in motor function, sensations, or behavior. Common manifestations include altered consciousness and abnormal motor activity. Epilepsy has various causes including congenital defects, head injuries, infections, tumors, and drug withdrawal. Treatment involves use of anticonvulsant drugs like carbamazepine, valproate, phenytoin, and phenobarbital to control seizures.
• Anticonvulsants drugs PRESENTED BY M.Velveenavelveenamaran
• Anticonvulsants are a diverse group of pharmacological agents used in the treatment of epileptic seizures.
• Anticonvulsants are also increasingly being used in the treatment of bipolar disorder and borderline personality disorder, since many seem to act as mood stabilizers, and for the treatment of neuropathic pain.
• Group of drugs used primarily in the treatment of epilepsy.
• Supress seizures by maintaining an effective plasma drug concentration and in brain minimising the side effects.
• Single drug is best to be administered, rapid withdrawal can cause rebound seizures.
• Major molecular targets of marked anticonvulsants are voltage gated sodium channels, calcium channels, components of GABA system and synaptic vesicle glycoprotein 2A(SV2A).
CLASSIFICATION
1.BARBITURATES : eg: Phenobarbital, Mephobarbital
2.HYDANTOIN DERIVATIVES : eg: Phenytoin, Phenylethyl hydantoin
3. OXAZOLIDINEDIONE DERIVATIVES : eg: Trimethadione, Paramethadione
4. SUCCINIMIDES : eg: Phensuximide, methsuximide
5. BENZODIAZEPINES : eg: Diazepam, Clobazepam
6. GABA ANALOGUES : eg: Progabide, Tiagabin
7. MISCELLANEOUS : eg: Carbamazepine, Valproate
8. NEWER ANTICONVULSANTS : eg: Denzimol, Denzinamide
ANTICONVULSANT THERAPY
1.Emergency therapy
2.Maintainence therapy
1.Emergency therapy
a. Status epilecticus
b. A single generalised seizure persists for greater than 5 minutes.
c. More than one seizure per hour for 3 consecutive hours , regardless of seizure length.
d. More than 3 seizures per day , regardless of seizure length
2.Maintenance therapy
• Usually designed to help a primary treatment succeed.
• Minimizes the recurrence of the seizures episodes.
• Generally oral route is preferred for long term therapy.
• Generally a single drug is given during therapy.
• If control is not satisfactory then either the dose is increased or a second drug is added as per recommended protocol.
This document provides information about antiepileptic drugs. It defines epilepsy as a disorder characterized by seizures resulting from neuronal discharges in the brain. Current drugs effectively control seizures in 70% of cases but have side effects. The document discusses the nature and types of epilepsy, including partial and generalized seizures. It explains the mechanisms of action of antiepileptic drugs, including enhancing GABA action, inhibiting sodium channels, and inhibiting calcium channels. Several major antiepileptic drugs are described, including phenytoin, carbamazepine, valproate, and ethosuximide. The document classifies antiepileptic drugs and discusses newer agents with improved side effect profiles.
Parasympatholytics/ Anticholinergic/ Muscarinic blockers/ Atropinemayur kale
This document summarizes the properties and uses of anticholinergic/parasympatholytic drugs. It describes how these drugs work by antagonizing acetylcholine receptors, including classification based on receptor blockade. The prototype drug atropine is discussed in detail, including its pharmacological actions on various organ systems, pharmacokinetics, side effects, interactions, contraindications, and therapeutic uses such as pre-anesthesia, peptic ulcer disease, motion sickness, mydriasis, and bronchodilation. Other long-acting quaternary ammonium anticholinergic drugs like atropine methionitrate and hyoscine butylbromide are also summarized briefly.
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The document summarizes the management of adverse effects of antipsychotics. It discusses neurological side effects like neuroleptic induced movement disorders including acute dystonia, akathisia, parkinsonism, and tardive dyskinesia. It also discusses non-neurological side effects. For each side effect, it covers clinical presentation, risk factors, pathophysiology, treatment options and implications. The management of adverse effects is an important aspect of antipsychotic treatment.
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Chapter wise All Notes of First year Basic Civil Engineering.pptxDenish Jangid
Chapter wise All Notes of First year Basic Civil Engineering
Syllabus
Chapter-1
Introduction to objective, scope and outcome the subject
Chapter 2
Introduction: Scope and Specialization of Civil Engineering, Role of civil Engineer in Society, Impact of infrastructural development on economy of country.
Chapter 3
Surveying: Object Principles & Types of Surveying; Site Plans, Plans & Maps; Scales & Unit of different Measurements.
Linear Measurements: Instruments used. Linear Measurement by Tape, Ranging out Survey Lines and overcoming Obstructions; Measurements on sloping ground; Tape corrections, conventional symbols. Angular Measurements: Instruments used; Introduction to Compass Surveying, Bearings and Longitude & Latitude of a Line, Introduction to total station.
Levelling: Instrument used Object of levelling, Methods of levelling in brief, and Contour maps.
Chapter 4
Buildings: Selection of site for Buildings, Layout of Building Plan, Types of buildings, Plinth area, carpet area, floor space index, Introduction to building byelaws, concept of sun light & ventilation. Components of Buildings & their functions, Basic concept of R.C.C., Introduction to types of foundation
Chapter 5
Transportation: Introduction to Transportation Engineering; Traffic and Road Safety: Types and Characteristics of Various Modes of Transportation; Various Road Traffic Signs, Causes of Accidents and Road Safety Measures.
Chapter 6
Environmental Engineering: Environmental Pollution, Environmental Acts and Regulations, Functional Concepts of Ecology, Basics of Species, Biodiversity, Ecosystem, Hydrological Cycle; Chemical Cycles: Carbon, Nitrogen & Phosphorus; Energy Flow in Ecosystems.
Water Pollution: Water Quality standards, Introduction to Treatment & Disposal of Waste Water. Reuse and Saving of Water, Rain Water Harvesting. Solid Waste Management: Classification of Solid Waste, Collection, Transportation and Disposal of Solid. Recycling of Solid Waste: Energy Recovery, Sanitary Landfill, On-Site Sanitation. Air & Noise Pollution: Primary and Secondary air pollutants, Harmful effects of Air Pollution, Control of Air Pollution. . Noise Pollution Harmful Effects of noise pollution, control of noise pollution, Global warming & Climate Change, Ozone depletion, Greenhouse effect
Text Books:
1. Palancharmy, Basic Civil Engineering, McGraw Hill publishers.
2. Satheesh Gopi, Basic Civil Engineering, Pearson Publishers.
3. Ketki Rangwala Dalal, Essentials of Civil Engineering, Charotar Publishing House.
4. BCP, Surveying volume 1
LAND USE LAND COVER AND NDVI OF MIRZAPUR DISTRICT, UPRAHUL
This Dissertation explores the particular circumstances of Mirzapur, a region located in the
core of India. Mirzapur, with its varied terrains and abundant biodiversity, offers an optimal
environment for investigating the changes in vegetation cover dynamics. Our study utilizes
advanced technologies such as GIS (Geographic Information Systems) and Remote sensing to
analyze the transformations that have taken place over the course of a decade.
The complex relationship between human activities and the environment has been the focus
of extensive research and worry. As the global community grapples with swift urbanization,
population expansion, and economic progress, the effects on natural ecosystems are becoming
more evident. A crucial element of this impact is the alteration of vegetation cover, which plays a
significant role in maintaining the ecological equilibrium of our planet.Land serves as the foundation for all human activities and provides the necessary materials for
these activities. As the most crucial natural resource, its utilization by humans results in different
'Land uses,' which are determined by both human activities and the physical characteristics of the
land.
The utilization of land is impacted by human needs and environmental factors. In countries
like India, rapid population growth and the emphasis on extensive resource exploitation can lead
to significant land degradation, adversely affecting the region's land cover.
Therefore, human intervention has significantly influenced land use patterns over many
centuries, evolving its structure over time and space. In the present era, these changes have
accelerated due to factors such as agriculture and urbanization. Information regarding land use and
cover is essential for various planning and management tasks related to the Earth's surface,
providing crucial environmental data for scientific, resource management, policy purposes, and
diverse human activities.
Accurate understanding of land use and cover is imperative for the development planning
of any area. Consequently, a wide range of professionals, including earth system scientists, land
and water managers, and urban planners, are interested in obtaining data on land use and cover
changes, conversion trends, and other related patterns. The spatial dimensions of land use and
cover support policymakers and scientists in making well-informed decisions, as alterations in
these patterns indicate shifts in economic and social conditions. Monitoring such changes with the
help of Advanced technologies like Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems is
crucial for coordinated efforts across different administrative levels. Advanced technologies like
Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems
9
Changes in vegetation cover refer to variations in the distribution, composition, and overall
structure of plant communities across different temporal and spatial scales. These changes can
occur natural.
2. Introduction
Anticonvulsants, also known as
antiepileptic drugs, are a varied group
of medications used to treat epileptic
seizures.They suppress the excessive
rapid firing of neurons during seizures
and also prevent the spread of the
seizure within the brain.
3. Classification
1.Barbiturate - Phenobarbitone
2.Aliphatic carboxylic acid – Valproate,Divalproex
3.Deoxybarbiturate – Primidone
4.Benzodiazepines –Clonazepam,Diazepam,Lorazepam
5.Hydantoin - Phenytoin,Fosphenytoin
6.Phenyltriazine – Lamotrigine
7.Iminostilbene – Oxcarbazepine,Carbamazepine
8.Cyclic GABA analogues – Pregabalin,Gabapentin
9.Succinimide – Ethosuximide
10.Newer drugs-Vigabatrin,Levetiracetam,Topiramate,
Felbamate, rufinamide and few other newer antiseizure
drugs have been introduced in some countries as second
line/add-on drugs for refractory partial seizures.
4. General mechanism of action
Anticonvulsant drugs in clinical use can be categorized based on
their mechanism of action into three main groups:
1. Drugs that facilitate gamma-aminobutyric acid
(GABA)ergic neurotransmission:
- Modulate transmission through chloride channels (e.g.,
barbiturates, benzodiazepines).
- Reduce GABA degradation by blocking GABA transaminase
(e.g., vigabatrin).
- Inhibit GABA reuptake into the presynaptic terminal.
5. 2. Drugs that block neuronal ion channels:
- Block voltage-operated sodium channels, leading to
decreased electrical activity and possibly reduced
glutamate release (e.g., lamotrigine, phenytoin,
carbamazepine). Fig:2.1
- Block voltage-operated calcium channels, especially
those mediating calcium currents in thalamic neurons
(e.g., ethosuximide). Fig:2.2
3. Drugs with unresolved mechanisms of action:
- Sodium valproate is a prime example, with its
mechanism not fully understood.
- Some newer compounds under evaluation may exert
their effects through antagonistic action at the N-methyl-
D-aspartate (NMDA) subtype of glutamate receptor.
Fig:2.2
Fig:2.1
6. • HYDANTOINS
Phenytoin, a type of hydantoin, has pharmacological effects in the central nervous system, effectively controlling
focal and tonic-clonic seizures without causing general CNS depression.
1. Its mechanism of action involves slowing the rate of recovery of Na+ channels from inactivation. However, at
higher concentrations, it can lead to unwanted toxicity.
2. Phenytoin’s pharmacokinetics are complex, influenced by various factors.
3. Drug interactions are common due to competition for protein-binding sites and enzyme induction.
4. Adverse effects range from CNS effects to hematological reactions and teratogenicity.
5. Monitoring plasma concentrations is important for its efficacy and safety.
6. Phenytoin is mainly used for epilepsy and occasionally for trigeminal neuralgia, requiring careful consideration of
formulations and potential drug interactions in clinical practice.
7. Benzodiazepines are mainly utilized as sedative-antianxiety medications but also possess broad antiseizure
property.
• ADME
- Orally absorbed well, with peak plasma levels reached within 1-4 hours.
- Diazepam exhibits high lipid solubility, fast redistribution, and a redistribution half-life of about 1 hour.
- Metabolism varies between different benzodiazepines, with unique pathways and half-lives for drugs
like clonazepam, lorazepam, and clobazam.
- Most benzodiazepines are metabolized by cytochrome P450 enzymes (phase I), combined with
glucuronide (phase II), and primarily excreted through urine.
• Adverse effects:
- Common side effects include drowsiness, lethargy, and a decrease in anticonvulsant activity in around 30%
of patients over time.
- Muscle incoordination, ataxia, aggression, hyperactivity, irritability, and difficulty concentrating are other
potential adverse reactions.
- Abrupt cessation may trigger seizures or status epilepticus.
- Cardiovascular and respiratory depression may occur, especially through intravenous administration.
In conclusion, although benzodiazepines are mainly used for sedative and anti-anxiety purposes, they also
have a significant role in epilepsy treatment, particularly in managing certain seizure types and conditions like
status epilepticus. Careful dosing, monitoring, and consideration of potential side effects are crucial in their
clinical application.
8. Benzodiazepine FDA Approval Dose Special Notes
Clonazepam Lennox-Gastaut syndrome,
akinetic, and myoclonic
seizures
Initial: ≤1.5 mg/day Tolerance may develop
after 1–6 months.
Intranasal spray is an
orphan drug for recurrent
acute repetitive seizures.
Clorazepate Adjunct therapy for focal
seizures
Maximal initial: 22.5
mg/day
Not recommended for
children under 9 years.
Midazolam Orphan drug for status
epilepticus, nerve agent-
induced seizures, acute
repetitive seizure clusters
- -
Diazepam Management of status
epilepticus
- Not useful orally for seizure
disorders.
Lorazepam Management of status
epilepticus
- -
Clobazam Lennox-Gastaut syndrome
(≥2 years old)
Initial: 5 mg every 12 h,
Max: 40 mg/day
-
9. Barbiturates
Medication Mechanism of Action ADME Therapeutic Uses Adverse Effects
Phenobarbital Potentiates synaptic
inhibition via GABAA
receptor; increases
duration of GABAA
receptor-mediated
currents.
Oral absorption is
slow; metabolized by
hepatic enzymes
(UGT, CYP2C,
CYP3A); therapeutic
plasma concentrations:
10-35 μg/mL.
Effective for
generalized tonic-
clonic, focal-to-bilateral
tonic-clonic, and focal
seizures; not effective
for absence seizures.
Sedation, nystagmus,
ataxia, irritability,
hyperactivity.
Primidone Metabolized to active
metabolites:
phenobarbital and
PEMA; antiseizure
effects of metabolites.
Rapid oral absorption;
peak plasma
concentration in ~3
hours; metabolized to
phenobarbital and
PEMA; therapeutic
plasma concentrations:
8-12 μg/mL.
Historically used for
focal-onset or
generalized epilepsy;
first-line therapy for
essential tremor (with
propranolol).
Pronounced
drowsiness, ataxia,
vertigo.
10. • Conclusion:
Phenobarbital and primidone, while effective in epilepsy therapy, have significant
sedative effects and potential adverse effects.
Careful monitoring of plasma concentrations and adverse effects is essential for
optimizing therapeutic efficacy while minimizing side effects.
These medications continue to play important roles in epilepsy treatment, particularly
for generalized tonic-clonic and focal seizures, but their use requires consideration of
individual patient factors and close monitoring.
11. IMINOSTILBENES
Carbamazepine
Aspect Details
Mechanism of Action Derived from iminostilbene, related to tricyclic
antidepressants. Acts by slowing Na+ channel recovery
from inactivation, limiting action potential firing.
ADME Erratically absorbed, peak plasma levels in 4–8 hours.
Metabolized primarily by CYP3A4, forming active
metabolite 10,11-epoxide.
Therapeutic Uses Effective for generalized tonic-clonic, focal aware, and
impaired awareness seizures. Used in neuropathic pain like
trigeminal neuralgia and bipolar disorder.
Adverse Effects Can cause drowsiness, vertigo, ataxia, hematological
toxicity, and hypersensitivity reactions. Serious effects
include respiratory depression, water retention, and hepatic
abnormalities.
Interactions Induces metabolism of drugs like valproate, phenytoin, and
phenobarbital. May lower concentrations of co-
administered drugs like lamotrigine and topiramate.
12. Aspect Details
Mechanism of Action Prodrug converted to eslicarbazepine, the active
metabolite. Similar mechanism to carbamazepine, inhibiting
fast voltage-gated sodium channels.
ADME Rapidly metabolized to eslicarbazepine, with a short half-
life of 1–2 hours. Inactivated by glucuronide conjugation
and eliminated renally.
Therapeutic Uses FDA-approved for focal seizures in adults and children as
monotherapy or adjunctive therapy. Associated with fewer
hypersensitivity reactions compared to carbamazepine.
Adverse Effects Similar adverse effects to carbamazepine, but
hyponatremia may occur more commonly. Fewer
hypersensitivity reactions, with reduced cross-reactivity with
carbamazepine.
Oxcarbazepine
Eslicarbazepine acetate
Prodrug approved for monotherapy and adjunctive treatment of focal-onset seizures.
Faster conversion to S-licarbazepine, similar mechanism of action to oxcarbazepine.
13. Ethosuximide
SUCCINIMIDES
Mechanism of action:
Decreases small T-type calcium currents in thalamic neurons.
Inhibition of T-type currents likely inhibits absence seizures by modulating thalamic oscillatory activity.
ADME:
Complete absorption after oral administration, peak concentration within 3 hours.
Not significantly bound to plasma proteins, concentration in CSF similar to plasma.
Metabolized by hepatic microsomal enzymes, with a plasma half-life of 40-50 hours in adults.
Therapeutic uses:
Effective against absence seizures but not tonic-clonic seizures.
Initial dose varies with age, increased gradually until seizures are controlled or toxicity occurs.
Maintenance dose typically 20 mg/kg/day.
Adverse effects:
Common dose-related side effects include GI complaints and CNS effects.
Tolerance may develop to side effects.
Serious adverse effects include skin reactions, hematological toxicity, and bone marrow depression.
14. Acetazolamide
Limited efficacy against absence seizures due to rapid development of tolerance.
Minimal adverse effects with moderate dosage for limited periods.
Ezogabine (retigabine)
First-in-class K+ channel opener.
Enhances transmembrane K+ currents mediated by KCNQ family of ion channels.
Rapidly absorbed after oral administration, requires thrice daily dosing.
Associated with serious adverse effects, including blue discoloration, retinal abnormalities, and neuropsychiatric symptoms.
Felbamate
Not first-line therapy due to serious adverse effects.
Inhibits NMDA-evoked responses and potentiates GABA-evoked responses.
Used in patients with refractory focal and secondarily generalized seizures or Lennox-Gastaut syndrome.
Gabapentin and Pregabalin
Bind to α2δ-1 subunit of Ca2+ channels.
Effective for focal onset seizures, with or without progression to bilateral tonic-clonic seizures.
Gabapentin also indicated for neuropathic pain associated with postherpetic neuralgia.
No known interactions with other antiseizure drugs.
OTHER
ANTISEIZURE
DRUGS
15. Lacosamide
Enhances slow inactivation of voltage-gated Na+ channels.
Approved for monotherapy and add-on therapy for focal-onset seizures.
Generally well tolerated, with minor adverse effects like headache and dizziness.
Lamotrigine
Blocks sustained repetitive firing of neurons and delays recovery from inactivation of Na+ channels.
Useful for monotherapy and add-on therapy of focal and secondarily generalized tonic-clonic seizures.
Superior to placebo in children with newly diagnosed absence epilepsy.
These drugs offer a spectrum of mechanisms and therapeutic options for managing various types of seizures, with considerations
for efficacy and adverse effect profiles.
The most common adverse effects of lamotrigine include dizziness, ataxia, blurred or double vision, nausea, vomiting, and
rash when added to another antiseizure drug.
Rare but serious adverse effects such as Stevens-Johnson syndrome and disseminated intravascular coagulation have been
reported.
Notably, the incidence of serious rash in pediatric patients is higher (~0.8%) compared to adults (0.3%).
16. Drug Indication Mechanism of Action
Levetiracetam Adjunctive therapy for various types
of seizures, including partial-onset
seizures and generalized tonic-clonic
seizures in adults and children over
four years old.
Binds to synaptic vesicle protein 2A (SV2A),
modulating neurotransmission. The exact mechanism
is not fully understood.
Brivaracetam Adjunctive therapy for partial-onset
seizures in patients aged 16 years
and older.
Binds to synaptic vesicle glycoprotein 2A (SV2A)
with higher affinity than levetiracetam. Also inhibits
sodium channels.
Perampanel Treatment for partial-onset seizures
with or without secondarily
generalized seizures.
Non-competitive AMPA glutamate receptor
antagonist. Inhibits AMPA receptors, preventing
repetitive neuronal firing.
Rufinamide Adjunctive therapy for seizures
associated with Lennox-Gastaut
Syndrome (LGS).
Prolongs the inactive state of voltage-gated sodium
channels, stabilizing neuronal membranes and
blocking the spread of partial seizure activity. Also
inhibits mGluR5 subtype receptors. Common adverse
effects include headache, dizziness, and fatigue.
17. Stiripentol is an aromatic alcohol that is structurally different from other ASDs.
It gained orphan drug status for treating Dravet syndrome in 2008, but it has not been approved
by the FDA .
While its antiseizure mechanism is not fully understood, stiripentol might raise CNS levels of
inhibitory GABA.
Its absorption is rapid, with nonlinear elimination kinetics. It interacts with various drugs,
inhibiting CYPs 3A4, 1A2, and 2C19.
Used with clobazam and valproate to treat refractory seizures, particularly in patients with
Dravet syndrome. Common side effects include anorexia, weight loss, and drowsiness.
Tiagabine is a derivative of nipecotic acid, approved for focal seizures in adults. It inhibits the
GABA transporter GAT-1.
Topiramate, a sulfamate-substituted monosaccharide, is FDA-approved for various seizure types
and migraines. It works by reducing Na+ currents, enhancing postsynaptic GABAA receptor
currents, and inhibiting certain glutamate receptors.
18. Valproate, discovered by chance, inhibits seizures through complex mechanisms and interactions. It is
broadly used for various seizure types. The common side effects of valproate include GI symptoms,
sedation, and alopecia.
Vigabatrin, approved for refractory focal seizures in adults, is considered for infantile spasms. It
irreversibly inhibits GABA transaminase. However, it can cause vision loss, weight gain, and seizures.
Zonisamide is particularly effective as an adjunct therapy for focal seizures and inhibits the firing of
spinal cord neurons by various mechanisms. Its common side effects include somnolence, dizziness, and
cognitive impairment, while serious issues like renal calculi and metabolic acidosis are rare but possible.
19. REFERENCE
1.Laurence L. Brunton, PhD,Randa Hilal-Dandan, PhD,Björn C. Knollmann, MD, PhD,THE Pharmacological
basis of therapeutics,13thed. Mc Graw Hill Education, Newyork,2017,303-326.
2.Tripathi.K.D,Essentials of Medical Pharmacology. 7th Edition. Jaypee Brothers Medical Publishers (P) Ltd.,
New Delhi,2013,412-421.
3.https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convulsion
4.https://www.happiesthealth.com/articles/neurology/difference-between-seizure-and-epilepsy
5.https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anticonvulsant
6.https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8719918/#:~:text=Depending%20on%20their%20mechanism%20of,mechani
sm%20of%20action%20is%20unresolved.
7.https://www.erdemdemirkan.av.tr/?g=the-pharmacology-and-clinical-efficacy-of-antiseizure-medications-
from-uu-52zzzKIN
8.https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40263-021-00827-8
9.https://www.cancer.gov/publications/dictionaries/cancer-terms/def/anticonvulsant