This study examined the relationship between emotions and food consumption (macronutrient intake) in a college cafeteria setting. 408 students completed an emotions questionnaire before and after selecting and eating a hot meal. The results showed that high fat, high energy meals led to greater feelings of contentment, while low carbohydrate meals led to feelings of being unfulfilled. High protein meals also increased feelings of contentment. Additionally, negative emotions generally decreased after eating, while contentment increased. The study provides insights into how emotions influence food choices and are impacted by macronutrient intake in real-world eating environments.

1. International Journal of Food Sciences and Nutrition,
May 2013; 64(3): 261–268
The relationship between emotions and food consumption
(macronutrient) in a foodservice college setting – a preliminary
study
HEATHER J. HARTWELL, JOHN S. A. EDWARDS, &
LORRAINE BROWN
Foodservice and Applied Nutrition Research Group,
Bournemouth University, Poole, UK
Abstract
Many aspects of eating out have been studied, yet emotions
remain an under-researched area, despite having been shown to
play a significant role in food consumption. The aim of this
research is to critically evaluate the relationship between
emotions and food consumption (macronutrient) in a realistic
eating environment, a college cafeteria. Subjects (n ¼ 408),
diners using a cafeteria, completed an emotions questionnaire
before and after freely choosing, paying for and consuming a
hot main meal. The results demonstrated a greater feeling of
contentment with a high fat, high energy meal, whereas with a
low carbohydrate meal, participants felt unfulfilled. In addition,
a high protein meal also leads to a feeling of contentment.
These results are rather counterintuitive to public health
nutrition policy but indicate the importance of inclusion of a
protein or high carbohydrate item in any dish design in a
foodservice setting.
Keywords: food intake, emotion, nutritionIntroduction
262 H. J. Hartwell et al.
Emotions and food consumption 263

2. Acquiring macronutrients from outside the home is becoming
more prevalent and many aspects of eating out have been
studied, yet emotions remain an underresearched area. The
commonest way in which food can affect behaviour is through
changes in mood and arousal that occur from before to after
eating a meal (Gibson 2006), yet there is a paucity of research
on how emotions influence or change when eating a selfselected
meal out of the home and what effect these might have on
macronutrient intake.
Past studies have concentrated on subjects predisposed to
overweight and obesity where the tendency to eat more when
experiencing negative emotions has been identified as
contributing to these conditions, while inversely, the tendency
to eat less when experiencing negative emotions has also been
identified as contributing to being underweight (Nolan et al.
2010). This paper, part of a larger study on the role of emotions
when eating out, addresses this scarcity of information and uses
a real-life eating environment as context and in so doing, not
only helps us to better understand the role of emotions, but also
provides valuable data and insights into the body of knowledge
on emotional response to an eating situation.
There is no standard definition, and emotion and mood are
terms often used interchangeably. Plutchik (1980, in Ritchins
1997) reviewed 28 definitions of emotions and concluded that
not only there is little consistency but also many were not
sufficiently explicit to give a clear idea of what an emotion
actually is. More recently Cabana (2002) reinforced this lack of
consensus with King and Meiselman (2010) considering the
distinction to be easier to delineate in theory than in practice.
Nevertheless, there is some agreement that an emotion is any
short-term evaluative, affective, intentional, psychological state
including happiness, sadness, disgust and other inner feelings,
whereas mood is a temporary but relatively sustained and
pervasive affective state, often contrasted in psychology and
psychiatry with a more specific and short-term emotion (Gibson
2006; Dictionary of Psychology in Politics and Social Sciences

3. 2010).
Correspondence: Heather J. Hartwell, Foodservice and Applied
Nutrition Research Group, Bournemouth University, Poole,
Dorset BH12 5BB, UK. Tel: þ 44 (0)1202 961712. Fax: þ 44
(0)1202 515707. E-mail: [email protected]
ISSN 0963-7486 print/ISSN 1465-3478 online q 2012 Informa
UK, Ltd.
DOI: 10.3109/09637486.2012.734288
Emotions can be viewed from a number of perspectives and
affect many aspects of an individual’s
life including, hunger, thirst and eating (Rolls 2007). In a
review of the theories relating emotion and eating behaviours,
Canetti et al. (2002) concluded that emotions influence eating
behaviour in humans with negative emotions increasing food
consumption, although the role of positive emotions is less
conclusive. In addition, they also suggest that frequent emotions
such as joy and anger have a greater impact; that the influence
of emotions is stronger in obese rather than normal weight
individuals and that obese individuals engage in emotional
eating more than nonobese individuals, as do dieters. Emotions
have been demonstrated to play a significant role in
consumption. In Macht’s (1999) study, for example, higher
levels of hunger were observed during periods of anger and joy
than of fear and sadness; impulsive and sensory eating received
higher scores during anger than other emotions and hedonic
ratings were higher during joy than other emotions.
It is increasingly recognized that the eating context can
influence an individual’s food and nutrient intake. Numerous
studies have been undertaken illustrating an increase in food
intakes when eating together compared with eating alone
(Feunekes et al. 1995; Edwards and Hartwell 2004). This
phenomenon of social facilitation is in evidence during all
meals of the day, all days of the week and in many different
locations.
The studyof food and emotions can be classified into two ways:

4. those which focus on the effects of emotions on eating
behaviour; and those which focus on the effects of eating
behaviour on emotions (Desmet and Schifferstein 2008). This
research covered the latter and specifically the change in
emotion with macronutrient intake. Hence, the aim of this
research is to critically evaluate the relationship between
emotions and food consumption (macronutrient) of meals served
in a realistic eating environment.
The research addresses the following hypotheses:
. H1: The emotional status of an individual influences what hot
main meal (macronutrient content) is chosen.
. H2: The emotional status of an individual, when dining either
alone or in the company of selfselected colleagues, is altered
after eating a hot main meal (by macronutrient).Methods
The research was undertaken using a dining facility (cafeteria)
at Bournemouth University, England, run as a ‘food court’
which is open to students, members of staff and visitors. The
counter used for the study offered a choice of two pizzas (one
vegetarian), a pasta dish (the sauce changing daily), jacket
potatoes with a choice of four toppings, three ‘traditional’ hot
meals, including at least one vegetarian choice and salad items.
These were defined as a hot meal for this study.
During term time, service was from 1200 to 1430h with the total
number of customers on a ‘typical’ day ranging from 300 to
500.Measuring emotional status
Just as there is no firm consensus on the definition of emotions,
there is a lack of agreement as to exactly how emotions might
be measured; hence the quest for suitable and appropriate
instruments has a long and perhaps chequered history. A number
of authors have investigated and proposed their own models
which have involved questionnaires, verbal and non-verbal
applications and ‘additional heart rate’ as an indicator of
emotional arousal.
Most food-related studies to date have concentrated on
developing instruments to assess emotions associated with a
single food, primarily in a controlled laboratory environment,

5. often using dieting and/or obese subjects or in Universities
using psychology students. None has sought to measure
emotions in a ‘live’ setting where complete meals are
consumed. Of the numerous instruments which have been
developed, each purporting to capture the emotions of
individuals, a review of the literature failed to identify one that
might be ‘entirely’ appropriate. Therefore, a comprehensive
literature review provided the start point for this study. The
work of Richins (1997) and King and Meiselman (2010) was
considered as most suitable for the research context; however,
in discussion with the co-researchers and potential subjects, it
became apparent that, with the exception of one word (sexy),
Richins used terminology ‘most’ appropriate to capture the data,
although one word (bored) from King and Meiselman stood out
as being a term that students could relate to and therefore was
included. The concept of emotion is problematic to define;
therefore, explicit well-validated items through which emotions
have been investigated in previous research were used as the
basis for data collection. The research instrument is presented
in Table I.
There is no evidence of systematic order effects when
administering this type of questionnaire (Richins 1997).
However, in the studies reported, the questionnaires were only
administered once as opposed to twice proposed for this study.
It was decided, therefore, to reverse order the questions in the
postquestionnaire, to help alleviate any ‘memory recall effects’.
The resulting questionnaire presented in Table I was pre-tested
on two groups (n ¼ 32) of first year University undergraduate
students, providing a Cronbach’s avalue of 0.922.
Subjects and data collection
Subjects (n ¼ 408) were potential diners, recruited by asking
them if they had time to take part and planned to eat a hot meal.
Once confirmed, they were briefed as to the procedures and
requirements of the study but
Table I. Pre-meal Emotional Status Questionnaire.
Feeling

6. Not at all
Slightly
Moderately
Very
Extremely
Afraid
1
2
3
4
5
Amazed
1
2
3
4
5
Angry
1
2
3
4
5
Ashamed
1
2
3
4
5
Astonished
1
2
3
4
5
Bored

7. 1
2
3
4
5
Calm
1
2
3
4
5
Contented
1
2
3
4
5
Depressed
1
2
3
4
5
Discontented
1
2
3
4
5
Eager
1
2
3
4
5
Embarrassed

8. 1
2
3
4
5
Encouraged
1
2
3
4
5
Envious
1
2
3
4
5
Enthusiastic
1
2
3
4
5
Excited
1
2
3
4
5
Frustrated
1
2
3
4
5
Fulfilled

9. 1
2
3
4
5
Guilty
1
2
3
4
5
Happy
1
2
3
4
5
Homesick
1
2
3
4
5
Hopeful
1
2
3
4
5
Humiliated
1
2
3
4
5
Irritated

10. 1
2
3
4
5
Jealous
1
2
3
4
5
Joyful
1
2
3
4
5
Lonely
1
2
3
4
5
Loving
1
2
3
4
5
Miserable
1
2
3
4
5
Nervous

11. 1
2
3
4
5
Optimistic
1
2
3
4
5
Panicky
1
2
3
4
5
Passionate
1
2
3
4
5
Peaceful
1
2
3
4
5
Pleased
1
2
3
4
5
Proud

12. 1
2
3
4
5
Relieved
1
2
3
4
5
Romantic
1
2
3
4
5
Sad
1
2
3
4
5
Scared
1
2
3
4
5
Sentimental
1
2
3
4
5
Surprised

13. 1
2
3
4
5
Tense
1
2
3
4
5
Thrilled
1
2
3
4
5
Unfulfilled
1
2
3
4
5
Warm hearted
1
2
3
4
5
Worried
1
2
3
4
5
Notes: The above words describe different kinds of moods and

14. feelings. Using the terms listed, please describe how you FEEL
RIGHT NOW. Please rate each feeling by circling the
appropriate number.
not the true purpose. Any questions or queries were addressed
and, following agreement, subjects were invited to complete the
Emotional Status Questionnaire for the first time. Once
completed (approximately 5min), the time was noted on the
questionnaire and a pseudonym added so that the subject’s
completion of the subsequent questionnaire could be matched.
Subjects then went to the service counter where they freely
selected their hot meal before proceeding to the cash point to
pay. They then found their own table in the cafeteria where they
consumed their meal.
Once they had finished their meal, or all they wished to
consume, they returned to one of the data collectors with their
plate and completed the Emotional Status Questionnaire for the
second time. Where any food remained uneaten, this was
weighed out of sight and the amounts were recorded.
Data collection commenced at approximately 1150h and
finished at 1400h daily. Prior to the start of each day’s meal
service, details of the day’s menu were recorded along with
average portion sizes. The latter were obtained by identifying
and weighing a standard portion size and where necessary by
purchasing a meal during service.Data analysis
Data were coded, entered into the statistical package SPSS
(version 18), checked and verified for accuracy. Descriptive
techniques including ‘Frequencies’ were used to interrogate the
data; thereafter Wilcoxon ranksum tests and Mann–Whitney U
tests were used to compare ‘before’ and ‘after’ effects.
Food intake data were entered into a computer program
Microdiet (version 2),1 which includes in its database standard
food tables [McCance and Widdowson’s, The Composition of
Foods, 6th Summary Edition], and the macronutrient content of
meals was calculated. These data, discrete values (g) of protein,
fat and carbohydrate, and percentages of energy from those
nutrients, were also entered into the statistical package SPSS

15. (version 18).
Spearman’s r was used to measure the magnitude and direction
of the correlation between two variables, emotion and
macronutrient. The analysis was extended by computing a new
variable, ‘emotion difference’, pre- and post-meal, which was
subjected to the same test. The data were then interrogated
further by evaluating the effect of a macronutrient coded as a
binary variable (e.g. low and high fat) on emotional difference
using Mann–Whitney U test. A functional analysis approach
was adopted.
Table II. The demographic characteristics of respondents (n¼
408).
Characteristics
%
Gender Female
48.0
Male
52.0
Age Under 21
50.0
21–30
42.9
Over 30
6.9
Other
5.9
Missing
0.2
Meal eaten
Traditional
50.2
Pizza
21.6
Pasta
14.0
Jacket potato and filling

16. 13.2
Missing
1.0Results
The demographic profile of respondents is given in Table II.
For this part of the research respondents were considered as a
homogenous group of diners, where when data are presented
schematically, it can be seen that respondents generally
demonstrate more positive emotions than negative (Figure 1). It
can also be seen that emotions are flattened after a meal except
for the emotion contentment which increases. Furthermore, after
a meal there is a significant decrease in negative emotions, i.e.
people are happier after a meal.
Spearman’s r correlations between all 47 emotion expression
variables (pre- and post-consumption) and each macronutrient,
fat, carbohydrate, protein and energy, identified weak
correlations, these are presented in Table III.
Interestingly, testing emotion expression difference (pre- and
post-consumption) variables and each macronutrient, fat,
carbohydrate, protein and energy, again some weak correlations
were found (Table IV).
It is not unsurprising that 63% of the respondent sample
consumed dishes that contributed a high percent of energy from
fat, higher than the USA and UK Dietary Reference Value
(Department of Health 1991; US Dietary Guidelines 2010) of no
more than 35% of energy recommended from this nutrient.
Interrogating the data further revealed that the percentage of
energy from fat was significantly higher for those respondents
who showed a pre- and postdifference in the emotions,
sentimental (p # 0.05) and discontented (p # 0.05). The intensity
of feeling was greater for sentimental and less for discontented.
As fat and carbohydrate contribute nutrients in tandem, it is
accepted that 86% of the participant sample consumed a low
carbohydrate meal, lower than the UK Dietary Reference Value
(Department of Health 1991) of no less than 50% of energy
recommended from this nutrient. Interrogating the data further,
it was revealed that the percentage of energy from carbohydrate

17. was significantly lower for those respondents who showed a
pre- and postdifference in the emotions such as unfulfilled (p #
0.05), humiliated (p # 0.02) and encouraged (p # 0.02). The
lower the carbohydrate intake the more unfulfilled a participant
felt, and paradoxically the higher the carbohydrate intake the
greater the feelings of humiliated and encouraged were
experienced.
Figure 1. Schematic presentation of pre- and post-meal
subordinate level emotions.
Table III. Correlation between subordinate level of emotion
expression and macronutrient.
Emotion
Energy
Fat
CHO*
Protein
EagerPOST
Correlation coefficient
0.105
0.116
0.033
0.071
Sig. (two-tailed)
0.036†
0.021†
0.507
0.158
N
397
398
398

18. 398
LonelyPRE
Correlation coefficient
20.024
20.014
0.012
20.102†
Sig. (two-tailed)
0.629
0.775
0.814
0.043
N
396
397
397
397
SentimentalPRE
Correlation coefficient
20.108
20.066
20.118
20.031
Sig. (two-tailed)
0.032†
0.191
0.019†
0.534
N
394
395
395

19. 395
*Carbohydrate; †Significantly different.
Within the population, protein intake is high and was
demonstrated in this sample whereby 76% had intakes above the
UK Dietary Reference Value of no more than 15% of energy
recommended from this nutrient. There was one difference close
to significance identified and this was for those respondents
who showed a pre- and post-difference in the emotion
discontented (p # 0.06). The higher the protein intake the
greater the change in emotion pre- and postconsumption, that is
the participants became less discontented.
Of the positive emotions, both males and females reported
changes in their pre- to post-meal emotions for fulfilled, which
increased, eager and proud, which decreased; and of the
negative emotions, frustrated, irritated, worried and tense all
decreased. Looking at the other expressions, hopeful, excited
and loving for the positive affects; unfulfilled, bored and
homesick for the negative affects, all decreased for females pre-
to postmeal. Interestingly, there were no pre- to post-meal
changes for the males.
In addition to the changes in pre- and post-meal, there were also
a number of changes between the genders. Of the positive
aspects, calm, peaceful, thrilled and proud, both pre- and post-
meal; encouraged and eager, pre-meal; pleased, joyful,
enthusiastic, relieved and passionate, post-meal, were all
significantly different. The neutral aspect, surprised, was also
significantly different in pre- and post-meal as were amazed,
and astonished, for post-meal. In respect of the negative
aspects, ashamed and humiliated in both pre- and postmeal;
envious and homesick pre-meal; unfulfilled, bored, jealous and
afraid, post-meal were also significantly different.
Notwithstanding the limitations of the small sample size of
respondents eating alone, results show a large number of
significant changes in positive and neutral emotions when
eating alone or with others. Similarly, 19 of the negative

20. emotions are reduced when eating with others compared with
four when eating alone. However, when taking into account
effect size, this number is reduced noticeably. Of the positive
results, fulfilled increased positively pre- to post-meal when
eating both alone and with others, whereas eager decreased
again for both. Pleased increased and loving decreased when
eating alone. Excited and proud both decreased when eating
with others.
Of the negative results, worried and tense decreased both eating
alone and with others, pre- to post-meal; Discontented and sad
decreased when eating alone and frustrated, irritated, unfulfilled
and bored decreased when eating with others. In addition to the
changes in pre- and post-meal, there were also a number of
changes depending on whether or not they were eating alone. Of
the positive aspects, sentimental both pre- and post-meal;
fulfilled, pre-meal; and hopeful, excited and enthusiastic post-
meal were significantly different.
In respect of the negative aspects, nervous and lonely were
significantly different both in pre- and post-meal; and bored,
worried, tense and afraid were significantly different in pre-
meal but not in post-meal.
In summary, results suggest the following:
. Rank order of emotions demonstrate that there is a greater
propensity of positive over negative emotions.
Table IV. Correlation between subordinate level of emotion
expression difference (pre- and post-meal consumption) and
macronutrient.
Emotion difference (pre-/post-meal consumption)
Energy
Fat
CHO*
Protein
Homesickdiff Correlation coefficient
20.102
20.087
20.077

21. 20.058
Sig. (two tailed)
0.045†
0.086
0.127
0.257
N
389
390
390
390
Fulfilleddiff
Correlation coefficient
0.104
0.099
0.093
0.034
Sig. (two tailed)
0.041†
0.051
0.068
0.498
N
388
389
389
389
*Carbohydrate; †Significantly different.
. Emotions were altered by eating a hot main meal. In the main
they tended to be flattened.
. After meal consumption, there is a significant decrease in
negative emotions.
. Emotions, as measured by 47 words (expressions), had no

22. subconscious influence on macronutrient selection.
. A high fat or high protein meal leads to a feeling of
contentment.
. Participants became more unfulfilled after a low carbohydrate
meal.
. The variables, gender and eating alone or with others, were
considered to be important, pre- to post-meal. Males appear to
be more positively disposed than females; the negative
emotions, less clear by gender. Eating alone heightens positive
and negative emotions.
During the data collection, plates were ‘inspected’ and in a very
small number of cases, the amount of food remaining was
weighed. However, the number of diners leaving food was not
sufficient to provide for any meaningful analysis.Discussion
The relationship between emotions and food consumption has
been the subject of research for a number of years, although
much of this interest has focused on those with ‘eating
disorders’. Indeed, theories on the relationship between
emotions and eating behaviours have their origin in the
literature on obesity (Canetti et al. 2002). Notwithstanding, the
role of emotions is important in the study of eating, eating out
and the foodservice industry. Both positive and negative
emotions, along with perceived service quality, are the three
most important dimensions in customer satisfaction (Ladhari et
al. 2008). Positive emotions are thought to exert a stronger
impact than negative emotions although this contradicts the
work of Liljander and Strandvik (1997). The authors suggest
that this apparent contradiction might be due in part to
thefactthatdifferentelementsoftheservicesectorwere studied,
although the actual reasons remain unclear.
When considering emotion expression differences, it has been
suggested that these variables can be co-varied from
macronutrient intake (Stroebele and de Castro 2006). Many
studies, particularly in the obesity field, have demonstrated that
this is an area where short-term emotional response tends to
overpower longer term more rational thinking (Cabinet Office

23. 2010). Emotionally driven food behaviour takes over and can
‘trigger’ spontaneous consumption. There has much been
written in the literature about ‘comfort’ food (Dube´ et al. 2005)
and that consumption can be triggered by negative emotion,
which in turn produces ‘guilt’. Anecdotal comments from
participants in the study support this state particularly as the
menu provided items such as pizza and pasta in their minds
could evidently be categorized as ‘junk’ food.
Nutrients in food can activate certain amino acids that, in turn,
produce or decrease the production of neurotransmitters such as
dopamine, epinephrine and serotonin that regulate emotions
(Thayer 2003). Certainly this research has demonstrated a
greater feeling of contentment with a high fat, high energy meal
which no doubt in part can be attributed to a feeling of satiety;
whereas with a low carbohydrate meal, participants felt
unfulfilled. These results are not unsurprising and reflect
Benton and Brock’s (2010) assertion that a high carbohydrate
meal leads to feelings of being happy and relaxed. In addition, a
high protein meal also leads to a feeling of contentment which
confirms research by Gibson (2006), linking an increase in
positive emotions with a protein-rich lunch. Notwithstanding,
although eating a meal will alter emotional predisposition, the
flow of direction will depend on expectations and needs, which
are personal to each individual.
From this research, two emotions (lonely and sentimental) are
very weakly correlated with protein and carbohydrate/energy
intake, respectively. In addition, it could be concluded that
participants became less discontented after a high fat, high
protein meal and more unfulfilled after a low carbohydrate
meal. Unfortunately, this is counter to any nutritional guidance
towards a healthy eating regime.
Gender variations were similar to the overall pattern of changes
in emotions. Males appear to be more positively disposed than
females and at a subordinate level Peacefulness (calm,
peaceful), Joy (pleased, joyful), Surprise (surprised, amazed,
astonished) and Excitement (thrilled) differed from male to

24. female, post-meal consumption. The negative emotions are less
clear by gender.
Dube´ et al. (2005) reported that for comfort foods at least men
reported more intense positive affects prior to consumption,
whereas women reported more negative affects. This is certainly
the case from the current study where all significant values are
higher for men pre-meal and also post-meal. It would appear,
therefore, that overall gender is an important factor for some of
the emotional (positive) expressions.
Eating tends to be a social activity although in many instances,
such as in hospital, a cafeteria and soldiers in the field, the
diner may be surrounded by others, but actually they may eat
alone. A number of studies have shown the effects of eating
with others. For example, energy intakes are higher, while
satiety levels are lower (de Castro and de Castro 1989); the
speed of consumption is increased (Rosenthal and McSweeney
1979); and the larger the group size the larger the meal (de
Castro and Brewer 1992). This is seen across a range of meals
(de Castro 1990) and in different settings, including hospitals
(Edwards and Hartwell 2004). Mixed gender groups consume
more than single sex groups (Klesges et al. 1984).
A number of suggestions have been offered to account for this
phenomenon, although the most plausible seems to suggest that
much is due to the time diners actually spend at the table, which
increases when people eat together (Bell and Pliner 2003).
Results of the research show that when eating alone or with
others, the patterns follow the overall rankings. Most of the
changes, both positive and negative, occurred among those who
dined with others, but did not meet the criteria of r $ 0.2. What
is noticeable is that when eating alone, positive scores tend to
be higher; and all significant scores are higher. The meal seems
to be more important in raising emotional stateus when eating
alone. Those who dined alone, of the negative emotions,
nervous, worried and tense were much higher pre-meal. They
seem to have been more afraid and concerned about being alone.
The meal, as might be expected, reduced their feelings of being

25. alone but they were still higher post-meal than those eating with
others.
The consumption of food by people who eat in a group has
never been explained by a change in a person’s emotion about
the food (Barthomeuf et al. 2009). These authors investigated
what effects photographs of facial expression (pleasure, neutral
and disgust) might have on the desire to eat. The results show
that for foods which are liked, the desire to eat was higher when
foods were presented with no photograph, rather than with a
photograph of a person expressing neutral emotions. When the
photograph of person expressed pleasure, the desire to eat did
not significantly increase. However, when the photograph of a
person expressed disgust, the desire to eat decreased
significantly. Many people will have positive and negative
emotions, which can in part be reduced by consuming a meal. A
greater change is brought about when consuming the meal with
others. Although it could be argued that some of the
relationships are rather tenuous, the overall thrust from the
research is that dining with others has more of an influence than
when dining alone. The second hypothesis:
H2: The emotional status of an individual, when dining either
alone or in the company of selfselected colleagues, is altered
after eating a hot main meal, is therefore supported.
It has been suggested that mood and emotion could influence
food choice via physiological affects that change appetite. On
the other hand, alteration of mood may be an outcome of food
choice (Gibson
2006). Emotion, with the exception of one expression,
sentimental, had no influence on what was chosen. The first
hypothesis:
H1: The emotional status of an individual influences what hot
main meal (macronutrient content) is chosen remains
inconclusive.
Analysis of post-meal emotions identified five expressions:
three positive, eager, optimistic and loving; one negative,
angry; and one neutral amazed that were affected after the meal

26. had been consumed. It is felt, however, that five emotions out
of 47 can only indicate a weak association between the choice
and consumption of a particular meal and changes in an
emotion.Summary and conclusions
In a foodservice eating environment, attention is generally paid
to aspects, such as the food, ambiance and de´cor, all of which
contribute to the overall experience and customer satisfaction.
Little attention has been paid to emotions and the effects they
have on the overall foodservice experience. Nevertheless,
despite the lack of a consensus on what is understood by
emotions and an agreed methodology to measure them, this
research has, for the first time, tried to address some of the
issues.
Using a previously validated instrument, changes in the
emotional status of diners (n ¼ 408) consuming a self-selected
hot main meal in a cafeteria (refectory) were investigated.
Results demonstrate a greater feeling of contentment with a
high fat, high energy meal; whereas with a low carbohydrate
meal, participants felt unfulfilled. In addition, a high protein
meal also led to a feeling of contentment. Practical implication
of these results from a foodservice aspect is rather counter-
intuitive to any public health nutritional advice, however,
indicates the requirement for a range of dishes to be available
for consumers to accommodate their emotional status, and in
particular the inclusion of a protein or high carbohydrate item.
It also indicates that from a physical setting encouraging people
to eat together could lead to greater emotional stability.
The uniqueness of this research is that distinct emotions have
been measured in a real-life situation rather than as a general
valence response, adding valuable data and insights into the
body of knowledge on emotional response to an eating situation.
Further study is clearly required in an area that is of emerging
interest, for example, participants could be randomly allocated
to one of the conditions with positive, negative or neutral
emotions induced. A meal is then chosen and impact on meal
choice could be measured. Strategies for encouraging healthy

27. eating habits could be incorporated at this point. The moment-
to-moment experience of the meal could be measured by
videoing participant’s facial expressions and analysing them
offline (perhaps using Ekman’s scheme). This could be allied to
physiological emotion measures, some of which can be
measured quite unobtrusively, e.g. heart rate.Limitations
This research used undergraduate students as subjects who were
probably ‘refuelling’ rather than sitting down to ‘appreciate’
their meal. Furthermore, in some cases, choice of meal may well
have been predicated by financial considerations. In addition,
there are individual differences in susceptibility to nutritional
effects on emotion, which this study in design did not address.
Notwithstanding, it is considered that these results are
sufficiently robust to be able to draw conclusions, although the
results may not necessarily be generalizable, indicating the need
for further research.
Declaration of interest: This work was supported by funding
from the US Army under contract number W911NF-10-1-0331.
The authors report no conflicts of interest. The authors alone
are responsible for the content and writing of the paper.Ethical
considerations
Ethical approval was sought and granted through standard
University procedures. Appropriate health and safety
considerations, together with a risk assessment protocol, were
carried out prior to the commencement of the primary research.
Respondents’ agreement was assumed by the completion of
questionnaires and participation in the interviews.
Confidentiality and anonymity were assured at the start of the
interviews.Notes
1
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PRINCIPLES OF NUTRITION - NHM 102-01
PEER REVIEW ARTICLE SUMMARY
1. Please review your notes on the section covered on “The
Science of Nutrition” (page 12-17) and pay close attention to
Table 1-3 (Parts of a Research Article).
2. Go to a trustworthy website, for example, the US National
Library of Medicine’s PubMed, Google Scholar, or Science
Direct and select a peer-reviewed research article relating to a
topic in Nutrition. Your article should have allthe
components/parts of a research article as discussed in class.
3. Summarize the research article. Please note that you are
expected to use your own words in your summary. Copying and
pasting the information from the article as a part of your
summary is unacceptable and will not be graded.
4. If you have never summarized a research article before,
please do an online search to get ideas on how to do so.
Example of a site that may prove helpful is
http://twp.duke.edu/uploads/media_items/scientificarticlereview
.original.pdf

31. 5. Attach your article to your summary.
6. This assignment must be typed. Hand-written assignments
will not be accepted.
SUMMARIES ARE TO BE TURNED IN ON THE ASSIGNED
DUE DATE