I Know What I Want To Say, But I Don’t Know .docx

I Know
What I Want
To Say,
But I Don’t
Know How
To Say It __
Seventh Edition
By David Dominguez, English Instructor
With special contributions by instructors from Reedley College:
Eileen Apperson,
Emily Berg, David Borofka, Deborah Borofka, Vanessa Buldo,
Linda Cooley,
Nicole Cooper, Rick Garza, Carey Karle, Deborah Lapp, Ryan
LaSalle, Lori
Levine, Deborah Lyons, Rebecca Snyder, Elaine Stamper, and
Kate Watts. Special
thanks also to all my former and current embedded tutors,
especially Laura Hand.

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For by some innate power the true sublime uplifts our souls; we
are filled with a
proud exaltation and a sense of vaunting joy, just as though we
ourselves produced
what we had heard.
—Longinus, On the Sublime
But the torero bitten by duende gives us a lesson in Pythagorean
music and makes
us forget he is always tossing his heart over the bull’s horns.
—Federico Garcia Lorca, “Play and Theory of the Duende”
This book is dedicated to the Students of Reedley College.
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CHAPTER ONE: Sentence Structure

I. Writing Complete Sentences 7
II. Avoiding Incomplete Sentences 7
III. Understanding Run-On Sentences: the Comma Splice and
the Sentence Fuse 8
IV. Correcting Comma Splices and Sentence Fuses 9
V. Mastering the Four Sentence Types 9
VI. Avoiding Wordy, Confusing, and Vague Syntax 11
CHAPTER TWO: Punctuation Marks
I. How to Use the Apostrophe 13
II. How to Use the Colon 14
III. How to Use the Comma 15
IV. How Not to Use the Comma 18
V. How to Use the Dash 18
VI. How to Use the Ellipsis Mark 19
VII. How to Use Quotation Marks 20
VIII. How Not to Use Quotation Marks 20
IX. How to Use the Semicolon 21
CHAPTER THREE: Grammar

I. Adjectives and Adverbs 23
II. Prepositions 24
III. Pronouns 27
IV. Verb Errors 31
CHAPTER FOUR: Mechanics
I. Capitalization 39
II. Hyphens 40
III. Italics and Underlining 40
IV. Numbers 41
V. Titles of Works 42
CHAPTER FIVE: Maintaining an Academic Voice
I. Avoid Clichés 44
II. Avoid Slang 44
III. Avoid Social Media Jargon 45
IV. Avoid Confusing Shifts in Points of View 46
V. Proper Academic Voice 47

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CHAPTER SIX: The Research Process and Avoiding Plagiarism
I. Sources 49
II. Evaluate Your Sources 49
III. Reedley College Database 49
IV. Staying Organized 49
V. Plagiarism 50
CHAPTER SEVEN: MLA Guidelines
I. How to Format an Essay According to the MLA Guidelines 52
II. How to Summarize and Paraphrase—an Introduction 53
III. How to Summarize 53
IV. How to Paraphrase 54
V. How to Summarize and Paraphrase—Final Thoughts 54
VI. How to Use Signal Phrases and Parenthetical Citations with
the Author Named in a Signal Phrase Method for In-text
Citations 55

VII. How to Format Short and Long Quotations of Prose and
Poetry 59
VIII. How to use the MLA Author Named in a Signal Phrase to
Cite Direct Quotations—the Basics 61
IX. How to Write a Works Cited Page and Sample Works Cited
Page 62
X. How to Write an Annotated Bibliography and Sample
Annotated Bibliography 71
XI. Common Abbreviations for Parenthetical Citations, Works
Cited, and Annotated Bibliographies 73
CHAPTER EIGHT: How to Write an Essay
An Introduction
SECTION ONE: The Prompt 75
SECTION TWO: Prewriting—Brainstorming 75
SECTION THREE: Prewriting—Making an Outline 76
SECTION FOUR: Write Your Essay—Follow These Steps When
You Write Your Essay 80
SECTION FIVE: Sample Student Essay by Maria Arias 82
CHAPTER NINE: Additional Sample Student Essays
An Introduction

“Chalice of Eternal Glory” by Laura Hand 89
“Through the Muck and the Mire” Nicole Huebert 98
“Coyotes in Search of a Home” by Gabriella Quijano 102
“Dancing to Violins” by Veronica Vela 111
CHAPTER TEN: Commonly Confused Words
I. ONE: Commonly Confused Words 116
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CHAPTER ELEVEN: Grammar Terms and Their Definitions
I. Grammar Terms and Their Definitions 122
CHAPTER TWELVE: Practice Paragraphs
I. Fragments 128
II. Fragments, Comma Splices, and Sentence Fuses 129
III. Commas 130

INDEX 131
WORKS CITED 133
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 134
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CHAPTER ONE: Sentence Structure
I. Writing Complete Sentences
II. Avoiding Incomplete Sentences
III. Understanding Run-On sentences: the Comma Splice and
the Sentence Fuse
IV. Correcting Comma Splices and Sentence Fuses
V. Mastering the Four Sentence Types
VI. Avoiding Wordy, Confusing, and Vague Syntax
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ONE: Writing Complete Sentences
A complete sentence is a group of words that contains a subject,

a verb, and a complete thought . The grammatical term for a
complete sentence is independent clause.
1. A subject is what the sentence is about.
2. A verb is the action of the sentence.
the library.
The subject and verb must form a complete thought. To help
yourself understand the concept of a complete and logical
thought ,
read the word groups below. Which one or ones contains a
complete thought?
1. After the dog ate his food. (lacks a complete thought)
2. Because the dog ate his food too fast. (lacks a complete
thought)
3. Unless the dog is able to go outside and play in the leaves.
(lacks a complete thought)
4. After the dog ate his food, he went outside and played in the
leaves. (independent clause)

Example “4” is a complete thought. It contains a subject, which
is “he”; it contains a verb, which is “went”; and it contains a
complete thought: what happened?—the dog went outside and
played in the leaves.
subject, a verb, and a complete and logical thought, you must
read, which is just one reason reading is important to young
writers. For example, read the following group of words:
Jack and Jill broke up. Is this a complete sentence or an
incomplete sentence? “Jack and Jill” are the subjects and
“broke up” is the verb. Does this group of words contain a
complete and logical thought? Yes. What happened? They
broke up. While we may want to know why they broke up, it
isn’t necessary. We’re just being nosey. A good reader
will see that we have subject, a verb, and a complete thought,
and thus, we have a complete sentence, which is also
known as an independent clause.
TWO: Avoiding Incomplete Sentences
If a group of words does not contain a subject, a verb, or a
complete thought, it is an incomplete sentence. The grammatical
term
for an incomplete sentence is fragment. Occasionally,
incomplete sentences begin with one of the following types of

words: after,
although, because, before, if, unless, until, and when. These
words are called subordinating conjunctions because the
sentences
that they begin will require extra information to be complete.
You can begin a sentence with any word that you want,
including
the word because, as long as you have a subject, a verb, and a
complete thought.
As writers, you have three ways to correct a fragment:
1. Complete the sentence by combining word groups:
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2. Remove subordinating conjunctions:
the garden.
the garden.

3. Rewrite the fragment:
garden.
complete thought: When I mulch the garden, (S) my
tomato plants (V) produce more fruit during the summer. (What
happens? The tomato plants produce more fruit,
which gives the reader a complete thought).
n use
fragments to emphasize important points they want to
make or to bring attention to key emotions. Composition
students, however, strive to convey information as clearly as
possible, so composition students, unless directed otherwise by
their instructors, should write complete sentences and
avoid incomplete sentences through careful proofreading.
THREE: Understanding Run-On Sentences: the Comma Splice
and the Sentence Fuse
There are two specific types of run-on sentences. A run-on
sentence is not, for example, a sentence that “goes on and on,”
nor is a
run-on sentence a sentence that “needs something,” and finally,
a run-on sentence is not a sentence that “is too long.” A group

of
words is considered a run-on sentence if it is a comma splice or
a sentence fuse.
1. Definition of a comma splice: if two independent clauses are
joined with a comma that is not followed by a
coordinating conjunction, the sentence is called a comma splice.
You may place a comma between independent clauses
as long as the comma is followed by a coordinating conjunction.
There are seven coordinating conjunctions in the
English language: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so. An easy way to
remember the coordinating conjunct ions is to use the
acronym fanboys.
2. Definition of a sentence fuse: if two independent clauses are
joined with neither punctuation nor a coordinating
conjunction, the sentence is called a sentence fuse.
Here are several examples of comma splices and sentence fuses.
The independent clauses have been identified with (IC). In
addition, the comma splices have been identified with (CS), and
the sentence fuses have been identified with (SF).
1. (IC) Today I cut the lawn (CS), (IC) it was very green.

2. (IC) Today I cut the lawn (CS), (IC) it was very green (CS),
(IC) my father was pleased.
3. (IC) I am going to help my father build a fence (SF) (IC) the
old one is infested with termites.
4. (IC) I am going to help my father build a fence (CS), (IC) the
old one is infested with termites (SF) (IC) the posts are
rotten.
carefully and pay special attention to the parts of the sentences
and use coordinating conjunctions and punctuation correctly.
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FOUR: Correcting Comma Splices and Sentence Fuses
Writers have six ways to join independent clauses. By using
these methods, the writer avoids or, if necessary, revises comma
splices and fused sentences.
1. Join together independent clauses with a comma and a
coordinating conjunction. There are seven coordinating
conjunctions in the English Language: “and,” “or,” “nor,”

“but,” for,” “so,” and “yet.”
• Last night, I sprayed the grape vines with soap , and my wife
pruned the fig trees.
2. Join together independent clauses with a semicolon if the
independent clauses are closely related.
• My wife and I work in the yard every evening; the work
releases the day’s stress.
3. Join together independent clauses with a colon if the second
independent clause summarizes or explains the first
independent clause.
• During the summer months, the dogs dig holes under the
Sequoias and fall asleep: the cold dirt soothes their
panting hearts throughout the afternoon.
4. Join together independent clauses with a dash to add
emphasis to the second independent clause if it contains
emotional
significance or makes an especially important point .
• The blackberry vines are bursting with blossoms—the fruit on
our breakfast table will be sweet and plentiful.
5. Join together independent clauses with a period.

• The plum trees need to be pruned. The nectarine trees are
already budding.
6. Join together independent clauses with a subordinating
conjunction.
fresh
ingredients.
independent clauses. Again, reading your work carefully,
especially during the revision process, is important because you
will recognize the relationship between the clauses. For
example, a semicolon says the independent clauses are closely
related; a colon says not only are the independent
clauses closely related, but in addition, the second independent
clause summarizes or explains the first independent
clause; and the dash takes the reader in a different direction by
placing special emphasis on key information or essential
emotions. By joining your independent clauses carefully, your
work becomes infused with the art of clarity because
you are capable of saying what you want to say.
FIVE: Mastering the Four Sentence Types
There are four sentence types: simple, compound, complex, and
compound-complex. Writers use a variety of sentence types for

several reasons. For example, if a writer uses all simple
sentences, his work might become monotonous. On the other
hand, if his
essay contains a balance of simple, compound, complex, and
compound-complex sentences, he moves the reader fluidly
through
his writing while simultaneously maintaining the focus and
organization of his ideas. To know how to write a variety
sentences,
you must understand two basic syntactical units: the subordinate
clause and the independent clause. Once you understand these
two sentence parts, you can learn how to write the four sentence
types.
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The subordinate clause cannot stand alone as a sentence; thus, it
is a fragment. Subordinate clauses begin with subordinating
conjunctions, such as after, although, because, before, if,
unless, until, and when and contain both a subject and verb.
Subordinate
clauses tell who, where, how, why, when, or under what
conditions the main part of the sentence took place. Subordinate
clauses

may also begin with the four relative pronouns: who, whom,
which, and that. Remember, the main part of the sentence is the
part
of the sentence that can stand alone as a complete sentence.
Subordinate clauses can be at the beginning of a sentence, in the
middle of a sentence, or at the end of a sentence. In the
following examples, the subordinate clauses are labeled (SC).
1. (SC) Because I woke up early, I cooked a big breakfast for
my family.
2. I went for a six mile run (SC) after I came home from work.
3. I skip the gym on Mondays, (SC) which are my long days at
work.
The independent clause is a group of words that contains a
subject, a verb, and a complete thought. It can stand alone as a
complete sentence.
1. I drink a strong cup of coffee between all my classes.
2. The Dallas Cowboys are the greatest football team ever.
Remember, there are four types of sentences: simple,
compound, complex, and compound-complex. These four types
of

sentences are written by combing together subordinate clauses
and independent clauses. In the examples below, the subordinate
clauses have been labeled (SC) and the independent clauses
have been labeled (IC).
1. The simple sentence contains exactly one independent clause
and no subordinate clauses.
evy pickup truck.
2. The compound sentence contains at least two independent
clauses and no subordinate clauses.
Christopher Buckley, and (IC) one of my favorite novels is
Hunger by Knut Hamsun.
3. The complex sentence contains at least one subordinate
clause plus exactly one independent clause.
I made fresh salsa.
rked at Red Carpet Carwash (SC) while I was still in
college.

village in Mexico, is my favorite baseball player.
4. The compound-complex sentence contains at least two
independent clauses and at least one subordinate clause.
(IC) then, we ate dinner.
raining, but (IC) we didn’t care and finished our
round.
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SIX: Avoiding Wordy, Confusing, and Vague Syntax
Students who are learning English, don’t read well-written
material on a regular basis, don’t know or fully understand what
they
are trying to say, or who are trying to sound smart , often form
sentences that contain wordy and confusing syntax. Syntax
refers
to the words a writer chooses to express a thought and the order
the writer places them in to form a sentence. Below are two
groups of sentences. The first example contains wordy,
confusing, and vague syntax. The second example has been

revised so
that it reflects good sentence writing.
1. Here is a group of sentences that are wordy, confusing, and
vague:
many things important and life altering on a
momentous level to all human kind in existence. 3) For
instance, he says he wanted to be an educated and that he
would do almost anything he had to do just to be an educated
who could reach for the stars and make all his
dreams come true. 4) He taught himself how to do stuff wisely
with tremendous determination until he finally
accomplished great feats of tough things. 5) He didn’t care the
cost of whom pursuing educational commitments.
6) Therefore, this example of a human being that learned a lot is
an important of how hard work can take you in
the long and windy road of success.
2. Here, the sentences have been rewritten to reflect good
sentence writing:
he learned to read and write. 2) As a child, Douglass
stole newspapers from his master and mistress, so he could

learn to read. 3) To learn to write, he watched ship
carpenters mark scraps of timber with notes, and then, Douglass
imitated them by writing letters on the sidewalk
with chalk. 4) By learning how to read and write, Douglass
risked his life because his masters did not believe
slaves should be educated. 5) If they had caught him, his
masters would have punished him with the whip. 6)
Despite the dangers of becoming an educated young man,
Douglass learned how write so well he forged his own
pass, so he could travel safely to New York and become a free
man.
In the revision, sentence 1 says “autobiography” instead of
“writes about himself,” and it contains the name “Frederick
Douglass”
instead of “This one guy”; by making these changes, the writer
avoids vague sentence writing. The second sentence in the
revision says Douglass “stole newspapers” because he wanted to
“learn to read.” These changes offer the reader specific
information whereas sentence 2 in the original piece of writing
continues to be vague with language like “many things”; in
addition, the student probably doesn’t know what he is talking
about , so he tries to disguise his lack of reading knowledge
with
elevated language, such as “life altering,” “momentous level,”
and “to all human kind in existence.” This kind of sentence

writing
simply leads to vague and empty language. In the original
paragraph, sentence 3 becomes wordy. For example, the phrase
“to be
an educated” is repeated twice. While good writers will repeat
certain words and phrases for emphasis, this student is being
redundant because he is repeating himself without purpose. This
same sentence also reflects poor syntax. In this case, the word
“man” has been left out twice, which makes the syntax very
confusing: the sentence just doesn’t make sense. Sentence 4
refers to
“stuff,” but the revision refers to “learning how to read and
write.” Sentence 5 just doesn’t make sense and has been
completely
revised. Finally, notice how the original paragraph contains
several clichés. For example, sentence 6 contains, “The long
and
windy road of success,” but the revised sentence simply
contains factual information, which is much better writing.
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CHAPTER TWO: Punctuation Marks

I. How to Use the Apostrophe
II. How to Use the Colon
III. How to Use the Comma
IV. How Not to Use the Comma
V. How to Use the Dash
VI. How to Use the Ellipsis Mark
VII. How to Use Quotation Marks
VIII. How Not to Use Quotation Marks
IX. How to Use the Semicolon
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ONE: How to Use the Apostrophe
One of the most commonly misused punctuation marks is the
apostrophe. Following are rules for using the apostrophe.
1. Add ’s to a noun to show possession.

2. Add ’s to the end of nouns showing joint possession.
and Gaby’s taxi is outside waiting for them.
3. Add ’s to the end of indefinite pronouns, such as anyone,
everyone, and someone, to show possession.
4. Add ’s to the end of compound words to show possession.
-in-law’s crane operating business opened this
week.
5. Use the apostrophe to show the omission of letters in a
contraction.
gave me his ticket.
Couldn’t = could not, the apostrophe replaces the “o.”
6. Use the apostrophe with a year when the first two numerals
are dropped.
7. Use the apostrophe with plural letters.

8. If a singular possessive noun ends with an “s,” use ’s unless
the pronunciation becomes awkward. If the pronunciation
becomes awkward, use the apostrophe, but omit the second “s.”
Saying “beans’s” is awkward, so omit the second “s.”
9. If a proper noun ends in “s,” use the apostrophe but omit the
second “s.”
parking lot .
10. If a plural noun ends with an “s,” use the apostrophe but
omit the second “s.”
blooms wilted because I forgot to water them.
11. Do not use apostrophes with possessive pronouns, such as
his, hers, ours, theirs, whose, and yours.
e for
reasons other than what you see listed in these notes. If you
follow these notes consistently in your essays, you will express
your ideas with clarity and authority.

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TWO: How to Use the Colon
For most of the rules associated with the colon, you must make
sure the colon is following an independent clause; otherwise,
you
are probably using the colon incorrectly. Used correctly,
however, the colon is one of the most helpful punctuation marks
because
it can help you present and emphasize an important point in the
most focused and organized manner possible.
1. Use the colon between two independent clauses when the
second independent clause explains or summarizes the first
independent clause. To use this rule effectively, you must know
what you are trying to say and pay close attention to
how you are saying it.
knuckles bled.
The second independent clause explains the first independent
clause because “worked on it until my knuckles bled” explains
why
he earned an “A”: he worked very hard.

2. Use the colon after an independent clause to draw attention to
an app ositive. The appositive names a specific noun in
the independent clause.
College, I want to attend one
university: Stanford.
In this case, “Stanford” is the appositive because it names a
noun in the previous independent clause.
a series. A series includes three items or more.
chemistry, English, and math.
“This semester I’m focusing on several challenging subjects” is
an independent clause. “[C]hemistry, English, and math” is a
list.
Thus, they are joined with a colon.
a direct quotation.
Days in L.A., Luis Rodriguez made a statement that
inspired me to major in English: “Reading saved my life.”
“In his autobiography Always Running: La Vida Loca, Gang

Days in L.A., Luis Rodriguez made a statement that inspired me
to
major in English” is an independent clause introducing a direct
quotation. The direct quotation is “Reading saved my life.”
Thus,
the independent clause and the direct quotation are joined with
a colon.
5. Use the colon to introduce a long quotation when following
the MLA guidelines. In prose, a long quotation includes
five lines or more. In poetry, a long quotation includes four
lines or more.
Richard Rodriguez, Rodriguez states:
After years spent unwilling to admit its attractions, I gestured
nostalgically towards the past. I
yearned for that time when I had not been so alone. I became
more impatient with books. I wanted
experience more immediate. I feared the library’s silence. I
silently scorned the gray, timid faces
around me. I grew to hate the growing pages of my
dissertation… (76)
In this case, the text preceding the colon is not an independent
clause. Rather, it is fragment because it lacks a complete t
hought.

The fragment is serving as a signal phrase because it is
introducing a long quotation. Thus, the writer, places a colon
between the
signal phrase and the direct quotation. For more information on
introducing direct quotations, please see the sections of this
handbook that cover the MLA guidelines.
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6. Rules will help you construct sentences, express thoughts,
and present information vital to your essay. Resist the
temptation to drop colons into your work unless they follow
these rules. For example, the following sentences contain
colons that have not been used correctly.
te novels are: Zorba the Greek, Growth of the Soil,
and Old School.
“My favorite novel are” is not an independent clause.
“On my way, I got a flat tire on Manning” does not summarize
or explain the first independent clause.

associated with the colon. Often times, students will place a
colon between two independent clauses in which the second
independent clause does not summarize or explain the first
independent clause, or they place a colon after a fragment where
there should be an independent clause. Remember,
pay attention to what you write and follow the rules. If you use
a colon but don’t have a rule to back it up, rewrite the
sentence, or, if needed, use a different punctuation mark.
THREE: How to Use the Comma
WHAT TO DO: There are several comma rules in the English
language. Unfortunately, the rules are not used consistently by
writers or even taught consistently in grammar books. That
being said, if you follow these rules consistently when writing
your
essays, you will avoid comma errors and present your ideas to
the reader more clearly.
1. Use the comma after introductory word groups, such as
subordinate clauses, prepositional phrases, and participial
phrases that are followed by independent clauses. Subordinate
clauses begin with subordinating conjunctions like
although, because, if, unless, until, and when and contain a
subject and verb. Prepositional phrases begin with

prepositions, such as but not limited to, above, after, before,
from, in, on, out, over, through, and under and end with a
noun or noun equivalent (a noun equivalent is a word or group
of words functioning as a noun). Participial phrases
begin with a present or past tense verbal that describes a noun
or pronoun in the main part of the sentences, which is an
independent clause.
“When I get home from school tonight” is a subordinate clause,
and “I have to study” is an independent clause; thus, the writer
places a comma between them.
my tire.
“Under the freeway overpass” is a prepositional phrase, and “I
drove over a 2x4 and popped my tire” is an independent clause;
thus, the writer places a comma between them. (Under is the
preposition, and overpass is the noun or noun equivalent).
brother couldn’t make it to Thanksgiving dinner.
“Stuck in a snowstorm in the middle of the Grapevine” is a
participial phrase and “my brother couldn’t make it to
Thanksgiving
dinner” is an independent clause; thus, the writer places a
comma between them.

2. Use the comma with a coordinating conjunction (and, or, nor,
but, for, so, yet) to join independent clauses.
exhausted.
“After school” is a prepositional phrase. “I drove home and took
a nap” is an independent clause. “[F]or” is a coordinating
conjunction. “I was exhausted” is also an independent clause.
Thus, the writer needs a comma after “school” and “nap.”
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3. Use the comma to join items in a series. A series includes at
least three items. Place the comma between all items to
prevent confusion.
“After school” is a prepositional phrase. “I drove home, took a
nap, and ate dinner” is an independent clause. Therefore, the
writer needs a comma after “school.” The independent clause
contains three items that form a series: I drove home, took a
nap,
and ate dinner. These three items form a list and are separated

with commas to prevent confusion.
4. Use commas between coordinate adjectives but not
cumulative adjectives. Coordinate adjectives describe a noun or
pronoun separately from one another. You know the adjectives
are coordinate if you can place the word “and” between
each one and rearrange them while maintaining fluidity and
clarity. Cumulative adjectives, on the other hand, will not
make sense with the word “and” between them and cannot be
rearranged.
pain in my rotator cuff.
In this example, the adjectives “burning” and “screaming” are
coordinate because they describe the “pain” independently of
one
another. Notice how you can remove the comma between
“burning” and “screaming” and replace it with the word “and”;
in
addition, we can rearrange the adjectives (After I worked out, I
felt a screaming and burning pain in my rotator cuff).
Here, the writer does not place a comma between the adjectives
“full” and “blue” because they do not describe the moon
separately from one another; thus, they are cumulative
adjectives. They work piggy -back style: “blue” modifies

“moon” and
“full” modifies “blue moon.”
5. Use commas to set off parenthetical information.
Parenthetical information appears in the middle of a sentence.
The
information is parenthetical if it can be removed without
changing the meaning of the sentence. If removing the
information changes the sentence’s main point or the sentence
just doesn’t make sense, the information is not
parenthetical, so do not use commas.
“[B]ecause I was exhausted” appears in the middle of the
sentence. If the writer removes it, he is left with “I took a nap
after
school,” which is still a complete sentence. While it may be
slightly different than the original sentence, it still gets the
main
point across, which is taking a nap. Therefore, “because I was
exhausted” is parenthetical information and must be marked off
with commas. NOTE: If a subordinate clause or phrase,
prepositional phrase, or participial phrase appears in the middle
of a
sentence, it may act as parenthetical information and should be
identified with commas.

6. Use the comma to set off nonessential information that begins
with “especially,” “such as,” “which,” “who,” “whom,”
and “whose.” Nonessential information may appear in the
middle or at the end of an independent clause. If, however,
removing the information changes the reader’s understanding of
the sentence’s main point, or the sentence just doesn’t
make sense, the information is essential information, and you
should not use the commas.
“My truck is white” is an independent clause. It is followed by
nonessential information: which is a very easy color to
maintain.
The writer has placed a comma between “white” and “which” to
help the reader see the nonessential information.
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7. Use the comma to separate sharply contrasting elements.
Sharply contrasting elements are often defined by the words
“not” and “unlike.”

To recognize sharply contrasting elements, writers must know
what they are try ing to say and proofread their work carefully.
“I
want to go home and study” is an independent clause while “not
sleep” is an example of a sharply contrasting element. Study
contrasts with sleep: one is about work, and the other one is
about rest. These two contrasting elements are identified with
the
comma and the word “not.”
8. Use commas after or around conjunctive adverbs or
transitional phrases. Conjunctive adverbs include also, finally,
first,
however, instead, next, second, soon, still, third, and thus.
Transitional phrases include as a matter of fact, as a result,
in addition, for example, in fact, in other words, and in the first
place.
study.
day.
Transitional phrases work extremely well at the beginning of an
independent clause or with a semicolon between two
independent clauses. In the first example, the conjunctive
adverb “instead” is at the beginning of a new independent

clause. In the
second example, the transitional phrase “as a result” is used
after a semicolon to join two independent clauses. Either way,
the
transitional phrase is followed by a comma.
-out.
In this case, the transitional phrase is a conjunctive adverb:
still. Notice how the author did not place commas around
“still.” He
omitted the commas because there is no danger of misreading
the sentence without them. You, as the writer, may make the
same
decision when dealing with transitional phrases placed in the
middle of an independent clause. However, if the transitional
phrase
is at the beginning of an independent clause, place a comma
after it consistently to maintain clarity.
9. Use a comma after a signal phrase introducing a short direct
quotation. If the quotation is prose, it is considered short if
it contains four lines or less. If the quotation contains poetry, it
is considered short if it contains three lines or less.
Signal phrases contain the name of the author or speaker and a
signal word, such as said, says, believed, thinks, or
thought. Many English instructors will be satisfied if you use

“said” on a consistent basis and follow it with a comma.
reader. No surprise in the writer, no surprise in the
reader.”
In this example, the signal phrase is “Robert Frost said.” Robert
Frost is the speaker, and said is the signal word. The signal
phrase is followed by a short prose quotation containing four
lines or less. Thus, a comma is placed between the signal phrase
and
the direct quotation.
18
FOUR: How Not to Use the Comma
When writing your essays, resist the temptation to use commas
where they look right or sound right. Instead, make sure you
have
an actual rule that justifies each comma even if you have to
look two or three times at every comma while proofreading.
Here are
two comma errors students often make (if you can eliminate
these two errors, chances are your punctuation will improve):

1. Students (and professional writers) often place a comma
before the word “because” even though the comma isn’t
necessary.
end-of-the-year party.
The comma after “Tree” simply isn’t needed. There is no
comma rule that says always place a comma before the word
“because.”
2. Students also tend to place a comma before the words “and”
and “but” no matter what.
The comma after the word “puppy” is completely unnecessary.
When do you place a comma before “and” and “but?” See rules
2
and 3.
FIVE: How to Use the Dash
Using the dash effectively helps writers emphasize essential
information in their work. Thus, the dash helps the writer
express
himself with greater clarity. To use the dash effectively, a
writer must know what he is trying to say and craft his
sentences .

1. Use the dash between two independent clauses to add
emphasis to the second independent clause if the second
independent clause is making an especially important point or if
it contains emotional significance. To make a dash,
type two hyphens side by side (--). Do not place a space before
or after the hyphens (or dash). When you type two
hyphens side by side, your word processing program may join
them together.
—I knew it was the hospital,
and my heart stopped.
In this example, the writer has used the dash to emphasize the
second independent clause because it contains emotional
significance. It contains emotional significance because he is
anticipating a call from the hospital with good news or bad
news.
The second independent clause is given even more emotional
significance because it contains the word “heart.” Notice, also,
how
the writer could have used the colon between the independent
clauses since the second independent clause explains the first
independent clause. In this case, however, the writer decided to
emphasize emotion with the dash rather than explain why he
jumped. These are the kinds of decisions good writers make to
express themselves as clearly as possible.

2. You may also use the dash to emphasize information in the
middle of the sentence. While parentheses indicate extra
information in the middle of a sentence, the dashes indicate
information that makes an especially important point or
contains emotional significance.
—home to
one of the best MFA programs in the nation—to
actualize my dream of becoming a poet.
In this example, dashes are placed around “home to one of the
best MFA programs in the nation” because it is important
information since this school will help the writer reach his
goals. Writers need to remember to use dashes sparingly. You,
as a
writer, must earn the right to use it. If you drop dashes where a
period works just as well, you will confuse the reader, and the
dash will no longer help you express your thoughts and
emotions.
19
SIX: How to Use the Ellipsis Mark

The ellipsis mark plays an essential role in citing direct
quotations, for it helps the writer focus on specific parts of a
direct
quotation.
1. Use the ellipsis mark within a direct quotation or at the end
of a quotation if you removed whole sentences or parts of
sentences from the original text to focus on a specific part. If
you cut out parts of a direct quotation, make sure it still
makes sense and flows. The following examples are based on
the following direct quotation by Dylan Thomas’ lecture
at MIT titled “A Few Words of a Kind”: “Poetry is what in a
poem makes you laugh, cry, prickle, be silent, makes your
toe nails twinkle, makes you want to do this or that or nothing,
makes you know that you are alone in the unknown
world, that your bliss and suffering is forever shared and
forever all your own.”
cry, prickle, be silent, makes your toe nails twinkle…”
In this example, the ellipsis mark is used because the quotation
did not complete the sentence from the original text.
do this or that or nothing…”
Here the writer used the ellipsis mark to piece together parts of

the original text and because the quotation did not complet e the
sentence from the original text.
in the unknown world, that your bliss and suffering
is forever shared and forever all your own.”
Finally, notice how even though the quotation picked up in the
middle of a sentence, the quotation did not begin with an
ellipsis
mark; it simply began with a lowercase letter to match the case
from the original text (please see example 1 below).
Avoid misusing the ellipsis mark.
1. Never place an ellipsis mark at the beginning of a direct
quotation (if your quotation begins in the middle of a sentence,
lowercase the first letter).
twinkle.”
While the direct quotation does pick up in the middle of a
sentence from the original text (“that makes your toe nails
twinkle”),
you do not need to begin the direct quotation with an ellipsis
mark. Simply begin with the appropriate lowercase letter, which
is

“t.”
writers, like to use the ellipsis mark to make the reader
think on their own, create a cliff hanger, or to imply there is
more to come. In expository essay writing, however, avoid
using the ellipsis mark in those ways: expository essay writers
should strive to express their thoughts as clearly as they
possibly can.
20
SEVEN: How to Use Quotation Marks
Using quotation marks correctly in an essay is essential.
Otherwise, your reader may not be able to recognize the
difference
between your writing and research that you have incorporated
into your work. In addition to using quotation marks correctly,
make sure you are not misusing them.
1. Use quotation marks to identify short direct quotations of
prose or poetry (four lines of prose or less from the original

text or three lines of poetry or less from the original text).
what happens, not by the whimpering or bawling of
the writer’s presentation” (116).
your own essays.
2. Quotation marks should also be placed around the titles of
different types of works, such as articles, essays, poems,
short stories, and songs. (For other types of works, please see
italics).
his desperate desire to write.
3. Students often ask, “When do punctuation marks go inside vs.
outside quotation marks?” Here is a simple chart that
will usually keep you out of trouble if you follow it
consistently.

—
EIGHT: How Not to Use Quotation Marks
Finally, here are a few common errors students make with
quotation marks. Resist the temptation to use the quotation
marks
incorrectly:
1. Do not use quotation marks for emphasis (use italics).
hard.
2. Do not use quotation marks around slang or clichés.
sorry.”
3. Do not use quotation marks around words used as words (use
italics).
“can’t.”

21
NINE: How to Use the Semicolon
Use the semicolon to help you organize your thoughts and
information so that your reader understands what you want to
say.
Here are three simple rules that will make you a better writer.
Notice how the independent clause once again plays a very
important role.
1. Consider using the semicolon to join independent clauses that
are closely related.
ring.
The two independent clauses are related because they are both
about the crying baby, so the writer uses a semicolon to join t
hem.
2. Use the semicolon to join independent clauses if the second
independent clause begins with a conjunctive adverb, such
as first, also, consequently, moreover, and finally.

Chemistry; then, I completed my training at the UCLA
School of Medicine.
Here, the independent clauses are closely related because they
show a chain of chronological events. The writer joined them
together with a semicolon and a conjunctive adverb to help the
closely related events flow forward with clarity: first he went to
Chicago and then UCLA.
3. Use the semicolon to join independent clauses if the second
independent clause begins with a transitional phrase, such
as in the first place, for example, in addition, and in conclusion.
planting a garden honors my mother.
Again, we have two independent clauses that are closely related.
In this case, they are joined with a transitional word or phrase
(for example) to, again, help maintain clarity and fluidity.
4. Use the semicolon to separate items in a series that contain
internal punctuation.
glish instructor said that if we want to do well in his
class we must do several things, such as bring our
dictionary, thesaurus, and composition reader to every lecture;
not forget our school supp lies, which include
pencils, sheets of paper, and highlighters; and that we must turn

off and put away our cell phones, not leave them
on the desk and text.
In this sentence, you have three items. The first item states
which books to bring to class, the second item describes several
school supplies needed in class, and the last item addresses
proper behavior. Each of these items contains internal
punctuation.
Thus, the semicolon is used to clearly separate those items
because a comma would have made the sentence confusing.
5. The last rule for using the semicolon is to follow rules 1-4.
Again, resist the temptation to drop punctuation marks
wherever you please. If you use the semicolon, make sure you
know what rule justifies its use; otherwise, you run the
risk of confusing the reader.
22
CHAPTER THREE: Grammar
I. Adjectives and Adverbs
II. Prepositions

III. Pronouns
IV. Verb Errors
23
ONE: Adjectives and Adverbs
Adjectives modify nouns. Usually, adjectives are placed before
the noun they modify. Adjectives answer specific questions:
what
kind of, which, and how many.
1. Gary Soto writes poems.
In this sentence, poems is a noun. If you place an adjective
before the noun, the reader will understand what kind of poetry
Gary
Soto writes.
2. Gary Soto writes narrative poems.
Narrative is an adjective. It tells the reader what kind of poetry
Soto writes. Here is another example:
3. I read Moby Dick over the summer; it was a novel.

In it was a novel, the noun is novel. So far, it does not have an
adjective.
4. I read Moby Dick over the summer; it was Melville’s greatest
novel.
Now, the clause has been revised so that it has an adjective,
which is greatest. It comes before the noun novel and tells the
reader
which novel: Melville’s greatest.
5. The taco salad tasted spicy.
Here, the noun is taco salad; it is followed by the verb tasted.
Next, we have the adjective spicy (and in this case the adjective
is
following the noun). As mentioned earlier, adjectives are
usually placed before nouns. But when the verb is “be,” “feel,”
“taste,”
“smell,” “sound,” “look,” “appear,” and “seem,” the adjective
follows the noun.
Adverbs, on the other hand, modify adjectives, other adverbs, or
verbs. Adverbs usually end with –ly but sometimes they do not
end with –ly. While adjectives describe what kind of, which,
and how many, adverbs describe how, when, and why.

1. At the gym, I squatted extremely heavy weights and pulled
my hamstrings.
In this example, the adverb is “extremely,” and it is modifying
the adjective “heavy.”
2. He ran gruelingly fast and won the race by over ten seconds.
Here, the adverb is “gruelingly” because it is modifying the
adverb “fast,” which is modifying the verb “ran.” In this case,
the
adverb “fast” does not end in –ly.
3. The sun shined brightly over the field workers.
This sentence contains the verb “shined,” which has been
modified by the adverb “brightly.”
Here are several sentences that demonstrate how easily
adjective and adverbs are used incorrectly. By learning the rules
and by
carefully proofreading your work, you will begin to eliminate
these errors from your writing.
1. Incorrect: He drove slow.
2. Correct: He drove slowly.
“Slow” is modifying the verb “drove,” which is why it needs to
be an adverb.

24
1. Incorrect: The hungrily baby cried for another bottle of
formula.
2. Correct: The hungry baby cried for another bottle of formula.
This one probably seems obvious. The adjective “hungry” is
needed because it is describing the noun “baby.”
1. Incorrect: I dressed and ate breakfast hasty because I slept
through the alarm clock.
2. Correct: I dressed and ate breakfast hastily because I slept
through the alarm clock.
“Hasty” is incorrect because we need an adverb since we want
to modify the verbs “dressed” and “ate.” Thus, we need
“hastily.”
How did we dress and eat? We dressed and ate hastily.
1. Incorrect: The onions smelled wonderfully as they cooked.
2. Correct: The onions smelled wonderful as they cooked.
At first glance, “wonderfully” might look correct (one might
think we are modifying the verb “ smelled”), but we are actually
modifying the “onions.” Since the “onions” are followed by the
verb “smell,” the adjective comes after the noun (please see the

explanation under the definition of adjectives).
Sometimes, writers will overuse adjective, and adverbs to sound
smarter or more important. If you overuse them, however, they
become distracting a less effective.
1. No: William Faulkner wrote smartly and beautifully and
tragically about the South and created characters who clawed
through life.
2. Yes: William Faulkner wrote about the South and created
characters who clawed though life.
TWO: Prepositions
According to “Prepositions,” “Prepositions are words or short
phrases that identify the spatial (in space), directional, (the
direction in which something is moving), or temporal (in time)
relationship of one or more people or things to other people or
things. There are over a hundred prepositions in the English
language. In A Pocket Style Manual, Hacker says the most
common
prepositions are about, above, across, after, against, along,
among, around, at, before, behind, below, beside, besides,
between,

beyond, by, down, during, except, for, from, in, inside, into,
like, near, of, off, on, onto, out, outside, over, past, since, than,
through, to, toward, under, unlike, until, up, with, within, and
without. Below are definitions and examples. The definitions
are
from the Webster’s New World Pocket Dictionary, fourth
edition. The examples are based on the first definition provided
by the
dictionary to focus on the most common meanings. This list of
definitions and examples is for quick reference. For more
detailed
definitions and examples, please see the Oxford Learner’s
Dictionaries website.
1. About means “1. around 2. near to 3. just starting” (2).
2. Above means “1. over 2. higher than” (2).
3. Across means “from one side to the other 2. on the other side
3. into contact with” (4).
4. After means “1. behind 2. in search of 3. later than 4. because
of ” (6).
-

out counter. (behind)
25
5. Against means “1. opposed to 2. so as to hit” (7)
ts in San
Francisco and swept the series. (opposed to)
6. Along means “1. on or beside the length of” (9).
of)
7. Among means “1. surrounded by 2. in the group of ” (11).
fa chair between the shelves and read a collection
of poetry among the books. (surrounded by)
8. Around means “1. in a circle (about) 2. on all sides (of) 3. to
the opposite direction 4. near” (18).
iles. (in a
circle)
9. At means “1. on; in; near 2. to, toward” (20).
(near)
10. Before means “1. ahead of 2. insight of 3. earlier than” (30).

ould walk into the
house before me. (ahead of)
11. Behind means “1. in the back of 2. later or slower than”
(30).
carefully behind us. (in the back of)
12. Below means “1. lower than; beneath” (31).
waited for a bite. (beneath)
13. Beside means “1. at the side of; near 2. as compared with 3.
besides 4. aside from”
popcorn for the whole two hours. (at the side of)
14. Besides means “1. in addition to” (32).
school supplies. (in addition to)
15. Between means “in the space or time separating 2. involving
3. joining 4. in the common possession of 5. one of” (32).
three months. (in the space or time separating)
16. Beyond means “farther or later than; past 2. more than”
(32).
to do with my life beyond college.

(farther or later than; past)
17. By means “1. near; beside 2. during 3. not later than 4.
through 4. past” (46).
18. Down means “1. down toward, into, along, etc” (100).
street gutters.
19. During means “1. throughout 2. in the course of” (104).
against the curb. (throughout)
20. Except means “Leaving out; but” (115).
have enough money to pay for airline tickets and hotel
expenses. (but)
21. For means “1. in place of 2. in the interest of 3. in favor of
4. with the purpose of 5. in search of 6. meant to be received
used by 7. with respect to 8. because of 9. to the extent or
duration of” (127).
22. From means “1. beginning at 2. out of 3. originating with 4.
out of the possibility, reach of 5. as not being like” (130).

(beginning at)
23. In means “1. contained by 2. wearing 3. during 4. at the end
of 5. with regard to 6. because of 7. into” (162).
won’t find them. (contained by).
26
24. Inside means “1. in” (167).
they hoped to add the class to their schedule. (in)
25. Into means “1. from outside to inside of 2. to the form, state
of” (170).
poetry reading to begin.
26. Like means “1. similar(ly) to 2. typical of 3. in the mood for
4. indicative of” (187).
(similar[ly])
27. Near means “1. close to” (214).
bedroom window. (close to)

28. Of means “1. being or coming from 2. belonging to 3.
having or continuing 4. concerning; about 5. during” (223).
coming from)
29. Off means “1. not on 2. not dependent on 3. away from
work; absent 4. below the standard of” (223).
ped off the roof and still landed on my feet. (not on)
30. On means “1. held up by, covering, or attached to 2. near to
3. at the time of 4. connected with 5. in a state of” (225).
counter. (held up by)
31. Onto means “1. to and upon” (225).
desk, and waited for class to begin. (to and upon).
32. Out means “1. out of” (228).
d waited
for the professor to give us the final exam. (out of)
33. Outside means “1. on or to the outside of” (33).
and soaked up the sun.”
34. Over means “1. above 2. on; upon 3. across 4. during 5.
more than 6. about” (229).

benches for a better workout. (above)
35. Past means “beyond in time, space” (235).
knew I would finish the semester successfully.”
(beyond in time, space)
36. Since means “1. from then until now 2. at some time
between then and now” (301).
dream job as a speech pathologist. (from then until now)
37. Than “1. introduce[s] the second element in a comparison”
(335).
certificate than work for minimum wage. (introduce[s] the
second element in a comparison)
38. Through means “1. from end to end 2. by way of 3. to places
in 4. by means of 5. because of” (337).
39. To means “1. toward 2. as far as 3. on, onto, against 4.
until” (339).
ould turn in my essay, my
tire popped. (toward)
40. Toward(s) means “1. in the direction of 2. concerning 3.

near 4. for” (342).
the direction of)
41. Under means “1. lower than; below; beneath 2. covered by
3. less than 4. below and to the other side of 5. subject to 6.
undergoing” (352).
the table. (beneath)
42. Unlike means “1. not like” (354).
wife, who is vegetarian. (not like)
27
43. Until means “1. up to the time of 2. before” (355).
thinker and writer. (up to the time of).
44. Up means “1. up along, on, in” (354).
As we drove up the windy mountain road, I felt very carsick.
(up along).
45. With means “1. against 2. near to; in the care of company of
3. into 4. as a member of 5. concerning 6. compared to 7.
as well as 8. in the opinion of 9. as a result of 10. by means of

11. having or showing 12. to; onto 13. from 14. after”
(373).
my ability. (against)
46. Within means “1. inside 2. not beyond” (373).
oard box I found in the
alley. (inside)
47. Without means “1. lacking 2. avoiding” (372).
pushups. (lacking)
Finally, as Reedley College English instructor David Borofka
says, do not end sentences with prepositions unless it’s
impossible
to do otherwise.
1. Incorrect: The committee visited their representative that the
petition was addressed to.
2. Correct: The committee visited their representative to whom
the petition was addressed.
3. Never!: Where are the girls at?
THREE: Pronouns
Writers use pronouns in place of nouns. The most common

pronouns are he, she, it, we, and they, but pronoun usage
extends
beyond those five words. Students struggle in three areas of
pronoun usage: pronoun-antecedent agreement, pronoun
reference
and clarity, and with relative pronouns. Proofread your essays
carefully to avoid errors in these three areas. Special thanks to
English instructor David Borofka for contributing his English
1A lecture notes on pronoun-antecedent agreement.
Pronoun-antecedent Agreement
The basic rule—Pronouns and the words they refer to (these
words are called antecedents) must both be singular or plural
and
clearly reference one another.
1. Incorrect: The boy crashed their bicycle into the garage door.
2. Correct: The boy crashed his bicycle into the garage door.
The second example is correct because “boy” and “his” are
singular; in addition, the reader can clearly see that “boy” and
“his”
reference one another.
With indefinite pronouns—A singular pronoun should be used
when referring to an indefinite pronoun. Hacker provides an

excellent list of common indefinite pronouns: “anybody,
anyone, anything, each, either, everybody, everyone,
everything,
neither, nobody, no one, nothing, somebody, someone,
something” (33).
1. Incorrect: Neither of the twins regretted their outburst.
2. Correct: Neither of the twins regretted his outburst.
The second example is correct because “Neither,” which is an
indefinite pronoun, refers to a singular pronoun, which is “his.”
28
1. Incorrect: Everybody ought to have sufficient money with
them for the trip.
2. Correct: Everybody ought to have sufficient money with him
or her for the trip.
Again, the second example is correct because “Everybody,”
which is an indefinite pronoun, refers to the singular pronouns
“him
or her.”
1. Incorrect: Each one of us ought to remember their role in this
drama called life.

2. Correct: Each one of us ought to remember his or her role in
this drama called life.
The second example is correct because “Each,” which is an
indefinite pronoun, refers to the singular pronouns “his or her.”
With and, or, and nor—Antecedents joined by and require a
plural pronoun; antecedents joined by or or nor require a
pronoun
that agrees with the nearest noun:
1. Incorrect: My mother and father were united in his or her
disappointment.
2. Correct: My mother and father were united in their
disappointment.
The second example shows proper pronoun use because the
nouns (antecedents) “mother” and “father” are joined by “and”;
thus,
the writer uses the plural pronoun “their.”
1. Incorrect: Bring your book or your study guide and use them
during the test.
2. Correct: Bring your book or your study guide and use it
during the test.
Here, the second example is correct because the antecedents
“book” and “study guide” are joined by “or” and because the

pronoun “it” agrees with the nearest antecedent (“study guide”)
since both are singular.
1. Incorrect: Bring your book or your notes and use it during the
test.
2. Correct: Bring your book or your notes and use them during
the test.
The second example is once again correct. The nouns “book”
and “notes” are joined by “or,” so the pronoun “them” agrees
with
the nearest noun. In other words, “notes” and “them” are both
plural.
Pronoun Reference and Clarity
When using any pronoun, make sure the pronouns directly
reference antecedents. Pronouns like he, she, it, we, and they or
indefinite pronouns like anybody, anyone, anything, or even
more vague pronouns like this, that, and which must reference
antecedents clearly or the reader will be confused. Students tend
to write sentences with vague pronoun references when they are
trying to hide the fact that they don’t understand the material.
1. Incorrect: Rick read the magazine article and the newspaper
column because he thought it would help him support

his thesis.
In this example, the antecedents are “magazine article” and
“newspaper column.” The pronoun is “it.” Unfortunately, the
relationship between the antecedents and the pronoun is unclear.
Does “it” refer to the “magazine?” Does “it” refer to the
“newspaper?” Or does “it” refer to the process of reading?
2. Correct: Rick read the magazine article and the newspaper
column because he thought these would help him support
his thesis. Now the pronoun “it” has been replaced with “these”
so that the relationship between the antecedents and the
pronoun is clearly defined.
29
1. Incorrect: After receiving a C on his first essay in English
1A, Ryan looked in the mirror and promised himself he’d do
anything to earn something better on his next one.
This sentence could be written with much greater detail. For
example, what do “anything,” “something,” and “one” refer to?
2. Correct: After receiving a C on his first essay in English 1A,
Ryan looked in the mirror and promised himself he’d buy

his text books, read them, attend every class meeting, and visit
his professor during office hours to earn an A on his
next assignment.
The revised sentence is much stronger. The indefinite pronouns
have been replaced with concrete details. While indefinite
pronouns are sometimes necessary, be specific as often as
possible.
1. Incorrect: Rick vowed to never eat at the new Mario’s after
coming down with food poisoning that his best friend had
recommended.
In this sentence, the pronoun is “that.” Did Mario’s best friend
recommend food poisoning?
2. Correct: Rick got food poisoning at the new Mario’s that his
best friend had recommended and vowed to never eat
there again.
Relative Pronouns
Students often struggle with relative pronouns. Students who
proofread their essays carefully will catch pronoun reference
errors
and make the appropriate revisions so that they are able to
express themselves clearly. The relative pronouns are who,
whom,

whose, which, and that.
1. Use who to refer to a person. Who is always used as the
subject of a clause:
on the first day of instruction.
jeans, was late on the first day of instruction.
2. First, whom refers to people. Next, remember that whom is
always used as the object of a verb. Whom can be used in
statements or at the beginning of a questions. Whom often
appears immediately after quantifiers and prepositions.
Examples of quantifiers are all of, both of, few of, many of, and
several of; examples of prepositions are by, for, to, and
with. If you are not absolutely sure if you are using whom
correctly, you should rewrite the sentence so that you can use
who instead. Never use whom just because you think it makes
your writing sound more intelligent—use whom because
of the rules. Finally, whom sometimes sounds very formal, so
consider rewriting the sentence to use who.
the grocery store, I saw my old friend Ryan whom I
met in college many years ago.

This sentence contains “whom” because it is the direct object of
“met.” Who did I meet? I met Ryan. Thus, Ry an in the object.
In this question, the writer used “whom” because it is the direct
object of the verb “mail.”
hours for his students all of whom he helped one on
one.
30
This sentence contains “whom” because the word immediately
follows the quantifier “all of” and because it is the direct object
the verb “helped.”
collection of poetry by Frank Gaspar with whom I recently
shared dinner.
In this last sentence, “whom” follows a preposition “with” and
is the object of “shared,” which is a verb.
3. Whose can refer to people or things. It is the possessive form

of who.
wrote The Old Man and the Sea.
Here, “whose” refers to the noun “Ernest Hemingway,” who
possesses “awards”; thus, “whose” is necessary.
off the page.
This sentence shows how “whose” can refer to a thing,
“sentences,” and indicate possession. The “sentence” possesses
the
“words.”
4. Which is a relative pronoun that you can use to add extra
information to a complete sentence. The extra information can
be removed from the sentence without changing its overall
meaning. Nonrestrictive clauses appear in the middle of a
sentence or at the end of a sentence.
open until midnight, and showed us how to conduct
research.
In this sentence, “which was open until midnight” is extra
information. The word which attaches it to the sentence. The
reader
knows it is a nonrestrictive clause because it can be removed

from the sentence while the main point remains intact: “During
class, our instructor took us to the library and showed us how to
conduct research.” As a writer, you must know what you want
to
say to the reader. In other words, if you simply want to add
extra information to a sentence, which can help you do that.
ass, our instructor showed us how to conduct
research at the library, which was open until midnight.
In this example, the extra information is at the end of the
sentence. Both structures are acceptable. On another note,
writers need
to pay attention to the commas; in the previous example,
commas were placed around the nonrestrictive clause. In the
second
sentence, however, the comma goes before the nonrestrictive
clause.
5. That adds essential information to a sentence. That is a
relative pronoun you use to reference things or groups of
people.
clouds floating through the sky.
In this example, “that reflect clouds floating through the sky”
contains essential information. If you removed it from the rest
of

the sentence, the sentence would lose its main point. The point
is to say that Buckley writes beautiful lines of poetry, not he
just
writes lines. Again, you need to know what you are trying to
say.
n groups that burn long hours at the
library usually earn better grades than individual
students who don’t even buy the books.
This sentence shows how “that” can follow a group of peop le
but that “who” must follow individuals. When writers draw
attention to essential information with the word “that,” they do
not place a comma before or around the information as they
would with nonrestrictive information that begins with which.
31
FOUR: Verb Errors
When students write essays, they must proofread very carefully
to avoid verb errors. This section will explore four specific
areas
in which writers struggle: helping verbs vs. declarative verbs,
tense consistency, past participles, and making subjects and
verbs

agree. If you proofread your essays and look closely at these
four areas, you will help yourself avoid verb errors.
Helping Verbs vs. Declarative Verbs
Be, have, and do are helping verbs (be, am, is, are, was, were,
being, been; has, have, had; do, does, did). Can, could, may,
might,
must, shall, should, will, would are helping verbs called modals.
While writers must sometimes use helping verbs, they often
overuse them. Edit your sentences carefully so that your work is
filled with declarative verbs rather than helping verbs.
Use declarative verbs to make a statement, a claim, an assertion,
or to describe a specific action. Declarative verbs get straight to
the point. When writers fill their sentences with declarative
verbs, they express their thoughts more clearly.
The following groups of words compare helping verbs (bold) to
declarative verbs (bold and italics).
1. They are in the corner. vs. They sit in the corner.
2. He has a skateboard. vs. He owns a skateboard.
3. She did her essay. vs. She wrote her essay.

Here, the examples compare modals (bold) to declarative verbs
(bold and italics):
1. He should find a job. vs, He needs to find a job.
2. I might go if I have time. vs. I want to go if I have time.
3. You may, if you would like, take the baby to the doctor. vs.
Take the baby to the doctor.
Good writers know that if they toss helping verbs into their
writing, their words will become vague. Students who do not
understand what they are writing about or who procrastinate
tend to fill their compositions with fluff in the form helping
verbs.
Instead, express what you want to say with carefully chosen
declarative verbs.
1. Here is a group of sentences filled with helping verbs:
ncrete
image. The bullet might be something that has the
reader’s senses. For example, Mr. Miller does something. He
opens his hand where he has the “shell.” Tommy
should take it, so he will have it in his palm, and the reader may
feel what the brass does to his skin.
When instructors receive pieces of writing like that, they
wonder if the students fully understand what they read or are

trying to
say in their work. What do the words might, be, has, does,
should, will, and have mean? These vague words turn the entire
group
of sentences into abstraction.
32
2. Here, however, the example has been revised. In the revision,
the helping verbs have been changed to declarative verbs
or dropped altogether. As a result, the example possesses a
more authoritative voice.
concrete image. The bullet might be something that
has appeals [to] the reader’s senses. For example, Mr. Miller
does something. He opens his hand where he has
and reveals the “shell.” Tommy should take[s] it, so he will
have and holds it in his palm, and the reader may
feel[s] what the brass does to his own skin.
3. And here is the final revision:
ts a

concrete image. The bullet appeals to the reader’s
senses. For example, Mr. Miller opens his hand and reveals the
“shell.” Tommy takes it and holds it in his palm,
and the reader feels the brass pinch his own skin.
The final revision is much stronger even though it contains
fewer words. Declarative verbs are quick jabs that punch hard.
Helping verbs are wide looping lunges that lack power.
Tense Consistency
When you write essays, you must pay special attention to the
verb tense. You need to know the differences between past,
present,
and future. In addition, you must keep verb tense as consistent
as possible. Sometimes, you need to shift tense, but when the
tense
shifts accidentally, the reader becomes confused. In general, an
expository essay should be written in present tense. Some
instructors allow you to write in past tense. The most important
thing to remember is that whether you write in present or past,
keep the tense as consistent as possible.
1. Here is a paragraph in which the verb tense shifts
unnecessarily.

anger. Gary Soto wanted a jacket with “black
leather and silver studs,” but his mother had other ideas, which
breaks his heart. Instead, his mother gave him a
coat that even the dog hated, so it leaves an “L-shaped tear” on
the sleeve. Because his jacket was so hideous, all
the pretty girls run away from him like “loose flowers.” As the
years passed, Soto grows more and more lonely
until all he sees in the sky were the dull “faces of clouds.”
In this paragraph, the tense constantly shifts from present to
past tense. The first sentence places the paragraph in the present
tense with “is”; the second sentence, however, swings the
paragraph into the past with the verb “wanted.” From that point
on, the
student has lost control of the paragraph.
2. Here is the previous paragraph. The paragraph now
demonstrates consistent verb tense because the entire paragraph
is
in present tense.
most important tone in “The Jacket” by Gary Soto is
anger. Gary Soto wants a jacket with “black leather
and silver studs,” but his mother has other ideas, which breaks
his heart. Instead, his mother gives him a coat that
even the dog hates, so it leaves an “L-shaped tear” on the

sleeve. Because his jacket is so hideous, all the pretty
girls run away from him like “loose flowers.” As the years pass,
Soto grows more and more lonely until all he
sees in the sky are the dull “faces of clouds.”
To write an essay with consistent verb tense, proofread
carefully. If you read your essay out loud and pay particular
attention to
the verbs, you will hear unnecessary verb tense shifts and be
able to edit your work more effectively.
33
Past Participles
Verbs possess (among other forms) an infinitive, a simple past
tense, and a past participle form. Students usually don’t have
trouble navigating their way between the different tenses when
the verbs follow basic conjugation rules, such as walk, walked,
have walked (or has walked). Sometimes, however, the simple
past and the past participle refuse to follow the rules you rely
on
for good writing; these are called irregular verbs, such as take,
took, and taken. Specifically, you might struggle with the past

participle for two reasons: you do not know the past participle
form, or you do not add the correct modal verb.
1. To conjugate the past participle of irregular verbs, you must
simply know the past participle forms. Below is a list of
irregular verbs. This list focuses on irregular verbs that
completely change forms between the simple past and the past
participle. In other words, instead of the verb being as simple as
talk, talked, and have talked, the verb must be
conjugated like this: take, took, have taken.
Infinitive Simple Past Past Participle
in began begun

ite wrote written
Memorizing that list of irregular verbs will help you conjugate
verbs fluidly as you write. Verbs that are not conjugated
correctly
trip and confuse the reader. Even after memorizing this list, you
might struggle with the past participle for different reasons.
1. You might confuse the simple past with past participle.
softball in school.)
se of past participle: Rick and Ryan had went to
to the gym.)
2. You might not use the past participle when it’s needed. The
past participle is needed to form the present perfect tense
(have, has + past participle); to form the past perfect tense (had
+ past participle); or to form the future perfect tense
(will + have + past participle). Here are descriptions of each of
those tenses followed by examples. The definitions and

examples are from Hacker’s A pocket Style Manual, seventh
edition (49):
and continue in the present or actions that happened
at an unspecific time in the past: She has not spoken of her
grandmother in a long time.
before another time in the past: By the time Hakan
was fifteen, he had learned to drive.
before or at a specific future time: By the time I
graduate, I will have taken film study classes.
3. You might leave out helping verbs (have, had, has, and will)
when you are trying to use the present perfect, the past
perfect, or the future perfect. In those cases, the sentences will
look like this:
classes.
Fortunately, by learning the rules of grammar, you will know
what to look for when you proofread your work.

36
Subject Verb Agreement
Students often struggle with subject-verb agreement. To master
subject-verb agreement, remember the golden rule:
1. Singular subjects need singular verbs whereas plural subjects
need plural verbs.
s tremble against the wind.
Unfortunately, the English language is tricky. In his English 1A
lecture notes, Reedley College English instructor David Borofka
explores four situations that often lead to subject-verb
agreement errors.
2. Third-person singular and the present tense:

York, a wiser man.
k Carraway leaves New
York, a wiser man.
3. The verb “to be”:
4. Other word groups between subject and verb:
and reading assignments constitute a flaw of
character.
reading assignments constitutes a flaw of
character.
language and restrictions, were not allowed to play in
last night’s contest.

language and restrictions, was not allowed to play in last
night’s contest.
5. Indefinite pronouns (such as one, each, either, neither,
everyone, everybody, anyone, anybody, someone, somebody, no
one, or nobody) are considered singular no matter what nouns
might be used in intervening clauses or phrases:
-dance
routine.
-dance
routine.
37
In addition to the areas presented by Mr. Borofka, students
struggle with other situations when writing, which also lead to
subject-verb agreement errors. The following situations are
examined in Hacker’s A Pocket Style Manual, seventh edition
(23-
25).
1. Compound subjects joined with and are nearly always plural:

rrect: Bleach and ammonia creates a toxic gas when
mixed.
2. With compound subjects joined with or or nor, make the verb
agree with the part of the subject nearer to the verb:
ct: If an infant or a child are having difficulty
breathing, seek medical attention immediately.
seek medical attention immediately.
3. Collective nouns, such as jury, committee, audience, crowd,
class, family, and couple name a group. In American,
English, collective nouns are usually treated as singular; they
emphasize the group as a unit.
ustees meets in Denver twice a year.
4. Plural form, singular meaning: words, such as athletics,
economics, mathematics, physics, politics, statistics, measles,
and news are usually singular, despite their plural forms.
ong my mother’s favorite pastimes.

Finally, “Making Subjects and Verbs Agree” offers these
additional rules:
1. Nouns, such as scissors, tweezers, trousers, and shears
require plural verbs. (There are two parts to these things.)
2. In sentences beginning with “there is” or “there are,” the
subject follows the verb. Since "there" is not the subject, the
verb agrees with what follows.
d
proofreading their work, he will compose sentences that
reflect good grammar, especially accurate subject-verb
agreement. For additional information on subject-verb
agreement, consult Diana Hacker’s A Pocket Style Manual (7th
edition) and the online grammar book the Purdue

Online Writing Lab.
38
CHAPTER FOUR: Mechanics
I. Capitalization
II. Hyphens
III. Italics and Underlining
IV. Numbers
V. Titles of Works
39
ONE: Capitalization
Here are a few important guidelines that will show you which
words need to be capitalized and, as importantly, which words
do
not need to be capitalized. Use these guidelines to help you
write your essays.

1. In A Pocket Style Manual, Diana Hacker says, “Capitalize
names of deities, religions, religious followers, and sacred
texts; words of family relationships used as names; particular
places; nationalities and their languages, races, and tribes;
educational institutions, departments, and particular courses;
government departments, organizations, and political
parties; historical movements, periods, events, and documents;
and trade names” (79). In addition, she says to
capitalize, “Months, holidays, and days of the week” (79) and
finally, “Capitalize a title when used as part of a proper
noun but usually not when used alone” (80). Finally, don’t
forget to capitalize the first word of a sentence (students are
often in the habit of overlooking this rule because of social
media), and don’t forget to capitalize abbreviations. Here
are several examples of correct capitalization and incorrect
capitalization.
II.
War II.
bought Dad a gift.

semester.
semester.
Department because I needed a signature, but the office
was filled with the Republican Club because they needed to see
their advisor before Christmas break, so I sat
down and read my Sports Illustrated while I waited my turn.
at the Department because I
needed a signature, but the office was filled with
students from a Club because they needed to see their advisor
before the holiday, so I sat down and read my
Magazine while I waited my turn.
2. Also, capitalize titles of works (such as books, movies,
magazines and academic journal articles). Do not automatically
capitalize all the words in a title. Capitalize major words, such
as nouns, pronouns, verbs, adverb, and adjectives. Do

not capitalize minor words, such as articles, coordinating
conjunctions, and prepositions. Always capitalize the first and
last word of a title.
but I Don’t Know How to Say It.
Too Far.
Enormous Wings.” (“A” needs to be capitalized
because it is the first word of the title, and “with” should not be
capitalized since it is a preposition).
40
TWO: Hyphens
Determining whether or not to use hyphens to join words can be
very confusing because authoritative sources, such as
dictionaries, will often offer contradicting information.
Following are three rules that will help you understand when
your
sentences need a hyphen. If these rules do not help you,
however, look up the words you are considering hyphenating in
a

college-level dictionary. If the words are not joined with a
hyphen in the dictionary, don’t use a hyphen.
1. If you are writing, reach the end of the line, and need to
break a word apart to continue on the next line, break the word
along one of the syllables and use a hyphen to show the word
continues on the next line. This rule will apply to writing
by hand more often than when you are using a computer because
your word processor adjusts the text for you.
grapes, and pe-
cans.
2. Use the hyphen with compound words. Remember, check a
dictionary whenever you are not sure. If a hyphen isn’t
used in the dictionary, do not use it in your essay.
-in-law visited us after our daughter was born; her
visit helped our overall well-being.
3. Use the hyphen to join words working together as an
adjective.
ell-rested after sleeping for eight hours, I aced my final
exam.
If the noun comes first, you do not need the hyphen: I aced my

final exam because (N) I felt so well rested. (“I” comes
before “well rested,” so the hyphen is not needed).
4. Use the hyphen to join numbers twenty -one through ninety-
nine.
-nine hours at the hospital.
THREE: Italics and Underlining
If you are typing your essay, use italics, but if you are writing
an essay by hand, use underlining. Either way, consider the
same
set of rules when determining whether or not titles of works or
words need to be identified through italics or underlining.
(Other
types of works, articles, essays, poems, short stories, and songs,
are placed in quotation marks).
1. Use italics to identify the following titles of works:

plays
41
radio programs
documents, or to indicate the titles of your own essays.
2. Use italics to identify foreign words in an English sentence.

so we ran into the biblioteca and ran our fingers along
the spines of the books.
Do not italicize foreign words that have become part of the
English language. If a foreign word is in a good college-level
English
dictionary, you do not need to italicize it.
3. Use italics to emphasize an important point.
in my life.
Use italics to emphasize an important point sparingly;
otherwise, italics will not be effective.
4. Use italics to identify letters as letters, numbers as numbers,
and words as words.
the word arriba gives me all kinds of grief.
In this case, the word arriba is italicized to indicate a foreign
word and to indicate a word used as a word.
FOUR: Numbers
To write a good essay, you must pay attention to detail.
Students will often spell out numbers inconsistently, but by
following

these rules, your essay will be much more polished.
1. According to “Writing Numbers,” “spell out numbers that can
be expressed in one or two words and use figures for
other numbers.”
ke to buy a house with four rooms and 3500
square feet.
2. In the following cases, use numbers rather than spelling them
out:
ravaged much of the country.
Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20500
amounts: In my English 1A class, 50% of my grade is based
on the term paper.
quoted chapter 3, page 44.
-1.

ents procrastinate.
42
3. If a number must appear at the beginning of a sentence, write
out the number or rewrite the sentence so the number
falls elsewhere in the sentence.
-hundred and fifty-six thousand Allied troops stormed
Normandy on D-Day.
-Day, 156,000 Allied troops stormed Normandy.
FIVE: Titles of Works
Title of works are indicated in one of three ways: underlining
(for handwritten material), italics (typing), and quotation marks
(handwritten or typing).
1. Use italics and underlining to identify the following titles of
works:

phlets
documents, or to indicate the titles of your own essays.
2. Use quotation marks to identify the titles of these types of
works:

an essay, consult the appropriate the MLA style manual for
additional information.
43
CHAPTER FIVE: Maintaining an Academic Voice
I. Avoid Clichés
II. Avoid Slang
III. Avoid Social Medial Jargon
IV. Avoid Confusing Shifts in Points of View
V. Proper Academic Voice
44
As a college-level writer, you must know how to maintain an
academic voice throughout your essay . Part of maintaining an

academic voice is knowing what not to do. For example, avoid
using clichés, slang, social media jargon, and keep a consistent
point of view. Maintaining an academic voice, however, is not
always easy because clichés, slang, and social media jargon
have
become common practice. To avoid these pitfalls of writing, pay
attention to what you are writing, proofread carefully, and, as
importantly, read good literature. Reading literature will help
you recognize the difference between good writing and poor
writing.
ONE: Avoid Clichés
A cliché is a phrase that has been used over and over by people
to express their thoughts and feelings. Professional athletes use
clichés all the time during post-game interviews. For example,
you might here this string of clichés taped together in a single
interview:
1. “I’m just happy to be here. I have to take it one game at a
time and give it 100%. I just want to be a team player
because there is no “I” in team, and defense wins
championships.”
In his online column “The Writer’s Dig,” which he writes for
Writer’s Digest, Brian Klems offers a list of clichés he sees way

to
often in the works of people hoping to be published:
1. Avoid it like the plague
2. If only walls could talk
3. Think outside the box
4. But at the end of the day
5. Plenty of fish in the sea
6. Every dog has its day
7. Like a kid in a candy store
clichés like the plague and think outside the box
because at the end of the day you want to be a good writer
who knows how to maintain an academic voice. Students often
use clichés when they don’t complete their reading
assignments and then procrastinate after receiving their writing
prompt for a new essay. As a result, they must use
clichés to help themselves put something on paper.
TWO: Avoid Slang
While students often use slang with each other, they should not
use it when they write essays. Students use slang in casual

conversation so often it slips into their work and they don’t
realize it. Here is an example of the kinds of conversations
students
often have outside the classroom:
John: Wassup, Dude, y ’all read?
Steve: Nah, I took out my kid’s old lady.
John: Sweet.
Steve: Whatta ‘bout you?
John: Nah. Jus’ kicked it with my homeboys.
Steve: For sure.
45
John: Fact, I’m thinkin’ ‘bout rollin’ with them right now and
dropin’ school.
Steve: What’s stoppin’ you?
John: I live in my ‘rents crib. If I drop, they’ll kick me out.
Steve: That’s wack.
If you use poor diction, your voice will lack authority, which
effects the overall quality of your work. In How Stuff Works:

Culture, 53 Slang Terms by Decade, the writers say these slang
terms have become part of American vernacular:
1. Diss: show disrespect
2. Get jiggy: dance; flirt
3. Homey/Homeboy: a friend or buddy
4. My bad: my mistake
5. Phat: cool or hip; highly attractive; hot
6. Wassup?: What’s up?, how are you?
7. Word: Yes; I agree
8. Barney Bag: a gigantic purse
9. Newbie: a newcomer; someone who is inexperienced
10. Peeps: friends; people
11. Rents: parents
12. Sweet: beyond cool
want your
essays to sound composed, not like the conversations you
hear in the corridors of your school.

THREE: Avoid Social Media Jargon
This is the type of language students use to communicate on
Facebook and Twitter or when texting and blogging and so on.
Here
is an example of two friends texting each other. Notice how
both of them use social media jargon to communicate. Also,
note
how Megan’s lack of capitalization and punctuation makes her
texting more difficult to understand than Demi who follows the
basic rules of punctuation and mechanics.
Megan: at the club I was bein silly when i gave that boy the
signal i’m watchin u don’t think he understood
Demi: 2 bad. Glad your sis went with us. Btw, I liked her. She’s
nice
Megan: lol yeah she can be cool when she wants 2 she said she
liked you 2
Demi: Lol. That’s gr8. I’m glad
Megan: u wanna go out dancin next week r u free i am
Demi: Prolly
Megan: GR8CUL8R
Demi: K

46
MacMillan Dictionary Online lists the following abbreviations,
which represent the type of social media jargon that should not
be
used to compose thoughts in an essay:
1. 2: to or too
2. 4: for
3. 8: “ate” or “-eat”
4. B: be
5. BTW: by the way
6. C: see
7. FWIW: for what it’s worth
8. GR8: great
9. HTH: hope that helps
10. IMHO: in my humble opinion
11. L8R: later

12. LOL: laughing out loud
13. LOL: lots of love
14. MYOB: mind your own business
15. NE: any
16. OTOH: on the other hand
17. PLS: please
18. PROLLY: probably
19. R: are
20. ROFL: roll(ing) on the floor laughing
21. SRY: sorry
22. SWALK: sealed with a loving kiss
23. THNQ: thank you
24. U: you
Unfortunately, students use this language in their work without
realizing this jargon is inappropriate because essays require an
academic voice. In addition, they allow other bad habits to take
over, such as not following the rules of basic punctuation and
mechanics.
FOUR: Avoid Confusing Shifts in Points of View

Point of view refers to the narrator’s perspective in a piece of
writing. Point of view is divided into three categories: first
person
point of view (told from the I perspective); second person point
of view (told from the you perspective); and third person point
of
view (told from the he/ she perspective).
1. Here is a sentence written from a consistent third person
point of view: Frederick Douglass learned to read and write
despite the obstacles he faced.
In this case Frederick Douglass and he maintain the sentence’s
third person point of view.
2. Here is the same sentence, but the point of view shifts:
Frederick Douglass learned to read and write despite the
obstacles he faced. You could see how hard he worked. I think
he was extremely smart.
In this sentence, the point of view shifts: it goes from Frederick
Douglass and he to You and I. These confusing shifts will
distract the reader, and as a result, the sentence does not contain
an academic voice.
47

FIVE: Proper Academic Voice
So then what is an example of a piece of writing that contains
an academic voice?
1. For a composition course, Instructor Carey Karle says, “The
words, the language, depends on the readings we are
doing. For example, when I use an article by Earl Shorris on
poverty and education, I exp ect to see specific key terms:
reflection, politics, surround of force. When writing a section
on comparisons, I expect to see terms such as similar,
similarity, difference, and differences. When my students are
working on an essay by Richard Rodriguez, I expect to
see power, public identity, and education. I want to see
reflection and analysis—critical thinking.”
2. And instructor Kate Watts says, “My 1B focuses on
intertextuality. If we are beginning with Mrs. Dalloway, this
will
be followed by Michael Cunningham's The Hours, and then we
will conclude the unit with the film version of The
Hours. Another example would be King Lear and Jane Smiley's
A Thousand Acres and of course the film version. With
the exception of The Tempest (and it depends on a
contemporary account of a shipwreck), all of Shakespeare's
plays
borrow heavily from other texts. We might also read Chekhov's

“The Lady with the Pet Dog” reprised by Joyce Carol
Oates in the 70s as well as Hamlet and Tom Stoppard's
Rosencrantz and Guildenstern are Dead. In a class like this, I
want the students to use words such as narrative, metaphor,
setting, persona, representation, point of view, genre,
speaker, character, and literary theory to name just a few.”
3. Or consider for a moment this sentence from the Declaration
of Independence, and then ask yourself, “What kind of
writer do I want to be?”: “We hold these truths to be self-
evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed
by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among
these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness.—That
to secure these rights, Governments are instituted among Men,
deriving their just powers from the consent of the
governed, —That whenever any Form of Government becomes
destructive of these ends, it is the Right of the People to
alter or to abolish it, and to institute new Government, laying
its foundation on such p rinciples and organizing its
powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect
their Safety and Happiness.”

48
CHAPTER SIX: The Research Process and Avoiding Plagiarism
I. Sources
II. Evaluate Your Sources
III. Reedley College Database
IV. Staying Organized
V. Plagiarism
49
ONE: Sources
There are a variety of sources you can use to support a research
paper. If your research material originates from authoritative
sources, you will do a much better job supporting your thesis
than students who fill their works cited pages with Wiki. Your
research material may include:
1. Traditional library/ print sources, such as books, magazines/
journals, reference works, and periodical indexes.
2. Interviews and surveys.

3. Electronic sources.
4. Online sources.
mber that not all secondary
sources are equally valid or worthy of your attention.
TWO: Evaluate Your Sources
You must evaluate your sources based on a wide range of
criteria. Evaluating your sources based on several factors will
help
insure that your work is written and supported with authority.
1. Type of source
2. Expertise of the author, group, site
3. Recency
4. Objectivity
-based material is factual nor true.
THREE: Reedley College Database
Fortunately, the Reedley College Library subscribes to online
databases that contain articles with credible work. These
articles

may be useful when you are conducting research for a term
paper:
1. EBSCOHost,
2. Gale Artemis
3. J-STOR
FOUR: Staying Organized
As you conduct research, keep copies of everything that you use
in your work. If you paraphrase an article, keep it. If you use a
direct quotation, keep it. A paraphrase is the idea of a writer
recast in your own words. A direct quotation refers to the exact
words of a writer or speaker placed in quotation marks and used
in your own essay. As you save copies of all your research,
make
sure you have all the relevant citation information so that you
can use it to write a works cited page and/or annotated
bibliography. Keep yourself organized. If you have a mass of
paper all over your desk, you will have a difficult time pulling
together all your resources for the works cited and/or annotated
bibliography. However, if you are organized and thorough, you
will be less likely to commit plagiarism.

50
FIVE: Plagiarism
Plagiarism refers to the intentional or unintentional misuse of
primary or secondary sources. A primary source, is a text about
which you are writing. A secondary source is a text written
about a primary source. An example of unintentional plagiarism
is
when a student paraphrases a primary source and forgets to
include a citation. An example of intentional plagiarism is when
a
student finds a secondary source they really like and drop it into
their essay without any sort citation and try and claim it as their
own writing. Professors spot plagiarism easily for a variety of
reasons, and more often than not, the plagiarist will find himself
drowning in a variety of consequences. Finally, a few final
words about plagiarism:
1. Plagiarism can range from the entirely unintentional to the
deliberate and volitional.
2. Types of plagiarism include the following…
structure of another writer’s work

of another writer without benefit of quotation marks
These are all serious issues and constitute a breach of the
academic contract. Don’t do it! Instead, research carefully and
use the
MLA guidelines to help you properly attribute your work.
51
CHAPTER SEVEN: MLA Guidelines
I. How to Format an Essay According to the MLA Guidelines
II. How to Summarize and Paraphrase—an Introduction
III. How to Summarize
IV. How to Paraphrase
V. How to Summarize and Paraphrase—Final Thoughts
VI. How to Use Signal Phrases and Parenthetical Citations with
the Author Named in a Signal Phrase Method for In-text
Citations
VII. How to Format Short and Long Quotations of Prose and
Poetry

VIII. How to use the MLA Author Named in a Signal Phrase to
Cite Direct Quotations—the Basics
IX. How to Write a Works Cited Page and Sample Works Cited
Page
X. How to Write an Annotated Bibliography and Sample
Annotated Bibliography
XI. Common Abbreviations for Parenthetical Citations, Works
Cited, and Annotated Bibliographies
52
ONE: How to Format an Essay According to the MLA
Guidelines
Many thanks to Reedley College English instructor Carey Karle
for this list.
All essays must be formatted according to Modern Language
Association guidelines. Any paper that is not correctly
formatted as
noted may receive no higher than a “C” on their essay.

o Entire essay is DOUBLE line spaced only—no more and no
less ANYWHERE
epigraph, insert the epigraph after your title.
Include an extra double space before and after the epigraph.
Thus, you will hit return twice after the
title and then hit return twice after the epigraph. Then, you will
be ready to continue your essay
with your thesis sentence.
o In the PARAGRAPH menu, set the SPACING BEFORE and
AFTER for ZERO
right.
upper right hand corner beginning with page one.
ame appears before the page number—AND
there is a space between the name and page number
double line spaced, the following appears
o Student’s Name
o Instructor Dominguez
o Course

o Due Date for Essay
—
USING the computer’s function to center (not tabbed or
spaced into the center)
function AND the tab is set for 0.5” (one half inch)
page of the essay —INSERT NEW PAGE
o Works Cited utilizes a hanging indent as needed
o Works Cited entries are alphabetized by the author’s last
name
o Works Cited entries are formatted correctly
53
TWO: How to Summarize and Paraphrase—an Introduction
Summaries, paraphrases, and direct quotations give you three
ways to incorporate sources into your essay. Using all three
methods of incorporation will keep you from overusing direct
quotations. When students don’t know what to write about in
their

essays, they will insert long quotations just to make the page
count. But instructors notice this tactic and will usually give a
student a low grade for poor effort. Instead, you should use all
three methods to support your thesis with well-written
supportive
material. As you write your essay, think of the direct quotation
as the focus of your critical thinking. Thus, use summaries and
paraphrases to build up to the direct quotation. This section of
the handbook will focus on summarizing and paraphrasing.
Note: The examples below are based on the following passage.
Below the passage, you will find the appropriate citation.
“After dinner each night, the family gathered to practice ‘our’
English. (It was still then íngles, a language foreign to us, so we
felt drawn as strangers to it). Laughing we would try to define
words we could not pronounce. We played with strange English
sounds, often over-anglicizing our pronunciations. And we
filled the smiling gaps of our sentences with familiar Spanish
sounds”
(20).
Rodriguez, Richard. Hunger of Memory: The Education of
Richard Rodriguez. New York: Bantam, 2004. Print.
THREE: How to Summarize

A summary briefly describes a specific passage and attributes
the summary referring to the original source with a signal
phrase
and the appropriate page number. .
1. Rodriguez said his family tried to improve their English
around the kitchen table. When they struggled with their new
language, they did their best to figure out the meaning of the
words (20).
This summary briefly covers the passage’s main points without
going into detail. The summary does not contain the author’s
words; it contains fresh diction and syntax to help avoid
plagiarism. Additionally, it includes the page number in
parenthesis
before the period.
2. After eating each evening, the family gathered to speak
English. And they filled the smiling holes of their sentences
with common Spanish noises.
This passage is poor summarizing. First, it simply touches on
the beginning and the ending of t he passage. Second, it copies
several of Rodriguez’s words and does not use fresh syntax. If
you look at the passage carefully, you’ll see that the person who
wrote this passage simply changed a word here and there. Third,

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