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GRID-технологии в физическом эксперименте (Введение)
Документ обсуждает grid-технологии и их применение в физических экспериментах, представляя суперкомпьютеры, кластеры и grid-системы. Он описывает основные принципы работы grid, включая распределение ресурсов, управление задачами и доступ к вычислительным ресурсам. Также упоминается программное обеспечение для работы с grid и процедуры, необходимые для доступа к данной технологии.
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GRID-технологии в физическом эксперименте (Введение)
- 1. GRID-технологии в физическомэксперименте (Введение) Дмитрий Сподарец [email_address]
- 2. Содержание: Суперкомпьютеры, кластеры,GRID-системы.
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- 6. Основные принципы работыв GRID.
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- 8. Что такое суперкомпьютер?Суперкомпьютер – это очень мощная ЭВМ с производительностью свыше 10 MFLOPS. (миллионов операций с плавающей запятой в секунду) (1986 г.) Начало 90-х – 300 MFLOPS. 1996 г. – 5 GFLOPS. Оксфордский толковый словарь по вычислительной техники: Суперкомпьютер — это система, цена которой выше 1-2 млн. долларов. Суперкомпьютер — это устройство, сводящее проблемы вычислений к проблемам ввода/вывода. ( Кен Батчер, 2001 г.)
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- 12. Виды кластеров: Отказоустойчивыекластеры
- 13. Кластеры с балансировкойнагрузки
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- 16. Что такое GRID?GRID – не Internet Internet: глобальная система сетей, объединяющая множество хостов и позволяющая им взаимодействовать друг с другом
- 17. GRID: способсовместного скоординированного использования распределенных ресурсов GRID – не WEB WWW: глобальный доступ к текстовой, графической и др. информации
- 18. GRID: глобальныйдоступ к вычислительным ресурсам и ресурсам хранения данных
- 19. Что такое GRID?Grid – не большой кластер Параллельный кластер: интенсивный межпроцессный обмен
- 20. Grid: удаленныйзапуск задач на территориально распределенных ресурсах При этом Grid: использует транспорт TCP/IP;
- 21. реализован как WEB-сервисы,взаимодействующие между собой по стандартизованным протоколам;
- 22. позволяет решать сложнейшиезадачи требующие больших вычислительных ресурсов.
- 23. Что такое GRID?GRID-система — это программно-аппаратная среда, объединяющая ресурсы, принадлежащие разным административным доменам, которая позволяет в удаленном режиме использовать любое количество ресурсов (процессорных, оперативной и постоянной памяти, программ и данных) в рамках задач виртуальной организации. Я. Фостер, К. Кессельман Три критерия GRID-системы: обеспечивается координация ресурсов, не управляемых централизованно;
- 24. обеспечивается высокое качествообслуживания;
- 25. используются стандартные, открытыеи универсальные протоколы и интерфейсы.
- 26. Что такое GRID?Grid = ресурсы + технология + инфраструктура + стандарты Resources: кластеры, научные инструменты, хранилища данных, данные, сети, специальное программное обеспечение... Grid Middleware: специальное ПО, позволяющее поставщикам предоставлять ресурсы, а потребителям использовать их, и гарантирующее надежную связь в распределенной среде. Infrastructure: высокоскоростные сети; ВО; качество обслуживания; аппаратные средства; стандартные сервисы: авторизация, информационный сервис, мониторинг... Standards: формат и протоколы обмена сообщениями и общие правила работы ГРИДа.
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- 28. Содержание: Суперкомпьютеры, кластеры,GRID-системы.
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- 32. Основные принципы работыв GRID.
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- 36. Содержание: Суперкомпьютеры, кластеры,GRID-системы.
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- 40. Основные принципы работыв GRID.
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- 42. Взаимодействие прикладной программыс различными уровнями GRID-системы
- 43. Содержание: Суперкомпьютеры, кластеры,GRID-системы.
- 44.
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- 47. Основные принципы работыв GRID.
- 48. GRID Middleware :GLOBUS Toolkit http://globus.org gLite http://www.glite.eu ARC NorduGrid http://www.nordugrid.org и т. д. Для управления Grid-сегментом НАН Украины было использовано программное обеспечение промежуточного уровня ARC (Advanced Resource Connector) проекта NorduGrid .
- 49. Содержание: Суперкомпьютеры, кластеры,GRID-системы.
- 50.
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- 53. Основные принципы работыв GRID.
- 54. Подготовительный этап Для того, чтобы начать работать в среде GRID, необходимо выполнить следующие действия. Скачать необходимое клиентское программное обеспечение (http://www.nordugrid.org/) и инсталлировать его на компьютере.
- 55. Послать запрос насертификат пользователя в Украинский Центр сертификации (https://ca.ugrid.org).
- 56. Получив подписанный сертификат,можно начинать работу с GRID.
- 57. Получение сертификата ивход в GRID Процедура получения сертификата описана на следующих сайтах: https://ca.ugrid.org/cert.php (eng)
- 58. https://ca.ugrid.org/wiki/index.php/New_certificate (ru)Вход в GRID Доступ в грид происходит под именем, содержащимся в сертификате, и контролируется с помощью специальной программы-посредника (электронной «доверенности» - proxy), которая создается на определенный ограниченный срок с помощью персонального ключа (userkey.pem) пользователя. Сервисные службы Grid могут выполнять любые действия только при наличии такой доверенности.
- 59. Команды для работыс proxy-сертификатами Создание прокси-сертификата: grid-proxy-init
- 60. Информации о прокси-сертификате: grid-proxy-info -all
- 61. Регистрации прокси-сертификата насервере: myproxy-init -s <сервер> -t <время регистрации> Получение автоматически обновленного прокси-сертификата: myproxy-get-delegation -s <сервер> Получение информации о зарегистрированном прокси-сертификате: myproxy-info -s <сервер> Отмена регистрации: myproxy-destroy -s <сервер>
- 62. Отправка заданий всреду GRID ngsub <job.jdl> - команда отправки файла с описанием задания;
- 63. ngstat <jobID> - запрос статуса задания по его идентификационному номеру jobID: PREPARING – подготовка к выполнению;
- 64. INLRMS:Q – Ожиданиеосвобождения ресурса в очереди LRMS;
- 65. INLRMS:R – Выполнениезадачи;
- 66. FINISHING – Завершениезадачи;
- 67. FINISHED – Заданиезавершено;
- 68.
- 69. FAILED; ngkill <jobID> - отмена задания.
- 70. Пример Hello GRIDФайл задания (1.job): & (executable=hello.sh) (inputFiles=(hello.sh "")) (stdout="out.txt") (stderr="err.txt") (outputFiles=("out.txt" "")("err.txt" "")) (jobname="Hello grid")
- 71. Пример Hello GRIDФайл скрипта (hello.sh): #!/bin/sh echo "Hello grid!" hostname date pwd
- 72.
Editor's Notes
- #2 The purpose of this Project Initiation Presentation (PIP) is to communicate the ideas and decisions developed during a preliminary envisioning or inception phase. The goal of the phase, represented by the content of this document, is to analyse an initial concept at a strategic level of detail and attain agreement between the business and IS on the desired solution and overall project direction. The PIP will be completed in 2 phases; the initial version will contain the first 2 sections (Vision and Business Opportunity) together with indicative costs for the project and for the secondary planning phase. After this second phase this PIP will be revised to incorporate the remainder of the sections in order to provide a fuller and clearer picture of the proposed project. The PIP is contains six main sections: Vision: An executive summary of the vision and scope of the intended project Business Opportunity: a description of the business situation and needs Solution Concept: the approach the project team will take to meet the business needs Scope: the boundary of the solution defined by itemising the intended features and functions, determining what is out of scope, a release strategy and the criteria by which the solution will be accepted by users and operations Solution Design Approach: the architectural and technical designs used to create the customer’s solution Project Structure: a strategic overview of project work scope, team requirements, issues and risks The PIP will be used during a follow-up analysis and design phase as the context for developing more detailed technical specifications and project management plans. It provides a clear direction for the project team; outlines project goals, priorities, and constraints; and sets business expectations. The Business Owner and IS Product Manager together are the primary drivers of the envisioning phase. They are responsible for identifying the team and for facilitating each member’s input during the envisioning phase.
- #3 What’s the Problem or Opportunity the project is trying to address? The Problem/Opportunity Statement section describes the business’s current situation that creates the need for the project. This section examines in some detail the business opportunity to be addressed. It is expressed in business language, not technical terms . It should contain a statement of the business opportunity and the impact – in both a positive and negative sense - of capitalising on that opportunity. Aspects such as product innovation, revenue enhancement, cost avoidance, operational efficiencies, augmenting knowledge should all be considered. It is also important to demonstrate that the business proposition is aligned with the relevant overall company business strategy and drivers and that revenue protection, cost reduction, regulatory compliance, and technology strategy have been considered. This section will provide the project team and other readers with the strategic context for the remaining sections.
- #5 What’s the Problem or Opportunity the project is trying to address? The Problem/Opportunity Statement section describes the business’s current situation that creates the need for the project. This section examines in some detail the business opportunity to be addressed. It is expressed in business language, not technical terms . It should contain a statement of the business opportunity and the impact – in both a positive and negative sense - of capitalising on that opportunity. Aspects such as product innovation, revenue enhancement, cost avoidance, operational efficiencies, augmenting knowledge should all be considered. It is also important to demonstrate that the business proposition is aligned with the relevant overall company business strategy and drivers and that revenue protection, cost reduction, regulatory compliance, and technology strategy have been considered. This section will provide the project team and other readers with the strategic context for the remaining sections.
- #6 What’s the Problem or Opportunity the project is trying to address? The Problem/Opportunity Statement section describes the business’s current situation that creates the need for the project. This section examines in some detail the business opportunity to be addressed. It is expressed in business language, not technical terms . It should contain a statement of the business opportunity and the impact – in both a positive and negative sense - of capitalising on that opportunity. Aspects such as product innovation, revenue enhancement, cost avoidance, operational efficiencies, augmenting knowledge should all be considered. It is also important to demonstrate that the business proposition is aligned with the relevant overall company business strategy and drivers and that revenue protection, cost reduction, regulatory compliance, and technology strategy have been considered. This section will provide the project team and other readers with the strategic context for the remaining sections.
- #9 What’s the Problem or Opportunity the project is trying to address? The Problem/Opportunity Statement section describes the business’s current situation that creates the need for the project. This section examines in some detail the business opportunity to be addressed. It is expressed in business language, not technical terms . It should contain a statement of the business opportunity and the impact – in both a positive and negative sense - of capitalising on that opportunity. Aspects such as product innovation, revenue enhancement, cost avoidance, operational efficiencies, augmenting knowledge should all be considered. It is also important to demonstrate that the business proposition is aligned with the relevant overall company business strategy and drivers and that revenue protection, cost reduction, regulatory compliance, and technology strategy have been considered. This section will provide the project team and other readers with the strategic context for the remaining sections.
- #10 What’s the Problem or Opportunity the project is trying to address? The Problem/Opportunity Statement section describes the business’s current situation that creates the need for the project. This section examines in some detail the business opportunity to be addressed. It is expressed in business language, not technical terms . It should contain a statement of the business opportunity and the impact – in both a positive and negative sense - of capitalising on that opportunity. Aspects such as product innovation, revenue enhancement, cost avoidance, operational efficiencies, augmenting knowledge should all be considered. It is also important to demonstrate that the business proposition is aligned with the relevant overall company business strategy and drivers and that revenue protection, cost reduction, regulatory compliance, and technology strategy have been considered. This section will provide the project team and other readers with the strategic context for the remaining sections.
- #11 What’s the Problem or Opportunity the project is trying to address? The Problem/Opportunity Statement section describes the business’s current situation that creates the need for the project. This section examines in some detail the business opportunity to be addressed. It is expressed in business language, not technical terms . It should contain a statement of the business opportunity and the impact – in both a positive and negative sense - of capitalising on that opportunity. Aspects such as product innovation, revenue enhancement, cost avoidance, operational efficiencies, augmenting knowledge should all be considered. It is also important to demonstrate that the business proposition is aligned with the relevant overall company business strategy and drivers and that revenue protection, cost reduction, regulatory compliance, and technology strategy have been considered. This section will provide the project team and other readers with the strategic context for the remaining sections.
- #12 What’s the Problem or Opportunity the project is trying to address? The Problem/Opportunity Statement section describes the business’s current situation that creates the need for the project. This section examines in some detail the business opportunity to be addressed. It is expressed in business language, not technical terms . It should contain a statement of the business opportunity and the impact – in both a positive and negative sense - of capitalising on that opportunity. Aspects such as product innovation, revenue enhancement, cost avoidance, operational efficiencies, augmenting knowledge should all be considered. It is also important to demonstrate that the business proposition is aligned with the relevant overall company business strategy and drivers and that revenue protection, cost reduction, regulatory compliance, and technology strategy have been considered. This section will provide the project team and other readers with the strategic context for the remaining sections.
- #13 What’s the Problem or Opportunity the project is trying to address? The Problem/Opportunity Statement section describes the business’s current situation that creates the need for the project. This section examines in some detail the business opportunity to be addressed. It is expressed in business language, not technical terms . It should contain a statement of the business opportunity and the impact – in both a positive and negative sense - of capitalising on that opportunity. Aspects such as product innovation, revenue enhancement, cost avoidance, operational efficiencies, augmenting knowledge should all be considered. It is also important to demonstrate that the business proposition is aligned with the relevant overall company business strategy and drivers and that revenue protection, cost reduction, regulatory compliance, and technology strategy have been considered. This section will provide the project team and other readers with the strategic context for the remaining sections.
- #14 What’s the Problem or Opportunity the project is trying to address? The Problem/Opportunity Statement section describes the business’s current situation that creates the need for the project. This section examines in some detail the business opportunity to be addressed. It is expressed in business language, not technical terms . It should contain a statement of the business opportunity and the impact – in both a positive and negative sense - of capitalising on that opportunity. Aspects such as product innovation, revenue enhancement, cost avoidance, operational efficiencies, augmenting knowledge should all be considered. It is also important to demonstrate that the business proposition is aligned with the relevant overall company business strategy and drivers and that revenue protection, cost reduction, regulatory compliance, and technology strategy have been considered. This section will provide the project team and other readers with the strategic context for the remaining sections.
- #15 What’s the Problem or Opportunity the project is trying to address? The Problem/Opportunity Statement section describes the business’s current situation that creates the need for the project. This section examines in some detail the business opportunity to be addressed. It is expressed in business language, not technical terms . It should contain a statement of the business opportunity and the impact – in both a positive and negative sense - of capitalising on that opportunity. Aspects such as product innovation, revenue enhancement, cost avoidance, operational efficiencies, augmenting knowledge should all be considered. It is also important to demonstrate that the business proposition is aligned with the relevant overall company business strategy and drivers and that revenue protection, cost reduction, regulatory compliance, and technology strategy have been considered. This section will provide the project team and other readers with the strategic context for the remaining sections.
- #16 What’s the Problem or Opportunity the project is trying to address? The Problem/Opportunity Statement section describes the business’s current situation that creates the need for the project. This section examines in some detail the business opportunity to be addressed. It is expressed in business language, not technical terms . It should contain a statement of the business opportunity and the impact – in both a positive and negative sense - of capitalising on that opportunity. Aspects such as product innovation, revenue enhancement, cost avoidance, operational efficiencies, augmenting knowledge should all be considered. It is also important to demonstrate that the business proposition is aligned with the relevant overall company business strategy and drivers and that revenue protection, cost reduction, regulatory compliance, and technology strategy have been considered. This section will provide the project team and other readers with the strategic context for the remaining sections.
- #17 What’s the Problem or Opportunity the project is trying to address? The Problem/Opportunity Statement section describes the business’s current situation that creates the need for the project. This section examines in some detail the business opportunity to be addressed. It is expressed in business language, not technical terms . It should contain a statement of the business opportunity and the impact – in both a positive and negative sense - of capitalising on that opportunity. Aspects such as product innovation, revenue enhancement, cost avoidance, operational efficiencies, augmenting knowledge should all be considered. It is also important to demonstrate that the business proposition is aligned with the relevant overall company business strategy and drivers and that revenue protection, cost reduction, regulatory compliance, and technology strategy have been considered. This section will provide the project team and other readers with the strategic context for the remaining sections.
- #18 What’s the Problem or Opportunity the project is trying to address? The Problem/Opportunity Statement section describes the business’s current situation that creates the need for the project. This section examines in some detail the business opportunity to be addressed. It is expressed in business language, not technical terms . It should contain a statement of the business opportunity and the impact – in both a positive and negative sense - of capitalising on that opportunity. Aspects such as product innovation, revenue enhancement, cost avoidance, operational efficiencies, augmenting knowledge should all be considered. It is also important to demonstrate that the business proposition is aligned with the relevant overall company business strategy and drivers and that revenue protection, cost reduction, regulatory compliance, and technology strategy have been considered. This section will provide the project team and other readers with the strategic context for the remaining sections.
- #19 What’s the Problem or Opportunity the project is trying to address? The Problem/Opportunity Statement section describes the business’s current situation that creates the need for the project. This section examines in some detail the business opportunity to be addressed. It is expressed in business language, not technical terms . It should contain a statement of the business opportunity and the impact – in both a positive and negative sense - of capitalising on that opportunity. Aspects such as product innovation, revenue enhancement, cost avoidance, operational efficiencies, augmenting knowledge should all be considered. It is also important to demonstrate that the business proposition is aligned with the relevant overall company business strategy and drivers and that revenue protection, cost reduction, regulatory compliance, and technology strategy have been considered. This section will provide the project team and other readers with the strategic context for the remaining sections.
- #20 What’s the Problem or Opportunity the project is trying to address? The Problem/Opportunity Statement section describes the business’s current situation that creates the need for the project. This section examines in some detail the business opportunity to be addressed. It is expressed in business language, not technical terms . It should contain a statement of the business opportunity and the impact – in both a positive and negative sense - of capitalising on that opportunity. Aspects such as product innovation, revenue enhancement, cost avoidance, operational efficiencies, augmenting knowledge should all be considered. It is also important to demonstrate that the business proposition is aligned with the relevant overall company business strategy and drivers and that revenue protection, cost reduction, regulatory compliance, and technology strategy have been considered. This section will provide the project team and other readers with the strategic context for the remaining sections.
- #21 What’s the Problem or Opportunity the project is trying to address? The Problem/Opportunity Statement section describes the business’s current situation that creates the need for the project. This section examines in some detail the business opportunity to be addressed. It is expressed in business language, not technical terms . It should contain a statement of the business opportunity and the impact – in both a positive and negative sense - of capitalising on that opportunity. Aspects such as product innovation, revenue enhancement, cost avoidance, operational efficiencies, augmenting knowledge should all be considered. It is also important to demonstrate that the business proposition is aligned with the relevant overall company business strategy and drivers and that revenue protection, cost reduction, regulatory compliance, and technology strategy have been considered. This section will provide the project team and other readers with the strategic context for the remaining sections.
- #22 What’s the Problem or Opportunity the project is trying to address? The Problem/Opportunity Statement section describes the business’s current situation that creates the need for the project. This section examines in some detail the business opportunity to be addressed. It is expressed in business language, not technical terms . It should contain a statement of the business opportunity and the impact – in both a positive and negative sense - of capitalising on that opportunity. Aspects such as product innovation, revenue enhancement, cost avoidance, operational efficiencies, augmenting knowledge should all be considered. It is also important to demonstrate that the business proposition is aligned with the relevant overall company business strategy and drivers and that revenue protection, cost reduction, regulatory compliance, and technology strategy have been considered. This section will provide the project team and other readers with the strategic context for the remaining sections.
- #23 What’s the Problem or Opportunity the project is trying to address? The Problem/Opportunity Statement section describes the business’s current situation that creates the need for the project. This section examines in some detail the business opportunity to be addressed. It is expressed in business language, not technical terms . It should contain a statement of the business opportunity and the impact – in both a positive and negative sense - of capitalising on that opportunity. Aspects such as product innovation, revenue enhancement, cost avoidance, operational efficiencies, augmenting knowledge should all be considered. It is also important to demonstrate that the business proposition is aligned with the relevant overall company business strategy and drivers and that revenue protection, cost reduction, regulatory compliance, and technology strategy have been considered. This section will provide the project team and other readers with the strategic context for the remaining sections.
- #24 What’s the Problem or Opportunity the project is trying to address? The Problem/Opportunity Statement section describes the business’s current situation that creates the need for the project. This section examines in some detail the business opportunity to be addressed. It is expressed in business language, not technical terms . It should contain a statement of the business opportunity and the impact – in both a positive and negative sense - of capitalising on that opportunity. Aspects such as product innovation, revenue enhancement, cost avoidance, operational efficiencies, augmenting knowledge should all be considered. It is also important to demonstrate that the business proposition is aligned with the relevant overall company business strategy and drivers and that revenue protection, cost reduction, regulatory compliance, and technology strategy have been considered. This section will provide the project team and other readers with the strategic context for the remaining sections.
- #25 What’s the Problem or Opportunity the project is trying to address? The Problem/Opportunity Statement section describes the business’s current situation that creates the need for the project. This section examines in some detail the business opportunity to be addressed. It is expressed in business language, not technical terms . It should contain a statement of the business opportunity and the impact – in both a positive and negative sense - of capitalising on that opportunity. Aspects such as product innovation, revenue enhancement, cost avoidance, operational efficiencies, augmenting knowledge should all be considered. It is also important to demonstrate that the business proposition is aligned with the relevant overall company business strategy and drivers and that revenue protection, cost reduction, regulatory compliance, and technology strategy have been considered. This section will provide the project team and other readers with the strategic context for the remaining sections.
- #26 What’s the Problem or Opportunity the project is trying to address? The Problem/Opportunity Statement section describes the business’s current situation that creates the need for the project. This section examines in some detail the business opportunity to be addressed. It is expressed in business language, not technical terms . It should contain a statement of the business opportunity and the impact – in both a positive and negative sense - of capitalising on that opportunity. Aspects such as product innovation, revenue enhancement, cost avoidance, operational efficiencies, augmenting knowledge should all be considered. It is also important to demonstrate that the business proposition is aligned with the relevant overall company business strategy and drivers and that revenue protection, cost reduction, regulatory compliance, and technology strategy have been considered. This section will provide the project team and other readers with the strategic context for the remaining sections.
- #27 What’s the Problem or Opportunity the project is trying to address? The Problem/Opportunity Statement section describes the business’s current situation that creates the need for the project. This section examines in some detail the business opportunity to be addressed. It is expressed in business language, not technical terms . It should contain a statement of the business opportunity and the impact – in both a positive and negative sense - of capitalising on that opportunity. Aspects such as product innovation, revenue enhancement, cost avoidance, operational efficiencies, augmenting knowledge should all be considered. It is also important to demonstrate that the business proposition is aligned with the relevant overall company business strategy and drivers and that revenue protection, cost reduction, regulatory compliance, and technology strategy have been considered. This section will provide the project team and other readers with the strategic context for the remaining sections.
- #28 What’s the Problem or Opportunity the project is trying to address? The Problem/Opportunity Statement section describes the business’s current situation that creates the need for the project. This section examines in some detail the business opportunity to be addressed. It is expressed in business language, not technical terms . It should contain a statement of the business opportunity and the impact – in both a positive and negative sense - of capitalising on that opportunity. Aspects such as product innovation, revenue enhancement, cost avoidance, operational efficiencies, augmenting knowledge should all be considered. It is also important to demonstrate that the business proposition is aligned with the relevant overall company business strategy and drivers and that revenue protection, cost reduction, regulatory compliance, and technology strategy have been considered. This section will provide the project team and other readers with the strategic context for the remaining sections.
- #29 What’s the Problem or Opportunity the project is trying to address? The Problem/Opportunity Statement section describes the business’s current situation that creates the need for the project. This section examines in some detail the business opportunity to be addressed. It is expressed in business language, not technical terms . It should contain a statement of the business opportunity and the impact – in both a positive and negative sense - of capitalising on that opportunity. Aspects such as product innovation, revenue enhancement, cost avoidance, operational efficiencies, augmenting knowledge should all be considered. It is also important to demonstrate that the business proposition is aligned with the relevant overall company business strategy and drivers and that revenue protection, cost reduction, regulatory compliance, and technology strategy have been considered. This section will provide the project team and other readers with the strategic context for the remaining sections.
- #30 What’s the Problem or Opportunity the project is trying to address? The Problem/Opportunity Statement section describes the business’s current situation that creates the need for the project. This section examines in some detail the business opportunity to be addressed. It is expressed in business language, not technical terms . It should contain a statement of the business opportunity and the impact – in both a positive and negative sense - of capitalising on that opportunity. Aspects such as product innovation, revenue enhancement, cost avoidance, operational efficiencies, augmenting knowledge should all be considered. It is also important to demonstrate that the business proposition is aligned with the relevant overall company business strategy and drivers and that revenue protection, cost reduction, regulatory compliance, and technology strategy have been considered. This section will provide the project team and other readers with the strategic context for the remaining sections.