The study examined differences in perceived workload when interacting with a live dog, virtual dog in a video game, and robotic dog. 101 students participated and were randomly assigned to interact with one of the three entities in free play and training command scenarios. Researchers measured mental demand, temporal demand, and perceived performance. Results showed mental demand was lower for the live dog than the other entities. Temporal demand and effort were higher for the virtual and robotic dogs. Perceived performance was higher for the live dog compared to the other entities. The results have implications for how technology can be used for education, training, and human-animal/human-robot interactions.

1. Sit, Down, Stay! The Comparison of Virtual, Robotic, and Live Entities for Human-Animal and
Human-Technology Interactions
Heather C. Lum, Grace E. Waldfogle, Nicholas J. Bowser, Richard L. Greatbatch, & Kyle Mink
The advancement of technology has made an immense impact on our society today, explicitly using games
as a teaching and training tool. In the current study, researchers examined the perceptual differences
between a live, video game, and robotic pet. Participants were randomly assigned to one of the three
entities and asked to interact with the entity in two different scenarios; free-play and specific training
commands. Researchers measured the perceived workload differences for each condition. There are
individual differences in perceived mental demand, temporal demand, and performance across the three
entity types. The result of this research focuses on comparing individual differences and how they can
contribute to or hinder learning and interaction in a live, game based, or robotics scenario. This has
important implications for the domain of pet training as well as human-animal and human-technology
interactions as a whole.
Introduction
Participants
101 undergraduate students [48 males and 53 females (Age M= 19.92 years, SD= 2.175)] from a university in
northwestern Pennsylvania voluntarily signed up through an extra credit research program. Participants
completed the study in a laboratory setting.
Equipment and Measures
Animal Type Conditions –
Condition 1 was a live dog. The dog (named Google) had previously been taught to respond to basic
commands. The 2nd condition was an interactive game-based panther accessed from an Xbox 360 video
game called Kinectimals. Participants were given a short tutorial on Xbox’s Kinect technology. The 3rd
condition was a robotic dog (Zoomer). It responded to verbal and hand commands in a similar fashion to the
other conditions. Refer to Figure 1.
.
Discussion & Conclusion
Figure 1: Example of the 3 animal conditions. On the left is the live animal, the middle is the
video-game animal, and the right is the robotic animal.
Figure 2. Mental demand during the free play scenario. Figure 3. Temporal demand during the free play scenario. Figure 4. Performance during the training command scenario.
References
Results
2.875
5.583
6.043
0
2
4
6
8
Temporal Demand
Live animal Video-game animal Robotic animal
There are several similarities as well as differences during an interaction with a live, video game, and robotic entity.
• Mental demand decreased for the live entity during the free play scenario which follows with the idea that pets can ease stress and tension.
• Mental demand increased for the non-live entity groups for all scenarios.
• Effort was higher for the game and robot entities than the live entity.
• Effort was further increased during the baseline and free-play periods due to the steep learning curve.
These results have many implications regarding human-animal and human-robot interactions as well as training in these areas.
• Video gaming is argued to be the future of education (Gee, 2005)
• Will a video game dog be able to imitate a real dog?
• This allows individuals to experience the human-animal interaction though the use of a non-living entity.
• Implications for military use: training for robot-human teams.
In recent years, the use of technology has grown vastly. This growth has led to experimentation with the
usage of games and robotic entities for teaching and training purposes.
•Interaction with animals can help improve the health and well-being of humans. Those that are more
attracted to their pets experience a greater morale increase than those who are not (Garrity, Stallones, Marx,
& Johnson, 1987)
•Both a real dog and a robotic dog have decreased the loneliness of elderly residents. The robotic dog
interaction was slightly less effective than the live dog. Those that were the rated most lonely showed the
greatest decrease in loneliness from pre- to post-test. (Banks, Willoughby, & Banks, 2008)
•When maze training a robotic dog versus a live dog, vocal content and self reported mood ratings were the
same. Fundamental frequency was higher for the live dogs, meaning that those who spoke to dogs had a
higher pitched voice. (Pepe, Upham Ellis, Sims & Chin, 2008)
•The presence of both a robotic dog and a live dog improved the social levels of dementia patients. (Kramer,
Friedman, and Bernstein, 2009)
•Serious games attempt to impart knowledge and skills using an entertaining game format. (Annetta, Folta,
& Klesath, 2010)
Garrity, T.F., Stallones, L., Marx, M.B., & Johnson, T.P. (1987). Pet ownership and attachment as supportive
factors in the health of the elderly.Anthrozoös, 3, 35–44.
Gee, J. P. Why Video Games Are Good For Your Soul: Pleasure and Learning. Melbourne: Common Ground,
2005.
Banks, M.R., Willoughby, L.M., Banks, W.A. (2008). Animal-Assisted Therapy and Loneliness in Nursing Homes:
Use of Robotic versus Living Dogs. Journal of the American Medical Directors Association, 9, 173--177.
Pepe, A.A., Upham Ellis, L. Sims, V.K., and Chin, M.G. (2008). Go, dog, go: Maze training AIBO vs. a live dog, an
exploratory study. Anthrozoos, 21(1), 71 – 83.
Kramer, S.C., Friedmann, E., & Bernstein, P.L, (2009). Comparison of the Effect of Human Interaction, Animal-
Assisted Therapy, and AIBO-Assisted Therapy on Long-Term Care Residents with Dementia. Anthrozoös, 22(1),
43-57.
Annetta, A. L., Folta, E., & Klesath, M. (2010). Serious games, simulations, and case-based reasoning. In V-
Learning (pp. 57-69). New York, NY; Springer Netherlands
3.847
6.25
6.913
0
2
4
6
8
Mental Demand
Live animal Video-game animal Robotic animal
12.292
9.726
8.565
0
5
10
15
Performance
Live animal Video-game animal Robotic animal
Method
Abstract
Mental Demand
• There was a main effect for how mentally demanding the participant thought the task was, F(2,98)=5.16, p=.007.
• A significant difference was found between live, video, and robotic conditions. Those in the live entity condition reported significantly lower mental demand. Further analysis found no significant difference between
the video game and robotic conditions. See Figure 2 for a graphical representation of these findings.
Temporal Demand
• A main effect was found for the temporal demand perceived, F(2,98)=7.82, p<.001. For graphical representation of this finding, see Figure 3.
• Further analyses revealed that those in the video game and robotic condition were more inclined to feel rushed or hurried in comparison to the live condition.
Performance:
• There was a main effect for performance, F(2,98)=5.20, p=.007. Participants felt they were more successful in getting the live animal to complete the commands when compared with the video game and robotic
animal. See Figure 4 for graphical representation of these findings.
• There was a significant difference between the video game and robotic conditions such that participants in the video game condition felt more accomplished. There were no significant differences in the actual
performance across the three animal conditions.