1. This document provides definitions and explanations of various terms related to water quality testing and their implications for turf and soil management. It discusses concepts like sodium adsorption ratio, aggressive index, alkalinity, hardness, pH, and others.
2. Different methods for calculating indices like aggressive index and Langelier saturation index are presented. Acceptable limits and implications for scaling, corrosion, and water aggressiveness are explained for each.
3. The document aims to offer turf managers guidance on interpreting water quality test results and determining appropriate limits based on soil and water characteristics rather than applying principles from other industries without consideration of context.
Determination of the Ph &Turbidity Value in Betul Block Five YearIJERA Editor
Acidic and basic are two extremes that describe chemicals, just like hot and cold are two extremes that describe
temperature. Mixing acids and bases can cancel out their extreme effects; much like mixing hot and cold water
can even out the water temperature. A substance that is neither acidic nor basic is neutral. The ph of the water in
betul block is increasing year by year and day by day. It was observed that there are 0.5% increase in the ph of
water in betul block. The optimum pH will vary in different supplies according to the composition of the water
and the nature of the construction materials used in the distribution system, but is often in the range 6.5–9.5.
Extreme pH values can result from accidental spills, treatment breakdowns, and insufficiently cured cement
mortar pipe linings. No health-based guideline value is proposed for pH.
Road Salt - Moving Toward the Solution - Resources for Healthy Children www.scribd.com/doc/254613619 - For more information, Please see Organic Edible Schoolyards & Gardening with Children www.scribd.com/doc/254613963 - Gardening with Volcanic Rock Dust www.scribd.com/doc/254613846 - Double Food Production from your School Garden with Organic Tech www.scribd.com/doc/254613765 - Free School Gardening Art Posters www.scribd.com/doc/254613694 - Increase Food Production with Companion Planting in your School Garden www.scribd.com/doc/254609890 - Healthy Foods Dramatically Improves Student Academic Success www.scribd.com/doc/254613619 - City Chickens for your Organic School Garden www.scribd.com/doc/254613553 - Huerto Ecológico, Tecnologías Sostenibles, Agricultura Organica www.scribd.com/doc/254613494 - Simple Square Foot Gardening for Schools - Teacher Guide www.scribd.com/doc/254613410 - Free Organic Gardening Publications www.scribd.com/doc/254609890 ~
Determination of the Ph &Turbidity Value in Betul Block Five YearIJERA Editor
Acidic and basic are two extremes that describe chemicals, just like hot and cold are two extremes that describe
temperature. Mixing acids and bases can cancel out their extreme effects; much like mixing hot and cold water
can even out the water temperature. A substance that is neither acidic nor basic is neutral. The ph of the water in
betul block is increasing year by year and day by day. It was observed that there are 0.5% increase in the ph of
water in betul block. The optimum pH will vary in different supplies according to the composition of the water
and the nature of the construction materials used in the distribution system, but is often in the range 6.5–9.5.
Extreme pH values can result from accidental spills, treatment breakdowns, and insufficiently cured cement
mortar pipe linings. No health-based guideline value is proposed for pH.
Road Salt - Moving Toward the Solution - Resources for Healthy Children www.scribd.com/doc/254613619 - For more information, Please see Organic Edible Schoolyards & Gardening with Children www.scribd.com/doc/254613963 - Gardening with Volcanic Rock Dust www.scribd.com/doc/254613846 - Double Food Production from your School Garden with Organic Tech www.scribd.com/doc/254613765 - Free School Gardening Art Posters www.scribd.com/doc/254613694 - Increase Food Production with Companion Planting in your School Garden www.scribd.com/doc/254609890 - Healthy Foods Dramatically Improves Student Academic Success www.scribd.com/doc/254613619 - City Chickens for your Organic School Garden www.scribd.com/doc/254613553 - Huerto Ecológico, Tecnologías Sostenibles, Agricultura Organica www.scribd.com/doc/254613494 - Simple Square Foot Gardening for Schools - Teacher Guide www.scribd.com/doc/254613410 - Free Organic Gardening Publications www.scribd.com/doc/254609890 ~
A lot of environmental concerns regarding unconventional oil and gas exploration center around water usage and recycling. From surface evaporation ponds to deep well injections, the industry has long struggled with safe disposal of water that comes as a result of shale exploration. Today we are discussing produced and flowback water purification with Terry Beasy, the Vice-President of Business Development at Heartland Technology Partners.
water pollution control and measurmentRekha Kumari
Today we all are facing the biggest problem that is scarcity of drinking water as the level of water is continually decreasing.
In many countries people die because of contaminated water as they do not have any water resources that contain pure water.
The first question comes in mind when we talk about water management is how can we manage water. For this we need some well-planned strategies like if we know the places where heavy rainfall occur, then we can put extra efforts there in order to save water for future use.
International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) is an open access online peer reviewed international journal that publishes research and review articles in the fields of Computer Science, Neural Networks, Electrical Engineering, Software Engineering, Information Technology, Mechanical Engineering, Chemical Engineering, Plastic Engineering, Food Technology, Textile Engineering, Nano Technology & science, Power Electronics, Electronics & Communication Engineering, Computational mathematics, Image processing, Civil Engineering, Structural Engineering, Environmental Engineering, VLSI Testing & Low Power VLSI Design etc.
International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) is an open access online peer reviewed international journal that publishes research and review articles in the fields of Computer Science, Neural Networks, Electrical Engineering, Software Engineering, Information Technology, Mechanical Engineering, Chemical Engineering, Plastic Engineering, Food Technology, Textile Engineering, Nano Technology & science, Power Electronics, Electronics & Communication Engineering, Computational mathematics, Image processing, Civil Engineering, Structural Engineering, Environmental Engineering, VLSI Testing & Low Power VLSI Design etc.
Weeds can be used as indicators of soil conditions and as environmental indicators. You can then use this information to help create the best possible conditions for lawns and your turf grass
What weeds are present has a direct effect on what herbicides to use. This is a key factor that impacts herbicide selection in turfgrass management.
Weeds help indicate soil conditions. Using them as indicator weeds is the first step in getting an idea of what may be affecting turf growth. Don't make any decision based solely on the presence of one weed. For example, some weeds like Sorrel like multiple soil conditions.
When you see weeds your first reaction should be why are they there? This is much better than simply reaching for the spray bottle and applying a pre-emergent weedkiller or post-emergent herbicide!
Indicator weeds are plants whose presence is due to the soil type, soil moisture, soil fertility, pollution, or soil disturbance.
When it comes to sports turf, many weeds can provide insights into turf management and environmental conditions.
7 soil wetting agents were trialled on a creeping bentgrass green in Sydney, NSW, Australia. The products tested were:
Tricure
Hydroforce Ultra (full and half rates)
Propel
A proprietary formulation with plant elicitors
H20 Maximizer
HydroLink Rapid.
The aim was to see how these perform in the field and we looked at the following characteristics relating to soil-wetting agent use.
Surface hardness. Does the use of soil-wetting agents affect surface hardness?
Soil moisture content. Do these actually affect soil moisture?
Disease incidence. Can you use soil surfactants to reduce disease severity or even prevent turfgrass disease?
Turf quality. Does the use of soil-wetting agents have any impact on turfgrass quality?
The results were as follows:
Turf quality
Only the Hydroforce Recovery treatment has significantly lower turf quality than the control.
Over the 200-day trial period, there are only three occasions where there are significant differences in turf quality.
Soil moisture
Only the Hydrolink Rapid and Gilba Solutions proprietary formulations have significantly higher moisture contents at 75mm depth than the control.
Surface Hardness
The Propel, H20 Maximiser and Hydrolink Rapid treatments are the only ones with no significant difference in surface hardness in comparison to the control.
Disease incidence
After 106 days dollar spot was seen on the plots. The results can be split between treatments that give lower numbers than the control and those that show no difference from the control.
The soil wetting agents showing fewer infection centres are Tricure, Hydroforce Ultra, Gilba Proprietary, Propel, and Hydroforce Recovery.
A lot of environmental concerns regarding unconventional oil and gas exploration center around water usage and recycling. From surface evaporation ponds to deep well injections, the industry has long struggled with safe disposal of water that comes as a result of shale exploration. Today we are discussing produced and flowback water purification with Terry Beasy, the Vice-President of Business Development at Heartland Technology Partners.
water pollution control and measurmentRekha Kumari
Today we all are facing the biggest problem that is scarcity of drinking water as the level of water is continually decreasing.
In many countries people die because of contaminated water as they do not have any water resources that contain pure water.
The first question comes in mind when we talk about water management is how can we manage water. For this we need some well-planned strategies like if we know the places where heavy rainfall occur, then we can put extra efforts there in order to save water for future use.
International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) is an open access online peer reviewed international journal that publishes research and review articles in the fields of Computer Science, Neural Networks, Electrical Engineering, Software Engineering, Information Technology, Mechanical Engineering, Chemical Engineering, Plastic Engineering, Food Technology, Textile Engineering, Nano Technology & science, Power Electronics, Electronics & Communication Engineering, Computational mathematics, Image processing, Civil Engineering, Structural Engineering, Environmental Engineering, VLSI Testing & Low Power VLSI Design etc.
International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) is an open access online peer reviewed international journal that publishes research and review articles in the fields of Computer Science, Neural Networks, Electrical Engineering, Software Engineering, Information Technology, Mechanical Engineering, Chemical Engineering, Plastic Engineering, Food Technology, Textile Engineering, Nano Technology & science, Power Electronics, Electronics & Communication Engineering, Computational mathematics, Image processing, Civil Engineering, Structural Engineering, Environmental Engineering, VLSI Testing & Low Power VLSI Design etc.
Weeds can be used as indicators of soil conditions and as environmental indicators. You can then use this information to help create the best possible conditions for lawns and your turf grass
What weeds are present has a direct effect on what herbicides to use. This is a key factor that impacts herbicide selection in turfgrass management.
Weeds help indicate soil conditions. Using them as indicator weeds is the first step in getting an idea of what may be affecting turf growth. Don't make any decision based solely on the presence of one weed. For example, some weeds like Sorrel like multiple soil conditions.
When you see weeds your first reaction should be why are they there? This is much better than simply reaching for the spray bottle and applying a pre-emergent weedkiller or post-emergent herbicide!
Indicator weeds are plants whose presence is due to the soil type, soil moisture, soil fertility, pollution, or soil disturbance.
When it comes to sports turf, many weeds can provide insights into turf management and environmental conditions.
7 soil wetting agents were trialled on a creeping bentgrass green in Sydney, NSW, Australia. The products tested were:
Tricure
Hydroforce Ultra (full and half rates)
Propel
A proprietary formulation with plant elicitors
H20 Maximizer
HydroLink Rapid.
The aim was to see how these perform in the field and we looked at the following characteristics relating to soil-wetting agent use.
Surface hardness. Does the use of soil-wetting agents affect surface hardness?
Soil moisture content. Do these actually affect soil moisture?
Disease incidence. Can you use soil surfactants to reduce disease severity or even prevent turfgrass disease?
Turf quality. Does the use of soil-wetting agents have any impact on turfgrass quality?
The results were as follows:
Turf quality
Only the Hydroforce Recovery treatment has significantly lower turf quality than the control.
Over the 200-day trial period, there are only three occasions where there are significant differences in turf quality.
Soil moisture
Only the Hydrolink Rapid and Gilba Solutions proprietary formulations have significantly higher moisture contents at 75mm depth than the control.
Surface Hardness
The Propel, H20 Maximiser and Hydrolink Rapid treatments are the only ones with no significant difference in surface hardness in comparison to the control.
Disease incidence
After 106 days dollar spot was seen on the plots. The results can be split between treatments that give lower numbers than the control and those that show no difference from the control.
The soil wetting agents showing fewer infection centres are Tricure, Hydroforce Ultra, Gilba Proprietary, Propel, and Hydroforce Recovery.
There’s are a number of factors that can impact on herbicide performance in the turf grass environment.
Many of the herbicides used in agriculture are also used in turf management although their use differs with regard to application.
In an agricultural system pre emergent herbicides are often applied to bare soil and not watered in. This means they are subjected to a number of extremes that can impact on the results.
In the turf grass situation the majority of the time there is a full grass cover and water is often not limiting. This means that factors such as volatility and photo- degradation are significantly less likely to occur.
However, in the turf grass situation it is highly likely that factors such as leaching and thatch content are going to play a much more important role than in the agricultural situation.
This is a brief outline of what factors can impact on turf grass herbicide performance. All the references are linked within the document.
For a more detailed look at this topic check out https://gilbasolutions.com/cracking-the-code-factors-shaping-herbicide-performance-34/
When turfgrass becomes subjected to shade this results in thin patchy growth and often a slippery surface. This in turn can cause issues with player safety and performance.
In recent years this has become an even more pressing concern as stadiums have become increasingly steep to give spectators the best possible viewing experience. This has been at the detriment to the playing surface.
Shade has an instant and detrimental impact on grass as with less light grass is unable to grow properly. Long term effects on grass in shade are:
At first it causes a shortening of grass roots. As energy is used by turf to make up for the lack of sunlight less is available for root growth and development;
Then as shade continues it causes a reduction in turf shoot density and it begins to thin out;
This lack of light results in the turf stretching out as it looks to find light (etoliation). This results in the grass becoming lighter in colour as this stretching means cell walls become thinner and weaker;
Over time this results in grass having less ability to take any wear and unable to recover.
When turf is in shade it limits photosynthesis and carbohydrate production. Areas in shade also tend to suffer from limited air movement which increases the tendency for disease. Moss and algae issues also increase as areas in shade tend to stay damper.
How to manage grass in shade.
The most obvious solution is to remove what’s causing it.
If its a garden then cutting back trees can have a major positive impact on your lawn.
However, if its a stadium then you obviously haven’t got this luxury;
The second option is make the right grass selection. If it’s a heavily shaded area seeding or using a grass that doesn’t handle shade well is not going to end well.
Instead, choose a shade-tolerant variety to start with and it will save you heartache further down the track;
Thirdly contrary to what many may think cutting back nitrogen is a good thing. The last thing that you want to do is promote lush, shallow-rooted turf when it is already struggling;
Raising the height of cut is a good thing in shade. It increases the leaf area available to capture what limited light is present and also will counter root shrinkage;
Overwatering turf in shade is a recipe for disaster. This will only encourage disease outbreaks and encourage the grass to root at the surface. Neither of these is desirable;
Use of plant growth regulators (PGR’s) like Amigo 120® helps counter turf leaf etiolation.
water quality can have a big impact on herbicide performance. In fact poor quality water can cause some herbicides to fail completely resulting in a waste of time and money.
Water quality issues such as water pH, turbidity, and whether it is hard water can all result in poor performance.
Simply using a spray tank buffer like Manta Ray with glyphosate can lead to significantly improved results with your spray programme.
When your lawn has issues immediately reaching for the spray bottle should not be the first option.
Instead you should follow an organised sequence of steps too make sure that firstly it is actually a turf disease and secondly that you are giving serious considerations to preventing any turf disease before it becomes an issue.
These same principles are equally applicable to all plants in a garden and are worth looking at for anyone working in the lawn industry as a home gardener or contractor.
Duo technology is based on salicylic acid and gives improved seed germination, root volume and increased stress and disease tolerance.
It is incorporated in our Vertmax Duo turf pigment and grass colorant. It is also being trialled as an additive in a new range of innovative soil wetting agents.
Both salicylic acid and Phthalocyanine green have turf health benefits.
Salicylic acid has been used for hundreds of years as "witch hazel" and in plants helps increase stress tolerance to drought and disease.
It is commonly found in aspirin but you would need to dissolve over 150 aspirin in a litre of water to get the equivalent rate of this product.
Phthalocyanine green is used as a grass colourant and turf pigment but has the property of being able to filter out damaging light that can be detrimental to turfgrass in the summer months.
In combination these products have been found to increase lateral root growth and stress tolerance on turfgrass plus increase germination rate.
A turf seed guide explaining what seed varieties are available in the Australian marketplace. It also discusses how to establish and maintain these to get the best results for your lawn or sportsturf.
Sydney University Sport and Rec have partnered with Intelligent Play to be the first venue in Australia to use Artificial intelligence to help better manage their grounds. By being able to actively monitor their natural grass fields they can better utilize and manage them and better focus their maintenance practices.
A new range of organic slow release based low odour prilled fertilisers with and without a wetting agent. These incorporate the use of the N inhibitor DCD to offer an extended longevity following application.
ESR spectroscopy in liquid food and beverages.pptxPRIYANKA PATEL
With increasing population, people need to rely on packaged food stuffs. Packaging of food materials requires the preservation of food. There are various methods for the treatment of food to preserve them and irradiation treatment of food is one of them. It is the most common and the most harmless method for the food preservation as it does not alter the necessary micronutrients of food materials. Although irradiated food doesn’t cause any harm to the human health but still the quality assessment of food is required to provide consumers with necessary information about the food. ESR spectroscopy is the most sophisticated way to investigate the quality of the food and the free radicals induced during the processing of the food. ESR spin trapping technique is useful for the detection of highly unstable radicals in the food. The antioxidant capability of liquid food and beverages in mainly performed by spin trapping technique.
The ability to recreate computational results with minimal effort and actionable metrics provides a solid foundation for scientific research and software development. When people can replicate an analysis at the touch of a button using open-source software, open data, and methods to assess and compare proposals, it significantly eases verification of results, engagement with a diverse range of contributors, and progress. However, we have yet to fully achieve this; there are still many sociotechnical frictions.
Inspired by David Donoho's vision, this talk aims to revisit the three crucial pillars of frictionless reproducibility (data sharing, code sharing, and competitive challenges) with the perspective of deep software variability.
Our observation is that multiple layers — hardware, operating systems, third-party libraries, software versions, input data, compile-time options, and parameters — are subject to variability that exacerbates frictions but is also essential for achieving robust, generalizable results and fostering innovation. I will first review the literature, providing evidence of how the complex variability interactions across these layers affect qualitative and quantitative software properties, thereby complicating the reproduction and replication of scientific studies in various fields.
I will then present some software engineering and AI techniques that can support the strategic exploration of variability spaces. These include the use of abstractions and models (e.g., feature models), sampling strategies (e.g., uniform, random), cost-effective measurements (e.g., incremental build of software configurations), and dimensionality reduction methods (e.g., transfer learning, feature selection, software debloating).
I will finally argue that deep variability is both the problem and solution of frictionless reproducibility, calling the software science community to develop new methods and tools to manage variability and foster reproducibility in software systems.
Exposé invité Journées Nationales du GDR GPL 2024
ISI 2024: Application Form (Extended), Exam Date (Out), EligibilitySciAstra
The Indian Statistical Institute (ISI) has extended its application deadline for 2024 admissions to April 2. Known for its excellence in statistics and related fields, ISI offers a range of programs from Bachelor's to Junior Research Fellowships. The admission test is scheduled for May 12, 2024. Eligibility varies by program, generally requiring a background in Mathematics and English for undergraduate courses and specific degrees for postgraduate and research positions. Application fees are ₹1500 for male general category applicants and ₹1000 for females. Applications are open to Indian and OCI candidates.
Deep Behavioral Phenotyping in Systems Neuroscience for Functional Atlasing a...Ana Luísa Pinho
Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) provides means to characterize brain activations in response to behavior. However, cognitive neuroscience has been limited to group-level effects referring to the performance of specific tasks. To obtain the functional profile of elementary cognitive mechanisms, the combination of brain responses to many tasks is required. Yet, to date, both structural atlases and parcellation-based activations do not fully account for cognitive function and still present several limitations. Further, they do not adapt overall to individual characteristics. In this talk, I will give an account of deep-behavioral phenotyping strategies, namely data-driven methods in large task-fMRI datasets, to optimize functional brain-data collection and improve inference of effects-of-interest related to mental processes. Key to this approach is the employment of fast multi-functional paradigms rich on features that can be well parametrized and, consequently, facilitate the creation of psycho-physiological constructs to be modelled with imaging data. Particular emphasis will be given to music stimuli when studying high-order cognitive mechanisms, due to their ecological nature and quality to enable complex behavior compounded by discrete entities. I will also discuss how deep-behavioral phenotyping and individualized models applied to neuroimaging data can better account for the subject-specific organization of domain-general cognitive systems in the human brain. Finally, the accumulation of functional brain signatures brings the possibility to clarify relationships among tasks and create a univocal link between brain systems and mental functions through: (1) the development of ontologies proposing an organization of cognitive processes; and (2) brain-network taxonomies describing functional specialization. To this end, tools to improve commensurability in cognitive science are necessary, such as public repositories, ontology-based platforms and automated meta-analysis tools. I will thus discuss some brain-atlasing resources currently under development, and their applicability in cognitive as well as clinical neuroscience.
Remote Sensing and Computational, Evolutionary, Supercomputing, and Intellige...University of Maribor
Slides from talk:
Aleš Zamuda: Remote Sensing and Computational, Evolutionary, Supercomputing, and Intelligent Systems.
11th International Conference on Electrical, Electronics and Computer Engineering (IcETRAN), Niš, 3-6 June 2024
Inter-Society Networking Panel GRSS/MTT-S/CIS Panel Session: Promoting Connection and Cooperation
https://www.etran.rs/2024/en/home-english/
DERIVATION OF MODIFIED BERNOULLI EQUATION WITH VISCOUS EFFECTS AND TERMINAL V...Wasswaderrick3
In this book, we use conservation of energy techniques on a fluid element to derive the Modified Bernoulli equation of flow with viscous or friction effects. We derive the general equation of flow/ velocity and then from this we derive the Pouiselle flow equation, the transition flow equation and the turbulent flow equation. In the situations where there are no viscous effects , the equation reduces to the Bernoulli equation. From experimental results, we are able to include other terms in the Bernoulli equation. We also look at cases where pressure gradients exist. We use the Modified Bernoulli equation to derive equations of flow rate for pipes of different cross sectional areas connected together. We also extend our techniques of energy conservation to a sphere falling in a viscous medium under the effect of gravity. We demonstrate Stokes equation of terminal velocity and turbulent flow equation. We look at a way of calculating the time taken for a body to fall in a viscous medium. We also look at the general equation of terminal velocity.
Phenomics assisted breeding in crop improvementIshaGoswami9
As the population is increasing and will reach about 9 billion upto 2050. Also due to climate change, it is difficult to meet the food requirement of such a large population. Facing the challenges presented by resource shortages, climate
change, and increasing global population, crop yield and quality need to be improved in a sustainable way over the coming decades. Genetic improvement by breeding is the best way to increase crop productivity. With the rapid progression of functional
genomics, an increasing number of crop genomes have been sequenced and dozens of genes influencing key agronomic traits have been identified. However, current genome sequence information has not been adequately exploited for understanding
the complex characteristics of multiple gene, owing to a lack of crop phenotypic data. Efficient, automatic, and accurate technologies and platforms that can capture phenotypic data that can
be linked to genomics information for crop improvement at all growth stages have become as important as genotyping. Thus,
high-throughput phenotyping has become the major bottleneck restricting crop breeding. Plant phenomics has been defined as the high-throughput, accurate acquisition and analysis of multi-dimensional phenotypes
during crop growing stages at the organism level, including the cell, tissue, organ, individual plant, plot, and field levels. With the rapid development of novel sensors, imaging technology,
and analysis methods, numerous infrastructure platforms have been developed for phenotyping.
Observation of Io’s Resurfacing via Plume Deposition Using Ground-based Adapt...Sérgio Sacani
Since volcanic activity was first discovered on Io from Voyager images in 1979, changes
on Io’s surface have been monitored from both spacecraft and ground-based telescopes.
Here, we present the highest spatial resolution images of Io ever obtained from a groundbased telescope. These images, acquired by the SHARK-VIS instrument on the Large
Binocular Telescope, show evidence of a major resurfacing event on Io’s trailing hemisphere. When compared to the most recent spacecraft images, the SHARK-VIS images
show that a plume deposit from a powerful eruption at Pillan Patera has covered part
of the long-lived Pele plume deposit. Although this type of resurfacing event may be common on Io, few have been detected due to the rarity of spacecraft visits and the previously low spatial resolution available from Earth-based telescopes. The SHARK-VIS instrument ushers in a new era of high resolution imaging of Io’s surface using adaptive
optics at visible wavelengths.
The use of Nauplii and metanauplii artemia in aquaculture (brine shrimp).pptxMAGOTI ERNEST
Although Artemia has been known to man for centuries, its use as a food for the culture of larval organisms apparently began only in the 1930s, when several investigators found that it made an excellent food for newly hatched fish larvae (Litvinenko et al., 2023). As aquaculture developed in the 1960s and ‘70s, the use of Artemia also became more widespread, due both to its convenience and to its nutritional value for larval organisms (Arenas-Pardo et al., 2024). The fact that Artemia dormant cysts can be stored for long periods in cans, and then used as an off-the-shelf food requiring only 24 h of incubation makes them the most convenient, least labor-intensive, live food available for aquaculture (Sorgeloos & Roubach, 2021). The nutritional value of Artemia, especially for marine organisms, is not constant, but varies both geographically and temporally. During the last decade, however, both the causes of Artemia nutritional variability and methods to improve poorquality Artemia have been identified (Loufi et al., 2024).
Brine shrimp (Artemia spp.) are used in marine aquaculture worldwide. Annually, more than 2,000 metric tons of dry cysts are used for cultivation of fish, crustacean, and shellfish larva. Brine shrimp are important to aquaculture because newly hatched brine shrimp nauplii (larvae) provide a food source for many fish fry (Mozanzadeh et al., 2021). Culture and harvesting of brine shrimp eggs represents another aspect of the aquaculture industry. Nauplii and metanauplii of Artemia, commonly known as brine shrimp, play a crucial role in aquaculture due to their nutritional value and suitability as live feed for many aquatic species, particularly in larval stages (Sorgeloos & Roubach, 2021).
Salas, V. (2024) "John of St. Thomas (Poinsot) on the Science of Sacred Theol...Studia Poinsotiana
I Introduction
II Subalternation and Theology
III Theology and Dogmatic Declarations
IV The Mixed Principles of Theology
V Virtual Revelation: The Unity of Theology
VI Theology as a Natural Science
VII Theology’s Certitude
VIII Conclusion
Notes
Bibliography
All the contents are fully attributable to the author, Doctor Victor Salas. Should you wish to get this text republished, get in touch with the author or the editorial committee of the Studia Poinsotiana. Insofar as possible, we will be happy to broker your contact.
Salas, V. (2024) "John of St. Thomas (Poinsot) on the Science of Sacred Theol...
Glossary of water.pdf
1. 1
GLOSSARY OF WATER
So much has been written (or not as the case may be) on water quality and its relation to turf and
soil that there is now a huge amount of confusion occurring within the turf industry. The majority of
work that has been done is in horticulture or broad acre agriculture and this has then been simply
transplanted and applied to the turf industry and sadly the principles used have often been
misrepresented in the marketplace.
Having water of any sort is better than having none at all. Obviously, the quality of water is
important but measures can be taken to improve this to make it more acceptable to use. What these
are will depend entirely on its initial quality.
Applying principles based on horticultural research to for example the irrigation of golf greens with
water of varying quality is fraught with issues. Golf greens possess unique biological and vegetative
characteristics that make such principles questionable if applied exactly. Sand based golf greens as
their name suggests contain a high percentage of sand which means that they are going to behave
differently when irrigated compared to for example a heavier fairway containing a high percentage
of clay. In the case of the latter this can be further extrapolated to take into account the exact type
of clay present as this has an impact on how the fairways behave.
The principle of sodium adsorption ratio (SAR) or SARadj with an upper acceptable limit being
regarded as gospel is also questionable. Golf greens as mentioned earlier are often composed of a
high percentage of sand and in that case a limit of 10 can be regarded as being acceptable. How
often has this figure been used as an acceptable limit rather than the usual figure of 6 (which is
accepted as being the limit in agricultural situations on heavier soils)?
The reason for writing this is to offer a guide for what limits are acceptable and to also explain how
calculations are made. Taking SARadj as a case in point there are a actually a number of means of
calculating this and the most common one used is based on the work by Ayers and Westcott in 1976
which tends to give a slightly inflated value. A much better methology is one based on work by
Suarez in 1981. I’ll discuss this in more detail later.
I have written this as an overview of the testing methologies used. Accompanying this is an easy to
use water quality calculator. All you have to do is enter your test results and it does the rest for you
References are available if required for those of you who feel a need for further reading.
2. 2
Aggressiveness Index. The Aggressive Index (AI) was developed as a measure of how corrosive the
use of irrigation water is on piping. Originally developed to establish the quality of the water that can
be transported through asbestos cement pipe, but can also used to determine if calcium is likely to
be deposited in the form of scale or alternatively “stripped” and thus removed from a soil.
There are two methods for calculating this. The first is by using the pH, calcium hardness in mg/l as
CaCO, and the total alkalinity in mg/l as CaCO by the formula:
Al = pHactual + C + D
Value C is obtained from Table xxx in the appendix by reading the value corresponding to the
calcium hardness (in mg/L CaCO3) of the sample. Value D is obtained from the appendix by reading
the measured value for total alkalinity (in mg/L CaCO3) of the sample using the same table.
The second method uses the same inputs but is actually easier to calculate the end result as it is
determined by:
AI= pHactual + LOG (hardness ppm * alkalinity ppm)
Both of these methods do not take into account temperature and so are not as accurate as another
measure called the Langellier Saturation Index discussed later.
Aggressive index values less than 10.0 indicate highly aggressive water, values between 10.0 and
12.0 indicate moderately aggressive water, and values greater than 12.0 indicate nonaggressive
waters.
Alkalinity
This is the amount of carbonate and bicarbonate expressed as ppm CaCO3. Alkalinity is a measure of
a water's acid neutralizing capacity and is primarily a function of carbonate, bicarbonate and
hydroxide content. Excessive alkalinity levels may cause scale formation. Alkalinity is the main
control factor for the aggressiveness of the water. Aggressive water will have a tendency to react
with metal pipes and corrode them. Incrusting water will have a tendency to clog pipes with salt and
reduce their through flow over time.
Anions
These are negatively charged ions and in the interpretation of water analysis include: chloride (Cl -
),
sulphate (SO4
--
), carbonate (CO3
--
), bicarbonate (HCO3
-
), and nitrate (NO3
--
).
In some reports elemental sulphur (S) and nitrogen (N) are reported rather than sulphate (SO4
--
) or
nitrate (NO 3
—
respectively). If this is the case:
To convert S to SO4
-
multiply S by 2.996. If you wish to covert SO4
-
to S then multiply the SO4
-
figure
by 0.334.
To convert N to NO3
-
multiply N by 4.429. If you wish to covert NO3
-
to N then multiply the NO3
-
figure by 0.226.
3. 3
Bicarbonate (HCO3)
Bicarbonate is the major form of alkalinity. High levels of bicarbonate in water can increase the
concentration of sodium in water, raise soil pH, and have a negative impact on soil permeability.
Cations
These are positively charged ions. Other positive cations include: sodium (Na+), potassium (K+) ,
magnesium (Mg2+) , calcium (Ca2+) , Iron (Fe2+), and manganese (Mn2+).
Calcium and magnesium.
These minerals exist as positively charged ions (cations) in water, and they counteract the damaging
effects of sodium. Their concentrations are used in the calculation of SAR. Small concentrations of
calcium carbonate combat corrosion of metal pipes by laying down a protective coating. Calcium
contributes to the total hardness of water.
Calcium Carbonate Precipitation Potential (CCPP)
This provides a quantitative measure of the calcium carbonate deficit or excess of the water, giving a
more accurate guide as to the likely extent of CaCO3 precipitation. The CCPP is a means of
calculating the quantity of calcium carbonate that can be precipitated from saturated waters or
dissolved into unsaturated waters.
A measure of the corrosivity of water for different values of CCPP is presented in the table below.
Corrosivity State of water CCPP Value, mg/L CaCO3
Scaling (protective) >0
Passive 0 to -5
Mildly corrosive -5 to -10
Corrosive (aggressive) < -10
Carbonate (CO3)
Carbonate can only exist if the pH of the water exceeds 8.3. Carbonate and bicarbonate ions in the
water combine with calcium and magnesium to form compounds which precipitate out of solution.
This increases the concentration of sodium as removing calcium and magnesium increases the
sodium hazard to the soil from irrigation water. The increased sodium hazard is often expressed as
"adjusted SAR." The increase of "adjusted SAR" over the SAR is a relative indication of the increase in
sodium hazard due to the presence of these ions.
Chloride.
Although an essential nutrient to growth, toxic levels of it in water can restrict plant growth. Water
chloride concentrations up to 70 ppm are safe for all plants. From 70 to 140 ppm chloride, sensitive
plants may incur some injury. From 140 to 350 ppm chloride moderately tolerant plants will likely
incur injury. Severe problems can be expected at concentrations above 350 ppm chloride. Chloride
contributes to the overall water salinity, and when concentrations are high enough, can be toxic to
plants. Turfgrasses are not particularly sensitive to chloride, and can tolerate levels up to 100 mg/L.
Turfgrasses can sustain injury when irrigated with water containing >355 mg/L of chloride.
4. 4
EC.
EC is a measure of the degree in which water conducts electricity. It is determined by passing an
electrical current through a water sample and recording the resistance in mmhos/cm or dS/m. EC is
used to estimate the concentration of Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) in water, using the following
equation:
TDS (ppm or mg/L) = EC (mmhos/cm or dS/m) × 640
Hardness.
Hardness is the term for the calcium or magnesium carbonate dissolved in water as Ca++, Mg++, and
HCO3- (bicarbonate) ions. There are two measures of water hardness, hardness and alkalinity.
Hardness measures the amount of positive calcium and magnesium ions; alkalinity the negative
bicarbonate ions. Both measures are usually given in calcium carbonate, i.e. scale, equivalent units
(abbreviated as CaCO3). This means when one unit of scale precipitates out of the water, hardness
and alkalinity measured in CaCO3 units go down by one unit each.
Alkalinity and hardness levels need not be the same, since the bicarbonates can be associated with
potassium or sodium, and the calcium or magnesium with chlorides or sulphates. Usually, alkalinity
is less than hardness, although some mineral waters and ion exchange softened waters rich in
sodium or potassium may have higher levels of alkalinity.
Iron (Fe)
At levels above 0.3 mg/L, iron can cause staining of for example fencing around ovals. The
precipitation of excessive iron causes a reddish brown colour in the water. It may also promote the
growth of iron bacteria, leaving a slimy coating in piping. The presence of iron bacteria can also
cause a rotten egg' odour in the water and sheen on the surface of the water.
Langelier Saturation Index
The Langelier Saturation Index (sometimes Langelier Stability Index) is a calculated number used to
predict the calcium carbonate stability of water. To put this another way it is a measure of a
solution’s ability to dissolve or deposit calcium carbonate and predicts whether a water will dissolve,
precipitate or is in equilibrium with calcium carbonate.
The LSI is expressed as the difference between the actual system pH and the saturation pH and is
calculated thus:
LSI = pH (measured) - pHs
If the actual pH of the water is below the calculated saturation pH, the LSI is negative and the water
has a very limited scaling potential. If the actual pH exceeds pHs, the LSI is positive, and being
supersaturated with CaCO3, the water has a tendency to form scale. At increasing positive index
values, the scaling potential increases. The Saturation Index is typically either negative or positive
and rarely 0. A Saturation Index of zero indicates that the water is “balanced” and is less likely not to
cause scale formation.
If LSI is negative: No potential to scale, the water will dissolve CaCO3
If LSI is positive: Scale can form and CaCO3 precipitation may occur
5. 5
If LSI is close to zero: Borderline scale potential. Water quality or changes in temperature, or
evaporation could change the index.
In practice, water with an LSI between -0.5 and +0.5 will not display enhanced mineral dissolving or
scale forming properties. Water with an LSI below -0.5 tends to exhibit noticeably increased
dissolving abilities while water with an LSI above +0.5 tends to exhibit noticeably increased scale
forming properties.
It is also worth noting that the LSI is temperature sensitive and this seems to be seldom taken into
consideration when water testing is carried out and means that the water can behave slightly
differently depending on the time of year.
The LSI becomes more positive as the water temperature increases. This has particular implications
in situations where tank water is used.
In order to calculate the LSI, it is necessary to know the alkalinity (mg/l as CaCO3), the calcium
hardness (mg/l Ca2+
as CaCO3), the total dissolved solids (mg/l TDS), the actual pH, and the
temperature of the water (o
C). If TDS is unknown, but conductivity is, one can estimate mg/L TDS
using a table.
Where:
pH is the measured water pH
pHs is the pH at saturation in calcite or calcium carbonate and is defined as:
pHs = (9.3 + A + B) - (C + D)
Where:
A = (Log10 [TDS] - 1) / 10
B = -13.12 x Log10 (o
C + 273) + 34.55
C = Log10 [Ca2+
as CaCO3] - 0.4
D = Log10 [alkalinity as CaCO3]
Corrosive characteristics Langellier Index Aggressive Index
Highly aggressive <-2.0 <10.0
Moderately aggressive -2.0 to 0.0 10.0 to 12.0
Nonaggressive >0.0 >12.0
6. 6
Larsen Skold Index
Another index is Larson index (LI) which describes the corrosivity of water towards mild steel. Larson
considered chlorides, sulphates and total alkalinity and is the ratio of equivalents per million (epm)
of sulphate (SO4 --) and chloride (Cl- ) to the epm of alkalinity in the form of bicarbonate plus
carbonate.
• Larson-Skold Index <0.8 Chlorides and sulphates will probably not interfere with natural film
formation.
• Larson-Skold Index 0.8 – 1.2 Chlorides and sulphates will probably interfere with natural film
formation and higher corrosion rates can be anticipated.
• Larson-Skold Index >1.2; High corrosion rates can be expected and in the case of scale this is
unlikely to form.
Millequivalent (MEQ) Mg/l (ppm) values may be converted to milliequivalents /l by multiplying the
milligrams per litre (ppm) by the multiplication factors given below.
Start with concentration, divide by mole wt., multiply by charge:
XX mg/L / Molecular weight x Charge = MEQ
Example: NaCl in solution, Na = 109 mg/L (109 ppm): 109/23*1 = 4.73 MEQ
Cl = 177 mg/L (177 ppm): 177/35.5*-1 = -4.98 MEQ
Always remember that if the total cation and anion MEQ’s are not balanced, some error exists in the
analysis.
Ca Cl CO 3 Fe HCO 3 K Mg Mn NO 3 Na P SO4
Molecular weight 40 35.5 60 56 61 39 24 55 124 23 31.7 96
Valence 2 1 2 3 1 1 2 2 2 1 1 2
Equivalent weight 20 35.5 30 18.7 61 39 12 27.
5
62 23 31.7 48
Multiply ppm by
this number to
give Meq
2.5 1.41 1.67 0.82 1.28 4.1 0.81 2.18 1.04
Nitrate
Nitrate in irrigation water is plant available and should be taken into consideration with any
nutritional programme. At high concentrations, this can supplement the nitrogen applied in a regular
fertilization program. At concentrations greater than 30 ppm NO3-N, toxicity problems can be
expected.
7. 7
pH
pH is a measure of how acidic/basic water is. The range goes from 0 - 14, with 7 being neutral. With
a pH of less than 7 this means the water is acidic, whereas with a pH of greater than 7 this indicates
it is alkaline (also known as a base). pH is really a measure of the relative amount of free hydrogen
and hydroxyl ions in the water. Water that has more free hydrogen ions is acidic, whereas water that
has more free hydroxyl ions is basic. Since pH can be affected by chemicals in the water, pH is an
important indicator of water that is changing chemically. pH is reported in "logarithmic units," like
the Richter scale used for measuring the size of earthquakes. Each number represents a 10-fold
change in the acidity/basicness of the water. Water with a pH of 5 is ten times more acidic than
water having a pH of six.
pHc
The tendency of water to cause calcium precipitation can be predicted although there is actually no
proven practical method to evaluate how serious the problem will be since it depends upon many
factors. You can only give a measure of how serious the potential problem is. A first approximation
of the calcium precipitation can be made using the saturation index which simply says that upon
reaching the calcium saturation point in the presence of bicarbonate, lime (CaCO3) will precipitate
from the solution. The saturation index is defined as the actual pH of the water (pH) minus the
theoretical pH (pHc) that the water could have if in equilibrium with CaCO3.
Saturation Index = pH - pHc
Positive values of the index (pH > pHc) indicate a tendency for CaCO3 to precipitate from the water
whereas negative values indicate that the water will dissolve CaCO3.
pHs
Whether and how much scale precipitates depends on the water's alkalinity, hardness, temperature,
and total dissolved solids. These factors together define a quantity called pH at saturation, or pHs.
pHs indicates the pH level at which the measured calcium/magnesium bicarbonate level is at
equilibrium saturation. If the pHs exceeds the water's actual pH, no scale will form, in fact, existing
scales will tend to dissolve into the water. The water will tend to strip for example calcium from the
soil. If the pHs is less than the actual pH, lime will precipitate out of the water until the pH balance is
restored. This water will tend to deposit for example calcium.
The formula for pHs is as follows: The logs are base 10, T is temperature in centigrade, S is mg/l total
dissolved solids, H is mg/l hardness, and A is mg/l alkalinity, both stated in CaCO3 equivalent units.
pHs = 44.15 + log(S)/10 - 13.12*log(T + 273) - log(H) - log(A)
As discussed earlier the quantity pH - pHs is called the Langelier Index or LI (sometimes
called the Saturation Index or SI). The LI formula is:
LI = pH + 13.12*log(T + 273) + log(H) + log(A) - log(S)/10 - 44.15
Potassium
Potassium behaves much like sodium, but it is usually found in only small amounts in water.
8. 8
Residual Sodium Carbonate (RSC)
The sodium permeability hazard for irrigation water is usually assessed when bicarbonate and
carbonate levels are >120 and 15 mg/L, respectively. Residual sodium carbonate (RSC) is a common
means of assessing the sodium permeability hazard, and takes into account the
bicarbonate/carbonate “and” calcium/magnesium concentrations in irrigation water. RSC is
important because it is not the absolute bicarbonate and carbonate concentrations that are
important, but instead, the relative concentrations of bicarbonate and carbonate compared to
concentrations of calcium, magnesium, and sodium.
RSC is calculated as follows:
RSC (meq/L) = (HCO3
-
+ CO3
-2
) - (Ca + Mg)
Note that for this equation, all concentrations are expressed in meq/L (see earlier). Typically, water
with a RSC value of 1.25 meq/L or lower is safe for irrigating turf. RSC values between 1.25 and 2.5
meq/L is marginal, and above 2.5 meq/L is considered excessive.
Ryznar Stability Index.
This helps you determine the scaling potential of water. It can be calculated from the following
equation:
RSI = 2 (pHs) - pH
Where:
• pH is the measured pH of the water and;
• pHs is the pH at saturation in calcite or calcium carbonate.
RSI is 6 or lower then the water has a tendency to scale and precipitate calcium carbonate.
• RSI is 7 then calcium bicarbonate formation does not produce a protective corrosion inhibiting
film.
• RSI is 8 or higher, corrosion of steel (and zinc) becomes an increasing problem and the water has a
tendency to dissolve calcium carbonate CaCO3.
RI Indication (Ryznar 1942)
RI<5,5 Heavy scale will form
5,5 < RI < 6,2 Scale will form
6,2 < RI < 6,8 No difficulties
6,8 < RI < 8,5 Water is aggressive
RI > 8,5 Water is very aggressive
RI Indication (Carrier 1965)
4,0 - 5,0 Heavy scale
5,0 - 6,0 Light scale
6,0 - 7,0 Little scale or corrosion
7,0 - 7,5 Corrosion significant
7,5 - 9,0 Heavy corrosion
>9,0 Corrosion intolerable
Ryznar gives only an indication about the aggressiveness of the water but Carrier gives an indication
about the scale and corrosion potential of the water.
9. 9
Salinity
Saline irrigation water contains dissolved substances known as salts. The majority of the salts
present in irrigation water are chlorides, sulphates, carbonates, and bicarbonates of calcium
magnesium, sodium, and potassium. While salinity can improve soil structure, it can also negatively
affect turf growth.
Soil water salinity can affect soil physical properties by causing fine particles to bind together into
aggregates. This process is known as flocculation and is beneficial in terms of soil aeration, root
penetration, and root growth. Although increasing soil solution salinity has a positive effect on soil
aggregation and stabilization, at high levels salinity can have negative and potentially lethal effects
on the turf itself. As a result, salinity cannot be increased to maintain soil structure without
considering potential impacts on plant health.
SAR
The sodium adsorption ratio (SAR) expresses the sodium hazard of water, and is calculated from
sodium, calcium and magnesium concentrations in water. Calcium and magnesium are the good
guys and counter sodium’s effect on soil. The SAR of a water sample is the proportion of sodium
relative to calcium and magnesium. Since it is a ratio, the SAR has no units.
Sodium in irrigation water can accumulate in soil and result in undesirable physical soil
characteristics. This can be seen in the behaviour of the soil under varying moisture contents. When
wet, soil with high sodium levels has reduced water permeability and when dry it becomes very
hard. Sodium can also accumulate in soil to sufficiently large amounts such that plant uptake of
sodium becomes toxic to the plant. This means sodium has a double wammy effect. It can effect soil
structure and also affect the turf directly.
Fine textured soils under low leaching conditions are most susceptible to degradation from irrigating
with water that has moderate SAR values (3 to 6). From the perspective of inducing soil permeability
problems, SAR and electrical conductivity both need to be considered. Low salinity water
(‘light’water) is usually low in calcium and magnesium and consequently it increases the deleterious
effect of sodium in water. Calcium and magnesium play a major role in maintaining structure of clay-
containing soils. If water with excess sodium and low calcium and magnesium is applied frequently
to clay soils, the sodium will tend to displace calcium and magnesium on clay particles, resulting in
breakdown of structure, precipitation of organic matter, and reduced permeability.
SAR is used to assess the relative concentrations of sodium, calcium, and magnesium in irrigation
water and provide a useful indicator of its potential damaging effects on soil structure and
permeability.
Typically a SAR value below 3.0 is considered very safe for turfgrasses. Over time, water with a SAR
of 9.0 or above can cause significant structural damage to clay soils. Sandy soils are not as
susceptible to structure and permeability problems, and can tolerate higher SAR values (up to 10
in most cases).
10. 10
EC dS/m EC dS/m EC dS/m
SAR No Problem Slight to moderate Severe problem
0 to 3 > 0.9 0.9 to 0.2 < 0.2
3 to 6 > 1.3 1.3 to 0.25 < 0.25
6 to 12 >2.0 2.0 to 0.35 < 0.35
12 to 20 > 3.1 3.1 to 0.9 < 0.9
20+ > 5.6 5.6 to 1.8 < 1.8
Guidelines for saline-sodic water quality suitable for irrigation, presented in terms of reduced
infiltration (After Ayers and Tanji, 1981).
Sodicity
Sodicity refers specifically to the amount of sodium present in irrigation water. Irrigating with water
that has excess amounts of sodium can adversely impact soil structure, making plant growth
difficult.
Sodium has the opposite effect of salinity on soils. The primary physical processes associated with
high sodium concentrations are soil dispersion and clay platelet and aggregate swelling. The forces
that bind clay particles together are disrupted when too many large sodium ions come between
them. When this separation occurs, the clay particles expand, causing swelling and soil dispersion.
This soil dispersion results in clay particles plugging soil pores, resulting in reduced soil permeability.
When soil is repeatedly wetted and dried and clay dispersion occurs, it then reforms and solidifies
into almost cement-like soil with little or no structure. The three main problems caused by sodium-
induced dispersion are reduced infiltration, reduced hydraulic conductivity, and surface crusting.
Calcium and magnesium will generally keep soil flocculated because they compete for the same
spaces as sodium to bind to clay particles. Increased amounts of calcium and magnesium can
reduce the amount of sodium-induced dispersion.
Sodium
Sodium exists in nearly all irrigation water and is not necessarily a cause for concern unless high
concentrations are present. High concentrations (> 70 mg/L) can be detrimental to both turf and
soils. Sodium in irrigation water can be absorbed by roots and foliage, and foliar burning can occur if
sufficient amounts accumulate in leaf tissue. Grasses grown on golf course putting greens (creeping
bentgrass and annual bluegrass) are particularly susceptible to sodium toxicity because they are
mowed very short and irrigated frequently often during the heat of the day.
Sulphate
Sulphate exists in water as a negatively charged ion. It contributes to the total salt content.
Temperature
Whether and how much scale precipitates depends on the water's alkalinity, hardness, temperature,
and total dissolved solids. These factors together define a quantity called pH at saturation, or pHs
(discussed earlier).
Total dissolved solids
Total dissolved solids (effectively dissolved salts) is a measure of salinity and is a measure of total
salts in solution in ppm or mg/L. Water salinity is derived primarily from the ions of calcium,
11. 11
magnesium, sodium, chloride and bicarbonates. Saline water induces a physiological drought in
plants. Furthermore, salts applied in irrigation water are left behind in the soil following
evapotranspiration, which leads to soil degradation. If saline water is to be used, it should be
generously applied in order to leach salts and prevent salt accumulation. TDS is occasionally referred
to as total dissolved salts (also abbreviated TDS) or total soluble salts (TSS), and both are determined
using the same equation.
Acceptable TDS concentrations for turfgrass irrigation range from 200 to 500 mg/L (EC = 0.31 to 0.78
mmhos/cm). TDS concentrations higher than 2,000 mg/L (EC = 3.1 mmhos/cm) can damage
turfgrasses. If using irrigation water with a TDS concentration higher than 500 mg/L, attention
should focus on irrigation duration and frequency, drainage, and turfgrass species selection.