This document provides an overview of industrial marketing and purchasing relationships. Key points include:
1. Industrial markets are characterized by stability, long-lasting relationships between buyers and sellers, and close interactions. Trust and familiarity develop over time through repeated exchanges.
2. Both buyers and sellers are reluctant to change partners due to costs associated with searching for and evaluating new counterparts, costs of adapting products/processes, and loss of accumulated knowledge in the relationship.
3. Relationships are influenced by characteristics of the interacting parties like their size, experience, and individual representatives as well as environmental factors such as market structure and cultural differences. Over time, expectations become institutionalized.
Factors Affecting Purchasing Effectiveness in the Public Sugar Sector:A Case ...paperpublications3
Abstract:In the recent past, procurement performance has been attracting great attention from practitioners, academicians and researchers due to poor performance resulting from non adherence to proper processes and procedures. Many of the studies have devoted their content to financial factors as measures of effectiveness dismally giving consideration to non financial factors. This study aimed at investigating selected non financial factors that influence the effectiveness of purchasing function in the public sugar sector guided by four specific objectives; to find out how purchasing interaction with other departments impacts on its effectiveness, to find out how Purchasing delegated authority impacts on its effectiveness, to find out how Purchasing activity Execution impacts on its effectiveness and to find out how supplier relationship management practices impacts on purchasing function effectiveness. The four variables were found to have an effect on effectiveness of purchasing function in the public sugar sector. The study adopted a descriptive case research design and the study population comprised of 118 management staff Nzoia Sugar Company Ltd. A purposive sampling technique was employed to select a sample size of 57 respondents. Questionnaires were used as the main data collection instruments. Descriptive statistics data analysis method was applied to analyze numerical data gathered using closed ended questions aided by Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS). From the findings, level of task execution explained 43.1% of purchasing department’s effectiveness, level of supplier relationship explained 20.9% and interaction level explained 2.2% while the level of purchasing delegated authority had a negative relationship with its effectiveness at -4.1% which means that the more autonomous purchasing department becomes the less effective it will be. The study recommends application of supplier collaboration strategies, integration of supply chain management tasks with IT to help speed up decision making process between the SCM partners, signing service level agreements (SLA),purchasing function to increase effectiveness by training and being members of professional bodies such as CIPS and KISM.
Keywords:Assessment, delegated authority, effectiveness, efficiency, inventory, non financial measures, purchasing interaction.
Relationship management in downstream supply chain a predictor of performance...ijmvsc
In this article, we examine the extent at which relationship management in downstream supply chain
predicts performance. Specifically, the paper assesses the extent at which collaborative and transactional
customer management predicts performance of selected pharmaceutical companies in Kampala. The
researchers employed case studies and cross-sectional research designs, which used a researcher’s made
questionnaire, for data collection. Data was analyzed using means and regressions, which were computed
using the statistical package for social scientist (SPSS). Findings revealed a high extent of relationship
management in downstream supply chain at an average mean of 4.23, as well as, high levels of
pharmaceutical performance at an average mean of 4.29. When these results were regressed, it was
indicated that, relationship management in supply chain highly predicts pharmaceutical performance in
Kampala (R2 value 74% and Sig. 0.014). The researchers therefore recommends managers, policy makers
and practitioners to give considerable attention in managing relationships within the downstream supply
chain, and in particular, ensure appropriate collaborations with customers. In this way, organizations
will retain their customers, increase sales levels and market shares, which will consequently improve
organizational performance.
A study on the chain restaurants dynamic negotiation games of the optimizatio...ijcsit
In the era of meager profit, production costs often become an important factor affecting SMEs’ operating
conditions, and how to effectively reduce production costs has become an issue of in-depth consideration
for the business owners. Especially, the food and beverage (F&B) industry cannot accurately predict the
demand. It many cause demand forecast fall and excess or insufficient inventory pressure. Companies of
the F&B industry may be even unable to meet immediate customer needs. They are faced great challenges
in quick response and inventory pressure. This study carried out the product inventory model analysis of
the most recent year’s sales data of the fresh food materials for chain restaurants in a supply chain region
with raw material suppliers and demanders. Moreover, this study adopted the multi-agent dynamic strategy
game to establish the joint procurement decision model negotiation algorithm for analysis and verification
by simulation cases to achieve the design of dynamic negotiation optimization mechanism for the joint
procurement of food materials. Coupled with supply chain management 3C theory for food material
inventory management, we developed the optimization method for determining the order quantities of the
chain restaurants. For product demand forecast, we applied the commonality model, production and
delivery capacity model, and the model of consumption and replenishment based on market demand
changes in categorization and development. Moreover, with the existence of dependencies between product
demands as the demand forecast basis, we determined the appropriate inventory model accordingly.
Factors Affecting Purchasing Effectiveness in the Public Sugar Sector:A Case ...paperpublications3
Abstract:In the recent past, procurement performance has been attracting great attention from practitioners, academicians and researchers due to poor performance resulting from non adherence to proper processes and procedures. Many of the studies have devoted their content to financial factors as measures of effectiveness dismally giving consideration to non financial factors. This study aimed at investigating selected non financial factors that influence the effectiveness of purchasing function in the public sugar sector guided by four specific objectives; to find out how purchasing interaction with other departments impacts on its effectiveness, to find out how Purchasing delegated authority impacts on its effectiveness, to find out how Purchasing activity Execution impacts on its effectiveness and to find out how supplier relationship management practices impacts on purchasing function effectiveness. The four variables were found to have an effect on effectiveness of purchasing function in the public sugar sector. The study adopted a descriptive case research design and the study population comprised of 118 management staff Nzoia Sugar Company Ltd. A purposive sampling technique was employed to select a sample size of 57 respondents. Questionnaires were used as the main data collection instruments. Descriptive statistics data analysis method was applied to analyze numerical data gathered using closed ended questions aided by Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS). From the findings, level of task execution explained 43.1% of purchasing department’s effectiveness, level of supplier relationship explained 20.9% and interaction level explained 2.2% while the level of purchasing delegated authority had a negative relationship with its effectiveness at -4.1% which means that the more autonomous purchasing department becomes the less effective it will be. The study recommends application of supplier collaboration strategies, integration of supply chain management tasks with IT to help speed up decision making process between the SCM partners, signing service level agreements (SLA),purchasing function to increase effectiveness by training and being members of professional bodies such as CIPS and KISM.
Keywords:Assessment, delegated authority, effectiveness, efficiency, inventory, non financial measures, purchasing interaction.
Relationship management in downstream supply chain a predictor of performance...ijmvsc
In this article, we examine the extent at which relationship management in downstream supply chain
predicts performance. Specifically, the paper assesses the extent at which collaborative and transactional
customer management predicts performance of selected pharmaceutical companies in Kampala. The
researchers employed case studies and cross-sectional research designs, which used a researcher’s made
questionnaire, for data collection. Data was analyzed using means and regressions, which were computed
using the statistical package for social scientist (SPSS). Findings revealed a high extent of relationship
management in downstream supply chain at an average mean of 4.23, as well as, high levels of
pharmaceutical performance at an average mean of 4.29. When these results were regressed, it was
indicated that, relationship management in supply chain highly predicts pharmaceutical performance in
Kampala (R2 value 74% and Sig. 0.014). The researchers therefore recommends managers, policy makers
and practitioners to give considerable attention in managing relationships within the downstream supply
chain, and in particular, ensure appropriate collaborations with customers. In this way, organizations
will retain their customers, increase sales levels and market shares, which will consequently improve
organizational performance.
A study on the chain restaurants dynamic negotiation games of the optimizatio...ijcsit
In the era of meager profit, production costs often become an important factor affecting SMEs’ operating
conditions, and how to effectively reduce production costs has become an issue of in-depth consideration
for the business owners. Especially, the food and beverage (F&B) industry cannot accurately predict the
demand. It many cause demand forecast fall and excess or insufficient inventory pressure. Companies of
the F&B industry may be even unable to meet immediate customer needs. They are faced great challenges
in quick response and inventory pressure. This study carried out the product inventory model analysis of
the most recent year’s sales data of the fresh food materials for chain restaurants in a supply chain region
with raw material suppliers and demanders. Moreover, this study adopted the multi-agent dynamic strategy
game to establish the joint procurement decision model negotiation algorithm for analysis and verification
by simulation cases to achieve the design of dynamic negotiation optimization mechanism for the joint
procurement of food materials. Coupled with supply chain management 3C theory for food material
inventory management, we developed the optimization method for determining the order quantities of the
chain restaurants. For product demand forecast, we applied the commonality model, production and
delivery capacity model, and the model of consumption and replenishment based on market demand
changes in categorization and development. Moreover, with the existence of dependencies between product
demands as the demand forecast basis, we determined the appropriate inventory model accordingly.
International Journal of Engineering and Science Invention (IJESI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of computer science and electronics. IJESI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Engineering Science and Technology, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online.
Giles, from his immense experience in areas of procurement has learned that traditional forms of buyer-seller relationship management have run their course and are no longer delivering value that should be expected. Check this presentation, which is brought to you by the FMCG Confext team. Visit www.fmcgconfex.com to know more on the event.
The Impact of Advertisement on Sales: Case Study in Some Selected Telecommuni...Liibaan Sagal
Abstract
This study was set out to establish the extent to which advertisement affects sales volume of selected
telecommunication companies in Mogadishu, Somalia; specifically the study intended to establish the (i) profile
of the respondents, (ii) extent of which advertisement, (iii) level sales volume (iii) whether there is a relationship
in the extent of which advertisement and the level of sales volume in selected telecommunication companies in
Mogadishu, Somalia. The study used a survey design; specifically descriptive correlations and descriptive
comparative; data were collected from 133 respondents using self administered questionnaires as the key data
collection instruments. The study findings revealed that there was a high level of which advertisement, there was
also high level of sales volume, the extent of advertisement and the level sales volume significantly differed
among telecommunication companies in Mogadishu city is significantly correlated with sales volume from the
above findings appropriate conclusion and recommendations include those for further research were made.
Supplier Relationship Management (SRM) Research 2012-2013salleijn
Over the last twelve years that we have conducted the Supplier Relationship Management (SRM) Survey, the market for SRM has steadily grown and companies continue today to invest in these critical applications. The growth in this market is a testament to the importance of this survey.
In addition to an overview of the major players in the market, the vendor survey shares the experiences, issues and questions that we see daily as procurement professionals implementing and optimizing SRM. Within the document, our expert colleagues share their views and experiences on SRM, resulting in cutting-edge opinion that offers a unique perspective on different facets of SRM. Major themes include the Seven Strategies for Future Procurement, Procurement and Sustainability, Usability and Demand Management, Supply Chain Finance and Procurement and Innovation.
Furthermore, the reader can find vendor profiles describing the participating vendors in greater detail. The descriptions cover information related to their specialization, the total scope of their offering, their distinguishing characteristics compared to competitors, the types of solutions offered (SaaS/In-house etc.), implementations and markets targeted.
Understanding purchasing orientation is important for B2B companies and suppliers. The more complex the product/service exchange will result in higher degree of power balance and dependency in supplier relationships.
Creating and Managing Supplier RelationshipsFaHaD .H. NooR
Companies require their suppliers to deliver innovative and quality products not only in just-in-time (JIT) fashion, but also at a competitive price.
Good supplier relations can provide many benefits such as flexibility in terms of delivery, better quality, better information, and better material flows between buyers and suppliers.
Selecting the right supply partners and successfully managing these relationships over time is thus strategically important; it is often stated that “a firm is only as good as its suppliers.”
International Journal of Engineering and Science Invention (IJESI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of computer science and electronics. IJESI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Engineering Science and Technology, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online.
Giles, from his immense experience in areas of procurement has learned that traditional forms of buyer-seller relationship management have run their course and are no longer delivering value that should be expected. Check this presentation, which is brought to you by the FMCG Confext team. Visit www.fmcgconfex.com to know more on the event.
The Impact of Advertisement on Sales: Case Study in Some Selected Telecommuni...Liibaan Sagal
Abstract
This study was set out to establish the extent to which advertisement affects sales volume of selected
telecommunication companies in Mogadishu, Somalia; specifically the study intended to establish the (i) profile
of the respondents, (ii) extent of which advertisement, (iii) level sales volume (iii) whether there is a relationship
in the extent of which advertisement and the level of sales volume in selected telecommunication companies in
Mogadishu, Somalia. The study used a survey design; specifically descriptive correlations and descriptive
comparative; data were collected from 133 respondents using self administered questionnaires as the key data
collection instruments. The study findings revealed that there was a high level of which advertisement, there was
also high level of sales volume, the extent of advertisement and the level sales volume significantly differed
among telecommunication companies in Mogadishu city is significantly correlated with sales volume from the
above findings appropriate conclusion and recommendations include those for further research were made.
Supplier Relationship Management (SRM) Research 2012-2013salleijn
Over the last twelve years that we have conducted the Supplier Relationship Management (SRM) Survey, the market for SRM has steadily grown and companies continue today to invest in these critical applications. The growth in this market is a testament to the importance of this survey.
In addition to an overview of the major players in the market, the vendor survey shares the experiences, issues and questions that we see daily as procurement professionals implementing and optimizing SRM. Within the document, our expert colleagues share their views and experiences on SRM, resulting in cutting-edge opinion that offers a unique perspective on different facets of SRM. Major themes include the Seven Strategies for Future Procurement, Procurement and Sustainability, Usability and Demand Management, Supply Chain Finance and Procurement and Innovation.
Furthermore, the reader can find vendor profiles describing the participating vendors in greater detail. The descriptions cover information related to their specialization, the total scope of their offering, their distinguishing characteristics compared to competitors, the types of solutions offered (SaaS/In-house etc.), implementations and markets targeted.
Understanding purchasing orientation is important for B2B companies and suppliers. The more complex the product/service exchange will result in higher degree of power balance and dependency in supplier relationships.
Creating and Managing Supplier RelationshipsFaHaD .H. NooR
Companies require their suppliers to deliver innovative and quality products not only in just-in-time (JIT) fashion, but also at a competitive price.
Good supplier relations can provide many benefits such as flexibility in terms of delivery, better quality, better information, and better material flows between buyers and suppliers.
Selecting the right supply partners and successfully managing these relationships over time is thus strategically important; it is often stated that “a firm is only as good as its suppliers.”
Chapter 4
Niccole Hyatt, PhD
Chapter overview
This chapter describes the elements of the supply chain and its management. The bullwhip effect is discussed.
The various decisions in supply chain management are discussed and evaluated. These include outsourcing, purchasing, use of technology, warehousing, and vertical integration.
Finally, the performance measures and trends in supply chain management are described.
objectives
Describe basic supply chains and supply chain management.
Explain issues affecting supply chain management.
Explain the role of purchasing.
Illustrate how sourcing decisions are made.
Describe the role of warehousing.
Describe how supply chain management is implemented.
What are the types of e-commerce?
E-commerce, or using the Internet and Web to transact business, can be characterized by noting what entities are involved.
Business-to-business (B2B) concerns businesses working together to allow one to receive inputs from another. B2B can be said to have started in the 1970’s with automated order entry systems that used telephone connections. In the late 1970s, electronic data interchange (EDI) provided standards for the computer-to-computer exchange of information such as invoices and purchase orders.
Business to consumer (B2C) is a retail activity. Here companies use electronic means to deliver goods and services to consumers.
What revenue models are used in e-commerce?
Operators of e-commerce web sites can support their activities using one or more of several revenue models.
A site that attracts users and then displays advertisements from other businesses is using the advertising revenue model. A site that charges a fixed periodic fee for access to its content is using a subscription revenue model. Some sites charge a fee for a completed transaction, such as a stock trade. This is the transaction fee model.
Companies that earn directly from what customers buy use the sales revenue model. Finally, a site may earn its revenue by referring visitors to other sites. This is the affiliate revenue model.
How does the supply chain work?
I recently bought sodas in cans. The cans are produced by obtaining the raw materials from mines, followed by processing in a plant.
The cans are filled with the liquid at the bottling companies. They are then placed in a warehouse.
From there, they are shipped to the retailers who sell them to customers.
Then, I can enjoy my soda!
Service and manufacturing supply chains
Service supply chains typically do not include external suppliers. In addition, the tier one supplier is a company that produces the final packaged product.
Manufacturing supply chains typically include a greater variety of links in the chain in terms of the types of companies. Manufacturers have external suppliers in different tiers, as well as processing operations.
What affects global supply chains?
Global supply chains face several challenges. The members of the supply chain can be disp ...
Today’s buyers control the buying process far more than today’s vendors control the selling process — a phenomenon that affects both business-to-business and business-to-consumer marketers. Buyers seek the information they want online, on the Web and in social channels, as well as in that persistent nondigital venue commonly known as the real world. Today’s buyers are demanding. They expect sellers to know where they’ve been, what they’ve seen, what they’ve accepted or rejected — whether that behavior happened on their tablet, via their smartphone, or at the local branch office. Frankly, today’s marketers are struggling to keep up.
ENTR315 FORUM For this weeks forum, explain the follow-up expectat.docxkhanpaulita
ENTR315 FORUM: For this week's forum, explain the follow-up expectations of the investor you would most likely want to work with. Also, assess factors that affect the length of the relationship with the investor. Can you meet those factors? Explain.
RESPONSE #1: Hello Class,
One of the hardest parts of entrepreneurship is managing an investor's expectations for you as the business owner and your business itself. Through clear, honest, and frequent communication with investors, you as the entrepreneur can ensure the continued their support of your vision.
When thinking through follow-up expectations as a business owner I must have a clear understanding if they are expecting quarterly reports and earnings, yearly or simply are a hands-off investor and trust the business owner run/operate alone and provide what the original agreement stated.
For McCarthy Cabins we are essentially looking for an investor who truly sees the potential in our business regardless of how they want reporting done. As a business owner, I would prefer yearly reports on the business or simply a hands-off investor.
Factors that affect length, I believe that the original agreement between owner and investor would put in detail when and how the investor would be paid back and at what return on the investment they should expect. If profits are lower or higher than the business expected, this could be one issue that targets the length of the relationship. Other factors could include, the market or world issues. If my cabin business were operating in this moment you could only imagine how this pandemic would negatively affect it. McCarthy Cabins would struggle to stay afloat or make money, the economy, the stock market and other world issues are additional factors that also play a role.
Hope to hear everyone’s thoughts!
Response #2: If I were to work with an investor they would expect to know first off when will they get paid, how much money would be needed for the company for a year to about 18 months so that the investor knows that the company will stay in business a while and how much money that I will be truly be putting in the company for start-up. If I were to use an investor I know it would be 24 to 36 months before I would be able to pay enough money to the investor where they would be happy that they are getting a return on their investment. At 24 to 36 months the food truck would be making more than enough profits for me to give the investors more money so that they know their money is coming back
RTMG201 FORUM:
After reading this week's lesson and reading content, answer the following in your own words:
1. What are some of the primary risks in SCM that Muller discusses? Explain.
2. Choose a company who is currently in the news or on the trend boards that have a successful SCM. Why do you think they are successful? Explain yourself completely.
RESPONSE #1: According to Muller, there are ten primary risks in Supply Chain Management. They are global.
How to leverage new ideas and engage customers
For more white papers and webinars, go to http://www.sldesignlounge.com
Or visit us at http://www.sld.com
The Elusive Green Consumer Summary and analysisThe article dis.docxarnoldmeredith47041
The Elusive Green Consumer
Summary and analysis
The article discusses the challenges that are associated with the introduction of eco-friendly goods into the market. It highlights the consumer behavioral tendencies to be the largest hurdle to overcome in the success of eco-friendly products and the general success of environmental conservation. The article advocates for ways in which the behavioral tendencies of the public can be influenced to effect positive environmental change as well as bolster the success of eco-friendly products into the modern day market. These are highlighted as:
· Use of Social Influence in which studies provided proof of human behavior being heavily tied and influenced by the behaviors of fellow social members. In this way, having ads that show one group conforming to eco-friendly practices and use of such products vastly improves the purchase of eco-friendly products. This is suggested in three approaches that involve the sensitization of sustainable behaviors, the increase of social influence to solidifying commitment, and the development of healthy competition.
· Shaping habits is another approach which is touched upon which involves the designing of market strategies and company products to eliminate negative habits and promote positive ones in their stead. Three techniques suggested to reinforce this include use of prompts, offering of enticements, and providing feedbacks.
The article concludes by appreciating the importance of incorporating informed behavioral science into business practice and public activity. The article advocates for the use of marketing fundamentals to ensure efficient connection to the target consumer market if sustainable living is to be successfully implemented.
Critical Thinking
The article suggests the need for the inclusion of social and behavioral sciences in the sensitization of use of eco-friendly products and the adoption of sustainable living practices. This is largely due to the influence that human beings have on one another as a result of daily interactions. Social influence and interactions in the society provide avenues for companies to exploit which can be categorized as either emotional or rational. Emotional approaches are linked to the formal fallacy of appeal to numbers where for one, it is observed that the adoption of sustainable living standards and use of eco-friendly products by a large population effects the adoption rates of these products and practices by neighboring members of the public.
On the other hand, there is also the appeal of statistical numbers that shows that people are drawn to the adoption of new ideas and habits is observed to spike where there is a study that indicates a high number of use of a product. This is a social behavior phenomenon in which humans find it easier to adopt things for as long as they are taken up by other people, especially where a relationship of familiarity exists. The rational avenues for promotion of environmental fri.
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Industrial purchasing and marketing
1. Page 1 of 11
Thisis a summaryof International marketing&purchasingof industrial goodsbook (415 pages)
Industrial purchasing and marketing
Introduction
Firstly,relationshipbetween buyersandsellersinindustrial markets oftenclose. Longtermandinvolve
interactionbetweenthe twocompanies.
Secondly,interaction betweenbuyingandsellingfirmswhere eitherfirmmaybe takingthe more active
part inthe transaction.
Thirdly,the stabilityof industrial market structures,those presentasbuyersorsellersknow eachother
well andare aware of any movementsineitherthe buyingorsellingmarket.
Fourthly,the similarityof the tasksof buyersandsellers.involvedinasearchto finda suitable buyeror
seller,toprepare specifications of requirementsorofferingsandtomanipulate orattempttocontrol
the transactionprocess.
MARKETS FOR INDUSTRIALGOODS
The focusislargelyonthe managementof a single purchase.
The way thispurchase takesplace,
The effectsof thispurchase on the subsequentdealings withthe supplyingcompany
Relationships betweensellersand customersare highlystable,
longlead timesbefore industrial purchasestake place
Complex interaction duringwhicharelationshipisestablished
Changesinthe composition of the customerandsuppliermarketsare few andoccur relatively
slowly,aStability characteristicof industrialmarkets
BENEFITSOF STABILITY ANDOBSTACLESTO CHANGEIN INDUSTRIALMARKETS
Purchasingfirmunwillingnesstochange suppliers
1. The firmfaces problemsof searchandevaluationof suppliers
2. A purchasingfirmmust be well informedaboutapotential supplier'stechnology,administration
and commercial skills,anditstrustworthiness.
3. The costs of makinga mistake insupplier selectionbyusingasupplierthat,forexample,delivers
an unsatisfactoryproduct ordelaysindelivery,canbe costly.
4. The firmhas to be verysure of an alternative beforeitispreparedtochange suppliers.
5. Buyingcompanywill make supplierchangesrelatively rarely.
6. Whenthe buyerdoesdecide tomake a change, a numberof purchasingprocedureswillbe
used:
2. Page 2 of 11
a. visitthe new supplieraspart of an establishedvendorratingscheme
b. Frequently purchasedproductsthe buyerwillprobablystartwithsmall orders.
Gradually increase the orderlevel.Thus,the purchasingfirmwill,insuchasituation,
have twoor more suppliers
c. Buyingfirmwill requireconsiderable informationaboutpotential vendor;the buyeristo
value the experience he hasof those companiesfromwhomhe haspurchasedbefore.
The buyingcompanycan face problemsinproduct use,which affectits internalroutinesandthe
experience of itsstaff.These canbe reducedbystability of supplier.Forexample,some productsmay
require special handlingwhilstothers mayneedspecializedservice andmaintenance systems.The cost
and workload consequencesof achange of supplierforsuchproductsare oftenprohibitive.
1. The purchasingfirmusuallybuysalarge range of products. Thus,buyers may have to simplify
theirworkby dealingwithexistingsuppliersrather thanincurthe extrawork load(andcosts)
associatedwithsearchingforand evaluatingnew suppliers'offering.
2. problemareainsupplierchange isthatof the technological adaptationin the buyingfirm's
machineryanditsknowledge whichmaybe incurred
3. Products purchasedforuse in productionare intimatelyrelatedtothe production processitself
or to the fundamental characteristicsof the firm’sendproduct.Thus,a change inone purchased
productcan influence the wholeproductionprocessand/or the firm's productitself.
4. Components ormachinesmay have tobe changed. A purchasingfirmneedstohave extensive
technical contactswithitssuppliers'personnelinordertobe able to use their resourcesand
knowledge.These contactsmayhave takenseveral yearstodevelop. A change insuppliers
meansthat theyare lostand that new contacts have to be establishedwithassociatedcostsand
personal implications.
5. Market consistsof a small numberof buyersand sellers,action byanyone companywill be
observable byall othersandcounteractionsmay be taken.Thismakesitnecessarytoplanany
actionswithregardto the possible responseof othercompanies.These probable responseswill
militate againstchange byanyone company.
6. The purchasingfirmmay seektoreduce itscosts andincrease itsbenefitsbydevelopingstable
relationships. The more developedarelationshipis,the more attractive analternative has tobe
inorder to getattentionfromthe purchasingfirm.
7. The value of stability emphasizes the importance of events inan existingrelationshipindeter-
miningwhethernew supplierswill be considered.
8. The purchasingfirm'sunwillingnesstochange involvesapotentialsellerin several kindsof
problemsandcostsin the processof establishingitself asanew supplier.Itmustsearchfor,and
evaluate customersanddecide how muchitisprepared toinvestinestablishingarelationship
withthem.Costsare involvedin developingthe technical andinformationalcontacts .
3. Page 3 of 11
The sellingprocess
The selleralsohasinternal costsof change,which are similartothose of the buyer.
Examples
1. In special productdesign, new administrative routineshave tobe establishedtomeetthe
delivery requirementsorqualitystandardsof the new customer.Therefore,newrelationships
are expensivetoestablish.
2. Existingrelationships cansave costsinthe shortterm.
3. Are more predictable inthatthe sellercanexpectbetterinformationaboutthe purchasing
plansof old as comparedtonewcustomers
4. Suggestions andideascancome fromthe purchasingfirmaboutproduct developmentor
productuse.
Stability,source loyaltyand inertiaare logical consequencesof the learningprocessof bothbuyersand
sellersin relationtothe technical,commercial andsocial dimensionsof the relationship.
Industrial marketsare characterizedbystabilityandlong-lastingrelationshipsbetweenbuyingand
sellingfirms. There isalarge variationinthese relationships inbothcontentanddesign.
In some situations,theyare verycomplex,involvingmany people,functionsandhierarchical levelsin
each firm.
MarketingManagement
The issuesassociatedhandlingtenverylarge customersare totally differentcharacterfrom those of
handling1,000 small customers. Marketerslackaccurate modelsforanalyzingtheirmarketingproblems.
Alsoa lack of relevantdataexpressedina systematicwayaboutthe behaviorof otherfirmsinthe same
situation.
PurchasingManagement
The positionfacingpurchasingmanagementof single purchasingdecisions focusedmore onthe long-
termrelationships,becauseof obvious reasonsfornotchangingsupplierstoooften.
Industrial markets are characterizedbystabilityinsteadof change,longlastingrelationshipsinstead of
short business transactionsandclosenessinsteadof distance;Knowledge abouttheserelationshipsis
inadequate,todescribeandunderstandbuyer–sellerrelationshipsandthe factors influencingthem.
BASICFEATURES
A spreadof technologiesinthe relationships.The waysinwhichthe productsare usedand the
productiontechnologyof the purchasingfirm are importantdimensionsof these conditions.
4. Page 4 of 11
General perceptionsof Buyer–sellerrelation-shipsbetweenfirmsare conductedbyindividuals,Thus,
social and psychological factorshave importanteffectsonthe relationships. Bothgeneralized
perceptionsandattitudesto relationshipsaswell asspecificrelationships
1. the historyof the relationship;
2. whyit started;
3. itsdevelopment;
4. crises;
5. technological orotheradaptations;
6. characteristicsof the product(s) involved;
7. delivery pattern;
8. patternof contact betweenindividuals;
9. The potential alternativestothe relationship,etc
10. Data ongeneralizedperceptions
marketing and purchasing : four basic elements
1. The interaction process
2. The participants inthe interactionprocess
3. The environmentwithinwhichinteractiontakesplace
4. The atmosphere affectingandaffectedbythe interaction.
Exchange betweentwoparties: fourelementsare exchanged:
(i) Product or service exchange:oftenthe core of the exchange.Asaresult,the characteristicsof the
productor service involvedare likelytohave asignificanteffectonthe relationshipasawhole
(ii) Informationexchange:bythe degree towhichtechnical,economic,ororganizational questions
dominate the exchange. The widthanddepthof the information,Impersonal communicationisoften
usedto transferbasictechnical and/orcommercial data.Personal channelsusedforthe transferof `soft
data' concerning,the use of a product,the conditionsof an agreement,supportiveorgeneral
information
(iii) Financial exchange
(iv) Social exchange.Function inreducinguncertaintiesbetweenthe twoparties
Whenthere existsspatial orcultural distance wherethe experience of the twopartiesislimited:
1. avoidshortterm difficulties
2. Maintainingarelationshipinthe periodsbetween transactions
5. Page 5 of 11
3. The longtermprocessgraduallyinterlockthe two firmswitheachother.Relationship isbased
on mutual trust.Which takestime and mustbe basedon personal experience,andonthe
successful executionof the three otherelementsof exchange
The amount of moneyexchanged:
Needlarge amountsof informational exchange orinthe complexityof the productexchanged
Developmentof trustisdependentuponexperience inexchange of the otherthree elements
InstitutionalizingRelationships
The routinizationof these exchange episodesovertime leadstoclearexpectationsinbothpartiesof the
rolesandresponsibilities.Expectations become institutionalizedtosuchan extentthattheymaynot be
questionedbyeitherparty andmayhave more incommonwiththe traditionsof an industryora market
The communicationorexchange of information,buildsup inter-organizational contactpatterns and
role relationships.Thesecontact patternscanconsistof individualsandgroupsof people fillingdifferent
roles, operatingindifferentfunctional departmentsandtransmittingdifferentmessagesof atechnical,
commercial,orreputational nature.
These patternscan interlockthe two partiestoa greateror lesserextent .informationandsocial
exchange betweenpartiescancontinue for a considerable time withoutthere beinganexchange of
productor money.Thus, literature,specification development,and visitsbetweencompanies canoccur
before the firstorderisplacedor betweenwidelyspaced individual’orders.
These adaptationscanoccur duringthe processof a single,major transaction or overthe time of a
relationshipinvolving manyindividual transactions.The benefitsof these adaptationscanbe incost
reduction,increasedrevenue,ordifferentialcontrol overthe exchange.Adaptations mayalsobe made
inorder to modifythe overall relationship
Thus one partymay make a decisionnottoofferspecial productstoa customerout of a wishtobe
more distantlyinvolvedwiththatcustomer,ratherthanbeingclosely involvedand/orheavily
dependentonit.
The manipulationof differentaspectsof adaptationisa critical marketingandpurchasingissue.
Althoughadaptationsbyeitherpartycan occur in an unconsciousmannerasa relationshipdevelops,
The consciousstrategyinvolvedinmanyadaptations. Include modificationstoproduct, delivery;
pricing,informationroutinesandeventhe organizationitself are partof the seller'smarketingstrategy.
The buyingorganizationadaptationsinitsownproductrequirements,productionmethods,the price it
Is preparedtoaccept,its informationneedsandthe modificationof itsowndeliveryorstockingpolicies
inorder to accommodate the sellingorganization.
6. Page 6 of 11
The InteractingParties
The elementsof the interaction,
1. The characteristicsof the parties involved.
2. The individualswhorepresentthem.
The organizationfactors:
1. The companies'positioninthe marketasmanufacturer,wholesaler,etc
2. The products whichthe sellingcompanyoffers,
3. The productionand application technologiesof the twopartiesandtheirrelative expertisein
these areas.
TechnologyTechnical issues
Tyingthe productiontechnologyof the sellertothe applicationtechnologyof the buyerdifferences
between themgive the basicconditionsforthe interaction.Theseinfluence all the dimensionsof the
interactionprocesses;forexample,
The requirementsforadaptations,
mutual trustand contact patterns,
A wide gulf of technical expertise thencloseintheirlevel of expertise.
Organizational size,structure,and strategy
The size andthe powerof the partiesgive thembasicpositionsfromwhichtointeract.
Large firmwithconsiderable resourceshasagreaterpossibilityof dominatingitscustomersor suppliers
The structure of each organizationandthe extentof centralization,specializationandformalization
influencethe interactionprocessin severalways;
1. The numberand categoriesof personswhoare involved,
a. Affectsthe proceduresof the exchange,
b. The communicationsmediaused,
c. The formalizationof the interactionandthe substance of whatisexchanged
d. The nature of product or service andthe finance thatisinvolved
In the short term, organizational structurescanbe consideredasthe frameworkswithinwhich
Interaction takesplace.
In the longerterm,itis possible thatthese organizational structuresmaybe modifiedbythe emerging
interactionprocessorindeedby individual episodes.
The strategiesof the partiesare,of course,importantinfluencingvariablesonthe relationships
7. Page 7 of 11
Organizational experience andactivitiesoutside it. The resultof manyothersimilarrelationships, will
equipthe company withknowledge aboutthe managementof these kindsof relationships
Level of importance attachedtoany one relationship,andthe company'scommitmenttothat
relationship.
The experienceof specificindividualsina companyas well asbythe more generalized`experience'of a
company
Experience inparticularmarketswill enable for dealinginthatmarket.Similarly,itsexperience of
international operationswill affect itswillingnessandabilitytoestablishinternational relationships.
Individualsfromeach organization are involvedin arelationship. Usually abuyeranda salesperson,
several individualsfromdifferentfunctionalareas,atdifferentlevelsinthe hierarchy,fulfillingdifferent
rolesbecome involvedininter-companypersonal interactions.
Theyexchange information,developrelationshipsandbuildupstrongsocial bonds,which influence the
decisionsof eachcompanyinthe businessrelationship.
The variedpersonalities,experience,andmotivationsof eachcompany's representativeswillmeanthat
theywill take partin the social exchange differently.
Theirreactionsinindividual episodescouldconditionthe waysinwhichthe overall,relationshipbuilds
up.Further,the role,level,andfunctionof central personsinthe interactionmayaffectthe chancesof
future developmentoccurringin the relationship.
Individual experience mayresultinpreconceptionsconcerningcertainsuppliersor customers,will affect
attitudesand behaviortowardsthose buyersorsuppliers. The experience gainedin individualepisodes
aggregatestoa total experience.Indeed,the experienceof asingle episode canradicallychange
attitudes,which maythenbe heldoveralong period.
The InteractionEnvironment
(a) Marketstructure relationship
Nationally orinternationallywithinthe same market.
The market as strictly national
The extentof buyeror sellerconcentrationdeterminesthe numberof alter-nativesavailable toanyfirm.
Thishas a clear bearingonthe pressure tointeractwitha certaincounterpartwithin the market.
(b) The degree of dynamismwithinarelationship
A close relationshipincreasesthe knowledgeof the likelyactionsof the otherpartyand its
abilitytomake forecastsbasedoninside information.
8. Page 8 of 11
The opportunitycostof reliance onasingle orsmall numberof relationshipscanbe veryhigh
whenexpressedin termsof the developmentsof othermarketmembers.
(c) The internationalizationof the buyingorselling market,
Affects the firm'smotivationsindevelopinginternational relationships
Thisin turnmay affectthe company'sorganization,inneedingsales subsidiariesoroverseas
buyingunits,the special knowledge itmayrequire,e.g.in languagesandinternational trade and
itsmore general attitudes.
(d) Positioninthe manufacturingchannel, the positionof anindividual relationship inanextended
`channel'stretchingfromprimaryproducertofinal consumer;Thus,A may sell toB, who , then
incorporatesthese componentsintoactuatorsthatare soldto C, To form the stock of distributorDand
so on.
The marketingstrategyof A may thusbe influenced byanddirectedatseveral marketsatdifferent
stagesinthe channel.ClearlyhisrelationshipwithbuyingcompanyBwill be affectedby bothA'sandB's
relationshipwithC andothersubsequentorganizations.
(e) The social system.
Is particularlyrelevantinthe international context, attitudes, andperceptions onageneralized
level canbe an obstacle toestablishanexchange processwithacertaincounterpart. Attitudes
to the reliabilityof buyersorcustomersfroma particularcountry. Regulations andconstraints
on business. A supplierwhohasnotpreviouslydeliveredtoa certain type of customer
The Atmosphere
Routinizationand the clearexpectationswhichbecome heldbybothparties.
The relationshipis influencedbythe characteristicsof the partiesinvolvedandthe nature of the
interactionitself.
This inturn isa functionof the technologyinvolvedandthe environmentwithinwhichthe interaction
takesplace.
Organizational strategy
By consciousplanningthe overallatmosphere of the relationship.
The power–dependencerelationshipwhichexists betweenthe companies,
The state of conflictorco-operation
The overall closenessordistance of the relationship
Mutual expectations
The atmosphere isaproduct of the relationship,and itmediatesthe influence of the groupsof
variables.
9. Page 9 of 11
Reasonsforthe buyingand sellingfirmtodevelopahighdegree of closenesswiththeircounterpartas
well asto avoidsuch closeness.There are advantagesanddisadvantagesconnectedwithdifferent
atmospheres.
The economicdimension
several typesof costcan be reduced by closerinteractionwithabuyingor sellingfirm.
o Transactioncost to handle distribution,negotiations,and administrationmore
efficiently.
o Production cost.A more optimal divisionof the productionprocessbetween the
supplierandthe customer
o Co-operate inthe designsoasto make the product easiertoproduce or for the
customer.
o Increased revenuesmayachievepositivegainsbybetteruse of the other'scompetence,
facilities,andotherresources.
o Newproductscan be developed valuable technical andcommercial information.
o The control to reduce uncertainty
o Improvesforecasting
o Enable eachparty to come to an understandingof eachother'spower. Perceptions of
powermay change overthe life of a relationship.The powerof organizationA overBis
directlyrelatedtothe dependenceof Bon A. The dependenceonanyone relationship
by an organizationisamajor elementin the wishtorestrictinteraction.Investmentof
time andresourcesinone relationship
SUMMARY
The short-term`Exchange Episodes'involve product–service,financial,information,andsocial exchange.
The longertermprocessesof 'Adaptations'and `Institutionalization'.
Both influencedbythe characteristicsof the organizationsandindividualstakingplace withinan
`Environment'consistingof the vertical andhorizontal marketstructure andgeneral social influences.
IMPLICATIONSFOR MANAGEMENT
Marketing Management
Two differentkindsof limitationproblems
The first problem:concernsthe marketingfirm'soverall limitationof itsactivitiesincertaintypes of
relationships.
It isdifficultforasellertohave customerswithveryhighdemandson the qualityand
performance of the product ,
customerswhichjustwanta standard qualityascheaplyaspossible.
10. Page 10 of 11
The marketingfirm,thus,hasto limititself tobe an efficientcounterpartinacertain type of relationship
and to designitstechnology, organization,andknowledge inaccordance withthis.
The secondtype of limitationare concernedwith itsindividual counterparts.The questionis,
Shouldcustomersbe treatedinauniform, way,or
Shouldsome customersgetspecial treatment?The special customers –oftenthose whobuy
most– getspecial services,extraattentionandsoon.
It is necessaryforthe marketingfirmtodevelopa policyonthese questions.
Handling:The long-termproblemsconcernhandlingthe power–dependence andthe co-operation–
conflictaspects.The aimisto have a controlleddevelopmentof the relationships. Sometimes-closerco-
operationandsometimesthe opposite.
The short -term problemsare primarilytodesignone'sownadaptations andtoinfluence the
counterpart'sadaptationsinorderto make exchange processes easierthatthe long- andshort-term
problemsinarelationshipcannotbe divided.
Purchasing Management
A suppliercanbe seenasan external resource bythe buyingfirm.The buyer'saim istouse these
external resourcesinanefficientway. Tobe attractive as a counterpart,the purchasingfirmalsohas to
have some internal resources.
One strategicpurchasingquestiontherefore,istofindandmaintaina balance betweenthe external
and the internal resources.
supplierscanbe usedinthe purchasingfirmto use a supplier'sabilitytodevelopanddesigna special
product,may justwantto use the supplier'sability toproduce astandardizedproductatlow cost. A
problemisthentofindthe rightcombinationof suppliers,i.e.todevelop anappropriate external
resourcesstructure.
OPERATIONALIZATION OF THE VARIABLES
Characteristicsof the InteractionProcess
Exchange Episodes
The interviewstocharacterize the productwithregardto
Technical complexityits design,productionandperformance features.
The deliveriestiming
The consequences tothe customerof failure of the productto performorto be deliveredin
time.
Data on the contacts ,frequency,form (visit,telephone,etc.) topic(price,deliveries,etc.),and
whowas contacted
11. Page 11 of 11
The powerdependence
The sharesthe twopartieshadof eachother's business
The numberandstrengthof alternatives
the criticalityof the relationship,
Costsand difficultiesof makingachange to anotherone
Note fromthe author:
Thank youfor yourtime and effort.Ihope youfounditrefreshing.
Bestregards
M. Akbar