This document provides background information on South America. It discusses the geography, climate, economy, industries, largest cities, and internal and external threats of the region. Specifically, it provides the following key details: 1) South America has a varied climate ranging from hot and wet in the Amazon to cold in the Andes. It contains the world's largest rainforest, highest waterfall, and longest mountain range. 2) The economy relies heavily on natural resource exports like minerals, petroleum, and agriculture which has led to instability. There is a push for economic diversification. 3) The main internal threats are guerrilla groups like the FARC and ELN who engage in kidnapping, ext

1. NAME FAIZ MUHAMMAD
NADEEM HASSAN
ASSIGNMENT SOUTH AMERICA
SUBJECT GEOGRAPHY
SCHOOL OF ECONOMICS
QUAID E AZAM UNIVERSITY ISLAMBAD
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2. Contents
Introduction
Climate
Energy issues
Internal and external threats
Economy
Minerals
Industries
Largest cities
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3. 0013

4. Introduction
South America occupies the southern portion of the American landmass. The continent is
generally delimited on the northwest by the Darién watershed along the Colombia–Panama
border. Some sources[citation needed] instead suggest the Panama Canal. Geopolitically and
geographically[4] all of Panama – including the segment east of the Panama Canal in the isthmus
– is typically included in North America alone[5][6][7] and among the countries of Central
America.[8][9] Almost all of mainland South America sits on the South American Plate. South
America's triangular shape gives it the shortest coastline, for its size, of any of the continents.
Traditionally, South America also includes some nearby islands. Aruba, Bonaire, Curaçao,
Trinidad, Tobago, and the federal dependencies of Venezuela sit on the northerly South
American continental shelf and are often considered part of the continent. Geo-politically, the
island states and overseas territories of the Caribbean are generally grouped as a part or
subregion of North America, since they are more distant on the Caribbean Plate, even though
San Andreas and Providencia are politically part of Colombia and Aves Island is controlled by
Venezuela.[7][10][11] Other islands that are included with South America are the Galápagos islands
that belong to Ecuador and Easter Island (in Oceania but belongs to Chile), Robinson Crusoe
Island, Chiloé are also Chilean islands, while Tierra del Fuego is split between that country and
Argentina. In the Atlantic, Brazil owns Fernando de Noronha, Trindade and Martim Vaz, and the
Saint Peter and Saint Paul Archipelago, while the Falkland Islands are governed by the United
Kingdom, whose sovereignty over the islands is disputed by Argentina. South Georgia and the
South Sandwich Islands may be associated with either South America or Antarctica.[citation needed]
South America is home to the world's highest waterfall, Angel Falls in Venezuela; the largest
river (by volume), the Amazon River; the longest mountain range, the Andes (whose highest
mountain is Aconcagua at 6,962 m [22,841 ft]); the driest place on earth, the Atacama
Desert;[12][13][14] the largest rainforest, the Amazon Rainforest; the highest capital city, La Paz,
Bolivia; the highest commercially navigable lake in the world, Lake Titicaca; and, excluding
research stations in Antarctica, the world's southernmost permanently inhabited community,
Puerto Toro, Chile.
The Andes are the world's longest continental mountain range.
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5. South America's major mineral resources are gold, silver, copper, iron ore, tin, and petroleum.
These resources found in South America have brought high income to its countries especially in
times of war or of rapid economic growth by industrialized countries elsewhere. However, the
concentration in producing one major export commodity often has hindered the development of
diversified economies. The fluctuation in the price of commodities in the international markets
has led historically to major highs and lows in the economies of South American states, often
causing extreme political instability. This is leading to efforts to diversify production to drive
away from staying as economies dedicated to one major export.
South America is one of the most biodiverse continents on earth. South America is home to
many interesting and unique species of animals including the llama, anaconda, piranha, jaguar,
vicuña, and tapir. The Amazon rainforests possess high biodiversity, containing a major
proportion of the Earth's species.
Brazil is the largest country in South America, encompassing around half of the continent's land
area and population. The remaining countries and territories are divided among three regions:
The Andean States, the Guianas and the Southern Cone.
CLIMATE
South America Climate is predominantly wet and hot. However the large size of the continent
makes the climate of South America varied with each region having its own characteristic
weather conditions.
The other factors influencing the climate of South America are the geographical location,
ocean currents and winds.
South America Climate differs from one region to another. The Amazon river basin has the
typical hot wet climate suitable for the growth of rain forests. The temperature in the Amazon
basin 70 to 90 degrees F. The Andes Mountains, on the other hand, remain cold throughout the
year. The temperatures of the mountains is always very low.
The desert region is of Chile is the driest part of South America. The westerly winds carrying
moisture shed their moisture on the western parts of the Andes, thus the eastern portions of the
mountains receive very little rainfall. The cold Peru Current is responsible for the dry coastal
parts of Peru as well as northern Chile. The cold current is unable to hold much moisture.
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6. The highest temperatures of South America have been recorded in Gran Chaco in Argentina,
with temperatures going up to 110 degrees F. The wettest place is Quibdo in Columbia. It
receives an annual rainfall of 350 inches(890 centimeters).
The four parts of South America which experience heavy rainfall are the Amazon River Basin,
coastal parts of French Guiana, Guyana and Suriname, the southwestern parts of Chile and
Columbia and Ecuador coasts.
A unique feature of South America Climate is the El Nino. Every two to seven years the cold
dry Peru Current weakens and warm waters from the south rush along the coast in a southward
direction. The El Nion affects the Climate of South America and causes heavy rainfall in the dry
parts of South America.
IISD Publications Centre
ENERGY IN SOUTH AMERICA: The role of Brazil
» Adilson de Oliveira, IISD, 2010. Paper, 21 pages, copyright: IISD
South America has vast energy resources, both renewable and non-renewable. A net energy exporter,
the region will play an important role in achieving global energy security over the next decades. Despite
this, at present, the countries in the region are not able to guarantee adequate energy security for their
domestic markets.
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7. This report explores Brazil’s role in the quest for energy security in South America. So far, the regional
energy trade has been organized around bilateral agreements to export countries’ energy surpluses to
their neighbours when necessary. The infrastructure needed to support these trade agreements was put
in place in the 1990s, but there have been few advances in regional regulation systems and the pricing
mechanisms needed to support the energy trade. The risk of cuts in the energy flows imported from
neighbouring countries emerged in the new political and energy context of the 2000s. The perception
that energy security is a matter to be dealt with in the domestic context has gained favour among
governments in the region, despite the fact that the economic cost of this approach is high. Brazil, due
to its central geographical position, the size of its energy market and the availability of both renewable
and non-renewable domestic energy resources, has a decisive role to play in the promotion of regional
energy flows in order to provide regional energy security.
Key points:
The risk of opportunistic behaviour in the regional energy trade increases the transaction costs of
energy projects. Lower-cost solutions for energy supplies are ignored because of the perceived danger
of supply cuts, and higher-cost solutions that eliminate such risks are adopted instead. Low-cost energy
resources remain unexploited and infrastructure to facilitate the regional energy trade is lying idle.
The liberalization of the South American energy markets opened an important window of opportunity
for economic efficiency gains largely associated with the convergence between energy and fuel markets
in the energy systems of the region. Energy integration is a necessary mechanism for exploring these
opportunities, as large natural gas reserves are located in the region’s economies with lower levels of
industrialization and urbanization.
The regional diversities in hydrology and consumer behaviour offer good opportunities to explore the
economic benefits of the cooperative use of power plants. The cost of electricity is reduced, the
environment suffers lower impacts and the risk of power shortages diminishes. Unfortunately, however,
energy integration faces political forces that do not recognize these economic benefits.
Due to its abundance of fossil fuels and its leadership in renewable energy, Brazil is well placed to
smooth the transition to a low-carbon economy. Its central geographical position and market size would
allow it to extend these attributes to the rest of South America through regional energy integration.
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8. South America’s position in the global process of energy transition will be largely determined by its
capacity to secure the region’s energy supplies and to offer safe energy supplies to energy-importing
countries outside South America. Access to consumer markets in these countries will create a favourable
economic environment for attracting investments to the region, thus adding value to its vast energy
resources, whether renewable or non-renewable.
Key recommendations:
In Brazil, in an attempt to contain the escalation in energy costs brought about by the search for
energy security, the government has offered subsidies and is studying a proposal to renew hydropower
plant concessions at prices much lower than their opportunity costs. These approaches will cause
distortions in energy prices without solving the structural problem of energy supply security, and should
therefore be abandoned.
Energy integration offers the opportunity for all the countries in the region to improve their energy
security and their access to the Brazilian market for energy resources that would otherwise remain idle,
as well as the opportunity to participate in the articulation of a productive chain for the energy system
of the twenty-first century that is being established in Brazil.
The diversity of the energy situations and regulation regimes in the countries of the region requires
integration to take place in stages. Access to neighbouring countries’ reserves in situations of energy
supply insecurity should be the initial stage of the process. A treaty that provides the legal basis for
contracts for the use of the Multilateral Energy Security Reserve (RMSE) can remove the risks associated
with energy imports in these situations.
The RMSE treaty should lay down the economic and technical conditions that will allow free access to
the required infrastructure and reserves needed to overcome energy supply insecurity in any country in
the region whenever necessary. Economic access to the energy resources of the RMSE (energy price)
and the necessary transport logistics (tariffs for the use of networks) should be based on the long-term
supply costs of the various domestic markets. Brazil’s active participation in the formulation of the RMSE
treaty is essential for the achievement of South American energy security and successful energy
integration. Its central geographical position, its market size, its oil resources and its leadership in the
renewable energy field make it the best candidate to manage the coordination of the competitive,
secure integration of the South American energy market.
Energy integration faces significant obstacles, the greatest of which is the lack of a legal basis for
private investment in the energy industry. The European Energy Charter sought to solve this problem by
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9. providing conditions and protection for private investments. This charter has not been accepted in
South America, mostly because the dispute settlement system would be based outside the region. Since
it is essential to have an institutional mechanism to settle regional disputes, the RMSE treaty needs to
address this question.
security
External threats
Colombia does not face any known foreign threats. The only neighbor that might pose a potential
military challenge over as-yet unresolved territorial disputes relating to the maritime boundary, where
there may be oilfields, would be Venezuela. The two countries have not allowed the occasional security
incidents involving Colombian guerrillas and paramilitaries along their long common border to escalate
into a serious issue since both nations concluded a bilateral free-trade agreement in 1991.
The already strong cross-border trade links between Colombia and Venezuela were solidified in July
2004 with an agreement to build a US$200 million natural gas pipeline between the two countries. As a
friendly gesture on that occasion, President Álvaro Uribe cancelled the planned purchase of French
made AMX-30 tanks from Spain and their deployment on the border with Venezuela.
Internal threats
Main articles: Colombian Armed Conflict and Crime in Colombia
Despite endemic violence stemming from left-wing guerrilla activity, paramilitary groups, and drug
traffickers, constitutional order and institutional stability have prevailed. Nevertheless, the country’s
political and social foundations have been undermined by the violence and corruption associated with
the enormous wealth created by the drug cartels. Most Colombian government institutions have a
Reputation for inefficient, corrupt, and bureaucratic management, with the notable exceptions of the
Central Bank, Ministry of Finance, and some other agencies responsible for economic policy formulation.
Common crime is rampant and often carried out with impunity. Officially registered homicides in
Colombia reached a historic record of 28,837 in 2002, but declined by 20 percent in 2003 to 23,013. The
high homicide rate is also fueled by high unemployment, growing poverty, the ready availability of guns,
and the growth of drug trafficking and organized crime. Criminal bands specializing in kidnapping,
extortion, and robbery target businesses and civilians. Kidnapping exceeded a record 3,700 reported
cases in 2000, but subsequently declined to 2,986 cases in 2002 as a result of improved law
enforcement; the figure projected for 2003 was between 2,500 and 2,700. Guerrilla and paramilitary
groups are responsible for about 68 percent of kidnappings and organized crime, about 32 percent.
Activities by foreign terrorist or drug-trafficking groups in Colombia have been minimal, consisting
mostly of criminal activities involving Maicao-based Hezbollah members or international crime groups,
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10. such as the Russian Mafia, which was last reported to have supplied the Revolutionary Armed Forces of
Colombia (Fuerzas Armadas Revolucionarias de Colombia—FARC) with sophisticated weapons in 2000.
In 1998 an Islamic terrorist was deported for engaging in illegal transactions with the FARC.
Guerrillas
Two major guerrilla organizations, the Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (Fuerzas Armadas
Revolucionarias de Colombia—FARC) and the National Liberation Army (Ejército de Liberación
Nacional—ELN), plus a smaller Popular Liberation Army (Ejército Popular de Liberación or EPL) group
continue to be active. In 1996–98 the FARC and ELN extended their presence in the national territory
and scored some strategic gains against the poorly led armed forces by besieging and easily overrunning
isolated military garrisons. The Pastrana government responded in November 1998 by granting the FARC
a 51,000-square-kilometer demilitarized zone (DMZ) in southeast Colombia as a concession in exchange
for beginning peace talks. However, the FARC used the DMZ as a haven to increase illicit drug crops,
transport military equipment and provisions, and negotiate kidnappings and extortions. After peace
negotiations collapsed in early 2002, security forces retook the DMZ on February 20.
Until 2002, the armed conflict was fought primarily in the countryside. Since then, the FARC, having
honed its remote-control bombing techniques with the aid of Europe-based terrorist groups, has
expanded its operations to include occasional indiscriminate terrorist bombings and other attacks in
Bogotá. Numerous bombings have been attributed to the FARC. One such bombing was the El Nogal
club bombing in 2003. FARC itself denied that any of its members were involved in this attack.[1][2]
With the support of the United States, the administration of President Uribe has sought to
professionalize the armed forces and to engage them more fully in the counterinsurgency war; as a
result, the armed groups have suffered a series of setbacks. The president’s plan includes the formation
of platoons of “peasant soldiers,” or locally recruited men, to provide guard duty around previously
unguarded municipalities in support of the police and regular troops. By August 2004, more than 8,000
peasant soldiers had been recruited and trained, and plans called for increasing that number to 15,000
across the country by 2006.
In 2003 the FARC had an estimated force of as many as 18,000 active members plus a 5,000-member
urban militia; the ELN had an estimated 3,500 members plus an urban militia; and the EPL had an
estimated 500 members. In August 2003, under increasing pressure by the armed forces, the FARC and
the ELN announced an alliance. This partnership had already been a reality in certain parts of the
country where ELN and FARC units fought side by side, and has been broadened to include the whole
country.
The alliance has not made any significant difference yet, but in the long term the two groups pose a
much greater threat jointly than they do separately, as the military power of the FARC and the political
strength of the ELN complement each other. At January 2009, estimates point that the policy of the
Uribe Administration of demovilization promises and intense pressure from the Army has left half of the
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11. recruits the FARC had at the start of the decade. Calculations point 7,000 members, and each day more
guerrilla fighters demovilize and leave FARC.
The Uribe government has rejected the guerrilla demands for prisoner exchanges and demilitarized
zones as a precondition for peace talks. By 2004 stepped-up government actions against the guerrillas
with the help of significant U.S. military aid had kept the guerrillas mostly withdrawn into the
countryside, while government efforts to improve the economy and reduce cocaine production were
showing results. Although it is generally believed that the left-wing guerrillas have little chance of taking
power in Colombia, they continue to engage in terrorist activities.
Analysts believe that it would take years for the armed forces to make any significant progress in
reducing the territory held by the armed groups, since the Uribe administration progress in this topic has
progressed far beyond expectations, where at this point, FARC forces are in retreat plan to the jungles
and are constantly attacked by the Colombian army.
Right-Wing Illegal Paramilitary Forces
Main article: Paramilitarism in Colombia
The largest paramilitary organization, the United Self-Defense Forces of Colombia (Autodefensas Unidas
de Colombia—AUC), had an estimated 10,600 members. It operated as a loose confederation of
disparate paramilitary groups, the largest of which was the Peasant Self-Defense Forces of Córdoba and
Urabá (Autodefensas Campesinas de Córdoba y Urabá—ACCU). Other important paramilitary
organizations that existed vefore the 2004 peace talks included the Cacique Nutibara Bloc (Bloque
Cacique Nutibara—BCN), the Central Bolivar Bloc (Bloque Central Bolívar—BCB), and the Middle
Magdalena Bloc (Bloque del Magdalena Medio—BMM). These groups are were involved in battling the
guerrillas and terrorizing their supporters or sympathizers among the civilian population.
ECONOMY
During the last two decades, South American countries have experienced significant economic
growth, which can be seen in many of these countries with the construction of new skyscrapers like the
Gran Costanera tower in Chile, and also transportations systems like the Bogota Metro. However,
because of histories of high inflation in nearly all South American countries, interest rates remain high
and investment remains low. Interest rates are usually twice that of the United States. For example,
interest-rates are about 22% in Venezuela and 23% in Suriname. The exception is Chile, which has been
implementing free market economic policies since establishing military dictatorship in 1973 and has
been increasing its social spending since the return of democratic rule in the early 1990s. This has led to
economic stability and interest rates in the low single digits.
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12. South America relies heavily on the exporting of goods and natural resources. On an exchange rate basis
Brazil (the seventh largest economy in the world and the largest in South America) leads the way in total
amount of exports at $201.9 billion dollars followed by Argentina at 68.01 billion and Chile with 64.28
billion.[42]
The economic gap between the rich and poor in most South American nations is considered to be larger
than in most other continents.[citation needed] In Venezuela, Paraguay, Bolivia and many other South
American countries, the richest 20% may own over 60% of the nation's wealth, while the poorest
20% may own less than 5%.[citation needed] This wide gap can be seen in many large South American
cities where makeshift shacks and slums lie adjacent to skyscrapers and upper-class luxury apartments.
Agricultural products vary from items like a variety of fruits and vegetables, diary items, meat, livestock,
fish and more. Raising beef for export is an important export commodity for Argentina, Uruguay,
Paraguay and Colombia.
Amongst the tropical crops grown for domestic use and for export, coffee is the most important. It is
produced mainly in the highlands of Brazil and in central and western Colombia. Cacao is also important
and produced in the eastern Brazil and western Colombia regions.
Brazil is the world's second biggest producer of soybeans. Output has doubled over the past decade, as
demand, particularly from China, has soared. Brazil produced 75.5 million tonnes of soybeans in 2010-
11, 28.6% of the world total. Argentina is another important producer of soybeans, producing 49 milion
tonnes during the same period, 18.6% of the world total.
Both Brazil and Argentina also produce corn, but severe drought during 2011 has significantly affected
production of both corn and soybeans.
Sugar is produced for export in Peru, Guyana and Suriname. The sugarcane produced in most other
parts, however, is mainly for domestic use only.
Peru produces cotton for export, as does eastern Brazil. Uruguay has been exporting wool and hides for
many years and is reliant on these products.
In Argentina wool and hides are also produced for export and domestic use along with corn, linseed and
weat
Forest situation
An estimated 1.115 million hectares were planted as of 2005. There are 33.2 million hectares (82 million
acres) of additional land (native forest) for forestry. Out of this total, 20 million hectares (50 million
acres) are high quality land for future development in Argentina. However, this vast amount of land is
not easy to put into production due to its land tenure situation (the proliferation of owners holding
areas of 5 to 10 hectares), legislation which protects native forests, and lack of infrastructure. If
investors wish to expand their land for cultivation, the opportunity costs are substantial.[1]
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13. The growth of planted forests has increased dramatically since 1997 due to new investments (especially
from Chile). The implementation of Law 25,008 in January 1999 has also been an important factor for
growth in this sector. This law promotes and assists the forestry sector for a period of 10 years. Between
1990 and 2000, foreign and domestic investments surpassed US$ 1.5 billion. The forestry industry
depends on both cultivated forests (85 percent) and native forests (15 percent). The major species
cultivated in Argentina are pines and eucalyptus. In addition, species such as salix and populus are also
cultivated in a smaller scale. Currently, there are no other species that have been introduced for
cultivation in Argentina.[1]
The current plantation rate is estimated to be 50,000 hectares per year. It is also estimated that the
consumption of wood products from cultivated forests is 5.3 million cubic meters, and sustainable wood
supply to the year 2015 will be more than 20 million cubic meters. Argentina, however, is not a major
consumer of wood products. For instance, wood is not commonly used in building construction. About
60 to 70 percent of wood product production is used for internal consumption (wood boards, plywood,
cellulose pulp, etc) and the rest for exports.[1]
Forestry by region
A path in a jungle in Misiones with its characteristic red soil
Among the most important regions in Argentina for the industry are the provinces of Misiones,
Corrientes, Entre Ríos, and Buenos Aires. These four provinces form the country's eastern border with
Uruguay and Brazil, and comprise of 80% of the total cultivated area. [1]
Forests are composed of the following species:[1]
50% – Pine (Misiones, Corrientes, Entre Ríos, Patagonia, Central and Northwest areas of the
country)
30% – Eucalyptus (Misiones, Corrientes, Entre Ríos, Buenos Aires, La Pampa, Santa Fe, Central
and Northwest area of the country)
16% – Willow and aspen (Buenos Aires, Río Negro, Mendoza, Neuquén)
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14. 4% – Other broad-leaved trees
The Argentine forestry sector has strengthened considerably in the last 15 years. The reasons behind
this growth include:[1]
Great extensions of undeveloped land for the forestry industry at low prices that do not
compete with other industries such as agriculture
The Law 25,080 which provides economic incentives and favorable investment environment for
the industry (including fiscal stability)
No restrictions for foreign investment
During the 1990s, Argentina was a net importer of forestry products with high value-added (i.e. paper,
cardboard, furniture, etc.) and a net exporter of primary and low value added goods (i.e. wood, cellulose
pulp). This situation has changed especially after the currency devaluation in 2002 and foreign
investment during the 1990s. Now, the country has begun producing a number of high value added
products such as fiberboards and finished products such as furniture. Argentina is now in a position to
become an important producer of forest products in the future. The industry is focusing on the
production of more high value added products, and increasing rates of plantation.[1]
Pulp mill dispute
Main article: Pulp mill dispute between Argentina and Uruguay
There are also other issues that can make some aspects of the industry uncertain. Currently there is a
dispute between Uruguay and Argentina over two cellulose plants that are being built on the Uruguayan
side of the Río de la Plata, which forms the border between the two countries. This dispute began after
Argentine environmentalists alleged that the plants would pollute the river that divides the two
countries, and asserted that Uruguay had not provided the necessary information on the environmental
impact of the plants. In protest, Argentine environmentalists blocked traffic on the Libertador General
San Martín Bridge and General Artigas Bridge, the two main international bridges connecting the two
countries. As of now, the Argentine and Uruguay government have not been able to resolve the issue.
This impasse could possibly slow down the development and introduction of new technologies for the
forestry sector. Such technologies are crucial to increase cultivated land and production. Argentina has
the potential to become a major cluster for the worldwide industry, but more investment is necessary.[1]
.[1]
Tax benefits:[1]
o Tax stability for 30 to 50 years for companies with forestry investment projects
o Accelerated amortization of income taxes
o Accelerated return of value-added tax (21 percent)
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15. o Tax breaks on assets, real estate, sales, and gross income from state and municipal
governments
o Accelerated depreciation of capital goods
Economic Support[1]
o The Argentine government will finance up to 100 percent for projects with 700 hectares,
50 percent for forests between 701 and 1,000 hectares, 30 percent for extensions
between 1,001 and 2,000 hectare, and 15 percent for more than 2,001 hectares Support
for projects focused in plantation of traditional species and enrichment of native forests
Production and trade
Argentina’s exports of forestry products began in the 1990s. However, as a producer of primary goods
with low value added, the country experienced an overall trade deficit that ran from US$ 500 million to
US$ 1 billion from 1992 to 2002. With the sharp devaluation of the peso in 2002, the exports of
Argentine forest product were given a shot in the arm. Argentine goods became more attractive and
exports began to increase, especially for high-value-added products. Between 2002 and 2004, exports
increased from US$ 300 million to about US$ 700 million.[1]
Wood and Furniture
It is estimated that for one hectare of cultivated forest, the industry produces 400 tons of wood.
Moreover, the average value of a cubic meter of wood boards from cultivated forests is US$ 70 to US$
80. In some cases, there are boards that run between US$ 200 to US$ 250 and there is a small niche of
specific types of boards with prices up to US$ 400. The area between Misiones, Corrientes, and Entre
Ríos is the major producer of wood products, and represents 65 percent of the total production in
Argentina.[1]
Cellulose Pulp
Argentina is the third biggest producer of cellulose pulp in Latin America. As of 2005, Argentina
produced 1.5 million tons.
Paper Production
Argentina is the fourth largest producer of paper, paperboard and corrugated fiberboard in Latin
America. As of the 2004, the sector produced about 1.4 million tons. The production experienced an
increase of 11 percent compared to 2003. However, this production only satisfied 67 percent of
domestic demand. The paper production in Argentina is primarily for packing (48 percent), printing (25
percent), and newspapers (13 percent).[1]
Atlantic dry forests
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16. The Atlantic dry forests cover an area of 115,100 square kilometers (44,400 sq mi), lying between the
Cerrado savannas of central Brazil and the Caatinga dry shrublands of northeastern Brazil. The Atlantic
dry forests stretch from northern Minas Gerais state across western Bahia state into central Piauí. The
Atlantic dry forests generally lie along the upper São Francisco River of Minas Gerais and Bahia, and in
the basin of the Gurguéia River in Piauí. A large enclave of Atlantic dry forest lies on the Chapada
Diamantina of east-central Bahia.
The Atlantic dry forests
The Atlantic Forest (Portuguese: Mata Atlântica) is a region of tropical and subtropical moist forest,
tropical dry forest, tropical savanna, semi-deciduous forest and mangrove forests which extends along
the Atlantic coast of Brazil from Rio Grande do Norte state in the north to Rio Grande do Sul state in the
south, and inland as far as Paraguay and the Misiones Province of Argentina. The Atlantic Forest is
characterized by a high species diversity and endemism.[1] It was the first environment that the
Portuguese conquerors encountered over 500 years ago when it was thought to have had an area of 1
to 1.5 million km2 and stretching an unknown distance inland.[2] Currently, the Atlantic Forest spans
over 4000km2 along the coast of Brazil and in a small part of Paraguay and Argentina.[3][4] In Argentina, it
is known as Selva Atlántica.
The Atlantic Forest region includes forests of several variations:
Restinga is a forest type that grows on stabilized coastal dunes. Restinga Forests are generally
closed canopy short forests with tree density. Open Restinga is an open, savanna-like formation
with scattered clumps of small trees and shrubs and an extensive layer of herbs, grasses, and
sedges.[3]
Tropical moist forests are forests that receive more than 2000mm of rain a year. This includes
Lowland Tropical Moist Forests, Submontane Tropical Moist Forest, and Montane Tropical Moist
Forest.[3]
Tabuleiro forests are found over very moist clay soils and Tabuleiro Savannas occur over faster-
draining sand soils.[3] These are humid areas that rely on water vapor from the ocean.[4]
Major Landforms Of SOUTH AMERICA
AMAZON BASIN
In short, the Amazon Basin (Amazonia) is covered by the largest tropical rain forest in the world,
and running through its heart is the Amazon River, and its more than 1,000 tributaries, seven of
them more than 1,000 miles in length. Measurable rain falls on an average of 200 days a year,
and total rainfall often approaches 100 inches per year.
The overall basin drains over 2,700,000 sq. miles, and covers about one-third of the South
American landmass. Rising high in the Andes, the river's network irrigates almost half of the
continent, and in terms of volume of water discharged into an ocean... it's the largest in the
world.
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17. ANDES
This toothy-edged, massive mountain system extends from the tip of South America all the way
to Panama. It's the source of most major rivers on the continent and is 4,500 miles (7,240 km) in
length. It's home to some of the planet's largest volcanoes, and in the far south along the coast
of Chile, large ice sheets are commonplace.
The Andes and its many ranges include dozens of peaks that reach over 20,000 ft., with the
highest point being Aconcagua in Argentina, at 22,384 ft. (6,960m).
ATACAMA DESERT
Sparsely populated and running high into the Andes of Chile, this somewhat small desert (or
plateau) is a cold place and rainfall is very rare.
It's approximately 100 miles wide and 625 miles long. The landscape is totally barren and
covered with small borax lakes, lava flow remnants and saline deposits.
BRAZILIAN HIGHLANDS
This highland region - about 800 miles in length - runs through the Brazilian states of Minas
Gerais, Goias, Bahia and Sao Paulo in southeastern Brazil. The magnificent landscape includes
varied mountain ranges, namely the Serra de Mantiquiera, Serra do Paranapiataba, Serra Geral,
and Serra do Mar.
South America Mountains, the term conjures up the image of the snow capped peaks of the
Andes standing tall among the topographical features of South America. The Andes Mountains is
the most massive mountain ranges of South America with a large number of very high peaks.
South American continent consists of 12 countries. Located at the southernmost corner of the
world, Punta Arenas is a city in South America.
Amazon, the largest river in the world is also situated in the South American continent. Your
South America vacation can include a visit to the rainforests of this continent. South American
continent is connected to the continent of North America by the narrow cape of Panama and
includes few island groups.
Falklands or the Malvinas Islands are few of the prominent islands that are considered part of
the continent of South America.
The Andes is the most prominent mountain range of South America. The extension of the Andes
is also greater than any other mountain system of the world. The narrow belt of the three
00117

18. connected ranges of the Andes stretch from the Caribbean Sea to the Tierra del Fuego island,
more than 8000km in length.
The Andes Mountains of South America were formed during the Cretaceous Period due to the
movements of the tectonic plates. The sedimentary layers of the earth's crust make up the folds
of the mountains. The living South America Mountains still experience earthquakes and volcanic
eruptions. The three parts of the Andes are the northern arc made up of three parallel ranges,
Cordillera Occidental, Cordillera Central and Cordillera Oriental; the central part with two ranges
enclosing within them Altiplano, a vast plateau; and the southern part, the lower regions. The
highest peak of South America is Aconcagua in Argentina with a height of 6,960m.
The rivers on the east of the Andes are fed by the moisture bearing westerly winds and feed the
Amazon, the Orinoco and other rivers. Among the lakes in the Andes is Lake Titicaca, in the
plateau of the Andes.
The Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta is another mountain range of South America.
Forest AMAZON JUNGLE is a moist broadleaf forest that covers most of the Amazon Basin of
South America. This basin encompasses seven million square kilometers (1.7 billion acres), of
which five and a half million square kilometers (1.4 billion acres) are covered by the rainforest.
This region includes territory belonging to nine nations. The majority of the forest is contained
within Brazil, with 60% of the rainforest, followed by Peru with 13%, Colombia with 10%, and
with minor amounts in, Venezuela, Ecuador, Bolivia, Guyana, Suriname and French Guiana.
States or departments in four nations contain "Amazonas" in their names. The Amazon
represents over half of the planet's remaining rainforests, and it comprises the largest and most
species-rich tract of tropical rainforest in the world
MINERALS
#48655, #42558, #48658, Elbaite #46860, Diamond
Elbaite #52912, Hematite, Novo Tourmaline, Santa (0.71 carat yellow-
Tourmaline, Rhodochrosite, Horizonte, Brazil Rosa Mine, Brazil ( gray complex
Santa Rosa Capillitas Mine, crystal), Gran
Mine, Brazil ( Argentina (c) Sabana region,
Venezuela
00118

19. #52603, Diamond #50930, #48653, Elbaite
#51742, (0.37 carat green Cassiterite #49523, Pyrite, Tourmaline, Santa
Barite and octahedral (twinned Quiruvilca District, Rosa Mine, Brazil
Orpiment, crystal), crystals), Santa Peru (m)
Palomo Mine, Guaniamo, Barbara Vein,
Peru (m) Venezuela Brazil
#54139, Quartz #53837, #53836, Hematite, #53890, Beryl var.
#44716, with Rutile Hematite, Itabira Itabira District, Aquamarine,
Barite, inclusions District, Brazil Brazil (m) $55 Brazil (t) $16
Quiruvilca (Rutilated (m) $60
District, Peru Quartz), Novo
(m) $18 Horizonte, Brazil
(m) $28
#53904, Quartz #54376, #54064, Sphalerite,
#53931, var. Rose Quartz Orpiment, #53957, Beryl var. Andradite, Quartz,
Sphalerite Crystals, Lavra da Palomo Mine, Etched El Mochito Mine,
and Quartz, Ilha, Taquaral, Peru (m) $125 Aquamarine, Honduras (c) $125
Julcani Brazil (t) $32 Divino das
District, Peru Laranjeiras, Brazil
(c) $45 (m) $225
00119

20. #53969, #53919, #49913, Kyanite
Stibnite, Cassiterite, Itinga, #54915, in Quartz, Barra #51510, Elbaite
Tuco Mine, Brazil (t) $38 Andradite do Salinas, Brazil Tourmaline, Xia
Peru (m) $30 Garnet with (c) $55 Mine, Sao Jose do
Quartz and Safira, Brazil
Calcite, El (c) $175
Mochito Mine,
Honduras (c) $95
#54865, #54872, Beryl #54863, Beryl var. #55011, Anatase
#54578, Beryl Spodumene var. var. Aquamarine, with Gorceixite,
var. Hiddenite, Brazil Aquamarine, Brazil (t) $35 Datas, Brazil (t) $65
Morganite, (t) $26 Brazil (t) $16
Coronel
Murta, Brazil
(m) $175
#54958, Topaz #54890,
(flawless gem- #54963, Rhodochrosite,
grade crystal), Brazilianite with Morococha
Tres Barras Mine, Muscovite, Lavra District, Peru
Teofilo Otoni, do Corrego Frio, (c) $125
Brazil (m) $165 Brazil (Type
Locality for
Brazilianite)
(t) $225
00120

21. #43722, Spodumene, Brazil
#43860, Beryl var. Emerald #48153, Quartz (Japan-law (c) $1250
in Calcite, La Pita Mine, twins), Mundo Nuevo Mine,
Colombia (m) $750 Peru (lc) $450
#42932, Diamond (1.91 #35675, Diamond (0.90 carat
carat cuttable gem-grade #50460, Tetrahedrite, yellow dodecahedral crystal),
yellow complex crystal), Sphalerite, Quartz, Galena, Diamantino, Brazil (t) $495
Brazil (t) $4495 Casapalca District, Peru
(lc) $225
#54944, Beryl var. #42941, Diamond (1.99 #28079, Diamond (2.48 carat
Emerald, Muzo Mine, carat cuttable gem-grade yellow octahedral crystal),
Colombia (t) $550 yellow complex crystal), Diamantino, Brazil (t) $9525
Brazil (t) $4680
#42933, Diamond (1.76 #50423, Diamond (4.75 carat
carat cuttable gem-grade #51725, Gold (crystallized), dark-gray spherical Ballas
00121

22. yellow octahedral crystal), Alta Floresta, Brazil crystal), Paraguassu River
Brazil (t) $4150 (t) $4900 District, Brazil (t) $710
#53812, Spodumene var.
#49616, Quartz var. Hiddenite, Brazil (c) $450 #51491, Bournonite,
Amethyst with Calcite, Sphalerite, Quartz, Pyrite,
Alto Uruguai, Brazil Pachapaqui District, Peru (lc)
(lc) $225
#53100, Beryl var. Emerald
with Pyrite, Chivor Mine, #43860, Beryl var. Emerald
Colombia (t) in Calcite, La Pita Mine,
Colombia (m)
Industries
Braz NATURAL RESOURCES, AGRICULTURE, INDUSTRIES
00122

23. Natural Resources: Iron Ore, Manganese, Bauxite, Nickel, Uranium, Gems, Petroleum,
Phosphates, Tin, Gold, Platinum, Timber, Hydroelectric Power, Granite, Limestone, Clay,
Sand..
Agriculture: Sugarcane, Corn, Cassava, Soybeans, Oranges, Wheat, Dry Beans,
Coffee, Cotton, Tomatoes, Potatoes, Cocoa, Peanuts, Rice, Beef, Cattle, Pork.
Major Industries: Iron & Steel, Chemicals, Petrochemicals, Machinery, Vehicles, Consumer
Goods, Cement, Wood Products, Shipbuilding, Metal Products, Fertilizer, Foodstuffs, Textiles,
Clothing, Paper Products, Plastics, Pharmaceuticals.
IMPORTS & EXPORTS
Major Imports: Minerals, Petroleum, Chemicals, Fertilizers, Machinery, Vegetables, Animal
Products, Cereals, Electrical Products, Electronics, Vehicles, Metals, Photographic Apparatus,
Surgical Instruments, Scientific Equipment.
Major Exports: Processed Foods, Cocoa Beans, Seeds, Juices, Fruit Products, Meat, Animal
Products, Vegetables, Metals, Vehicles, Machinery, Animal Feed, Textiles, Footwear, Petroleum
Products.
Balance of Trade: $16,112,000,000 (1989) il
Argentina
Argentina is the second largest country in South America, to the east of Andes Mountain range. It occupies an area
of 3,761 million square kilometers. The highest point is in Mendoza province at Cerro Aconcagua 7,010 meters
above sea level.
Food industries, motor vehicles, textiles, chemicals and petrochemicals and steel are the major industries in
Argentina.
Argentine exports valued USD 70,589 billion in 2009, while imports reached USD 57,413 billion in 2008. Food
exports include cereals, oils, flour, beef and fruits.
Bolivia
Bolivia has many industry sectors, with oil and natural gas playing a major part in the economy
of the country. Other industry sectors found in the Bolivian economy are mining, smelting, food
and beverages, agriculture, tobacco, handicrafts and clothing. The agriculture sector consists of
many products which include soybeans, coffee, coca, cotton, corn, sugarcane, rice, potatoes and
timber.
Peru
00123

24. Peru industriesinclude textile industry, mineral industry, food industry, etc.
Peru has various kinds of industries. Some of the Peru industries are-
Mineral Industry
Iron and Steel Industry
Petroleum Industry
Fishing Industry
Textile Industry
Food Industry
The development of modern industries of Perumainly took place after World War II. Before
that time Peru industries were absorbed in mineral products, agricultural products,
manufacturing textile and leather products. Between the year 1950 and 1980 the contribution of
Peru Industries towards domestic production raised from 13.6 % to 24.5 %. Over the last 40
years industrial development comprehended a large number of industries in Peru.
The manufacturing products of Peru Industries include electronic products, engineering
products, tobacco products, rubber products, plastic products, etc. Around 70 % of the Peruvian
industry is focused on in the metropolitan region of Lima. The main trading collaborators of
Peru are the United States, Japan, Germany and Argentina.
Most of the factories of Peru are situated within the greater Lima region. The mining industry of
Peru is very large. Minerals like coal, silver, iron ore, gold, etc. are drawn out from Peru's
mining industry.
Fish meal, cotton, coffee, minerals and sugar are the chief export items of Peru and motor
vehicles, machinery, food, chemicals and metals are the chief import items of Peru.
Chile
Forestry
The Chilean forestry industry grew to comprise 13% of the country’s total exports in 2005,
making it one of the largest export sectors for Chile.[22] Radiata Pine and Eucalyptus comprise
the vast majority of Chile's forestry exports.[22] Within the forestry sector, the largest contributor
to total production is pulp, followed by wood-based panels and lumber.[22] Due to popular and
increasing demands for Chile’s forestry products, the government is currently focusing on
increasing the already vast acreage of Chile’s Pine and Eucalyptus plantations as well as opening
new industrial plants.[22]
Mining
00124

25. See also: Mining in Chile
Chile produces more than a third of the world's copper.
The mining sector in Chile is one of the pillars of Chilean economy. The Chilean government
strongly supports foreign investment in the sector and has modified its mining industry laws and
regulations to create a favorable investing environment for foreigners. Thanks to a large amount
of copper resources, progressive legislation and a healthy investment environment, Chile has
become the copper mining capital of the world, producing over 1/3 of the global copper
output.[22]
Major Landforms
of SOUTH AMERICA
AMAZON BASIN
In short, the Amazon Basin (Amazonia) is covered by the largest tropical rain forest in the world, and
running through its heart is the Amazon River, and its more than 1,000 tributaries, seven of them more
than 1,000 miles in length. Measurable rain falls on an average of 200 days a year, and total rainfall
often approaches 100 inches per year.
The overall basin drains over 2,700,000 sq. miles, and covers about one-third of the South American
landmass. Rising high in the Andes, the river's network irrigates almost half of the continent, and in
terms of volume of water discharged into an ocean... it's the largest in the world.
00125

26. ANDES
This toothy-edged, massive mountain system extends from the tip of South America all the way to
Panama. It's the source of most major rivers on the continent and is 4,500 miles (7,240 km) in length. It's
home to some of the planet's largest volcanoes, and in the far south along the coast of Chile, large ice
sheets are commonplace.
The Andes and its many ranges include dozens of peaks that reach over 20,000 ft., with the highest
point being Aconcagua in Argentina, at 22,384 ft. (6,960m).
ATACAMA DESERT
Sparsely populated and running high into the Andes of Chile, this somewhat small desert (or plateau) is a
cold place and rainfall is very rare.
It's approximately 100 miles wide and 625 miles long. The landscape is totally barren and covered with
small borax lakes, lava flow remnants and saline deposits.
BRAZILIAN HIGHLANDS
This highland region - about 800 miles in length - runs through the Brazilian states of Minas Gerais,
Goias, Bahia and Sao Paulo in southeastern Brazil. The magnificent landscape includes varied mountain
ranges, namely the Serra de Mantiquiera, Serra doParanapiataba, Serra Geral, and Serra do Mar.
The estimated highest point is 7,368 ft (2,245m).
Mountains
00126

27. South America Mountains, the term conjures up the image of the snow capped peaks of the Andes
standing tall among the topographical features of South America. The Andes Mountains is the most
massive mountain ranges of South America with a large number of very high peaks.
South American continent consists of 12 countries. Located at the southernmost corner of the world,
Punta Arenas is a city in South America.
Amazon, the largest river in the world is also situated in the South American continent. Your South
America vacation can include a visit to the rainforests of this continent. South American continent is
connected to the continent of North America by the narrow cape of Panama and includes few island
groups.
Falklands or the Malvinas Islands are few of the prominent islands that are considered part of the
continent of South America.
The Andes is the most prominent mountain range of South America. The extension of the Andes is also
greater than any other mountain system of the world. The narrow belt of the three connected ranges of
the Andes stretch from the Caribbean Sea to the Tierra del Fuego island, more than 8000km in length.
The Andes Mountains of South America were formed during the Cretaceous Period due to the
movements of the tectonic plates. The sedimentary layers of the earth's crust make up the folds of the
mountains. The living South America Mountains still experience earthquakes and volcanic eruptions. The
three parts of the Andes are the northern arc made up of three parallel ranges, Cordillera Occidental,
Cordillera Central and Cordillera Oriental; the central part with two ranges enclosing within them
Altiplano, a vast plateau; and the southern part, the lower regions. The highest peak of South America is
Aconcagua in Argentina with a height of 6,960m.
00127

28. The rivers on the east of the Andes are fed by the moisture bearing westerly winds and feed the
Amazon, the Orinoco and other rivers. Among the lakes in the Andes is Lake Titicaca, in the plateau of
the Andes.
The Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta is another mountain range of South America.
River
he Amazon River is the principal river of South America.
Amazon River, (Portuguese and Spanish: Amazonas), one of the great rivers of the world and the
chief river of South America. With a length of about 4,000 miles (6,400 km), it is the second
longest river in the world, exceeded only by the Nile. The Amazon's flow is by far the world's
largest.
Tributaries and Basin
Thousands of rivers flow, directly or indirectly, into the Amazon, draining parts of Bolivia,
Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, Guyana, Peru, and Venezuela. The longest tributary is the 2,100-mile
(3,380-km) Madeira River; other major tributaries include the Negro, Tapajós and Xingu. Many
tributaries have falls and rapids that impede navigation. The Amazon river system is joined to the
Orinoco system by the Casiquiare River in Venezuela.
Essequibo,
the largest river in Guyana. Its source is in the Guiana Highlands on the Brazilian border. The river flows
600 miles (965 km) north past Bartica and Parika. Its island-dotted estuary, 20 miles (32 km) wide, runs
into the Atlantic northwest of Georgetown. The river has numerous rapids and falls but is navigable for
ocean ships for about 50 miles (80 km), up to Bartica. The Essequibo is an important route from the
interior.
Casiquiare
River, also Cassiquiare River and Canal Casiquiare, a river linking the Orinoco and Amazon river systems
of South America. The Casiquiare branches from the Orinoco in southern Venezuela and flows south
westward about 220 miles (350 km) through flat marshy land to the Rio Negro, a principal tributary of
the Amazon.
Apurá
00128

29. River, a river in South America. It is called the Caquetá in Colombia. The length is estimated at 1,700
miles (2,740 km). From its source in the Colombian Andes, the river flows southeastward into Brazil,
where it is navigable. It joins the Amazon River through channels that flood seasonally to form lakes.
Japurá
River, a river in South America. It is called the Caquetá in Colombia. The length is estimated at 1,700
miles (2,740 km). From its source in the Colombian Andes, the river flows southeastward into Brazil,
where it is navigable. It joins the Amazon River through channels that flood seasonally to form lakes.
Madeira River, a main tributary of the Amazon River. It begins at the junction of the Mamore
and Beni rivers and flows generally northeastward through Brazil, reaching the Amazon 90 miles
(145 km) east of Manaus.
The Magdalena River
Magdalena River, the main river of Colombia, South America. From southwestern Colombia it
flows about 1,000 miles (1,600 km) northward to the Caribbean Sea—past Neiva, Girardot, and
the port of Barranquilla.
The Maipo River
Maipo River, a river in central Chile. It flows 155 miles (249 km) westward from the Andes
Mountains to the Pacific Ocean.
The Napo River
Napo River, a tributary of the Amazon. It begins in the Andes Mountains of central Ecuador,
flows southeastward into Peru, and enters the Amazon 50 miles (80 km) north of Iquitos.
The Orinoco River
Orinoco River, one of the great rivers of South America. It flows through the northern part of the
continent, draining parts of Venezuela and Colombia.
00129

30. The Paraguay River
Paraguay River, a river in central South America. From its source on the Mato Grosso Plateau in
southwestern Brazil it flows generally southward through Paraguay to join the Paraná River just
north of Corrientes, Argentina.
The Parana River
Paraná River (Spanish, a river in southeastern South America. It is formed by the union of the
Grande and Paranaíba rivers in southern Brazil.
Paranaíba River, a river in eastern South America. Its source is in east-central Brazil, and it flows
west and southwest for about 500 miles (800 km), uniting with the Grande in southern Brazil to
form the Paraná River.
The Pilcomayo River
Pilcomayo River, a river in central South America. It begins in the Andes Mountains of western
Bolivia, and flows southeastward 700 miles (1,100 km) to join the Paraguay River at Asunción,
Paraguary.
The Purus River
Purus River, a tributary of the Amazon River in central South America. It begins as the Alto
(upper) Purús in the Peruvian Andes and flows northeastward for about 1,800 miles (2,900 km).
The Putumayo River
Putumayo River, (in Brazil: Iĉa, a tributary of the Amazon River in east-central South America.
The Rio de La Plata
La Plata, Río de, a body of water forming the major indentation on the Atlantic coast of South
America.
00130

31. The Rio Negro
Rio Negro, a river and important tributary of the Amazon River in South America. It begins at
the junction of the Guainía and Casiquiare rivers on the Colombia-Venezuela boundary and
forms the boundary between those two countries as it flows southward into Brazil.
The Sao Francisco River
São Francisco River, a major river in eastern Brazil, the longest entirely within the country.
The Tapajos River
Tapajos River, a principal tributary of the Amazon River. The Tapajos is formed by the junction
of the Juruena and Teles Pires (Sao Manuel) rivers in nort-central Brazil and flows some 500
miles (800 km) northeastward to the Amazon at Santarem.
The Ucayali River
Ucayali River, a river in eastern and northern Peru, and one of the main headstreams of the
Amazon River.
Deserts
The Atacama Desert (Spanish: Desierto de Atacama) is a plateau in South America, covering a 600-mile
(1,000 km) strip of land on the Pacific coast, west of the Andes mountains. It is, according to NASA,
National Geographic and many other publications, the driest desert in the world.[1][2][3][4] The Atacama
occupies 40,600 square miles (105,000 km2)[5] in northern Chile, composed mostly of salt basins
(salares), sand, and felsic lava flows towards the Andes.
The Atacama Desert ecoregion, as defined by the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF), extends
from a few kilometers south of the Peru-Chile border to about 30° south latitude.[6] To the north
lies the Peruvian Sechura Desert ecoregion, whilst to the south is the Chilean Matorral ecoregion.
The National Geographic Society, by contrast, considers the coastal area of southern Peru to be
part of the Atacama Desert.[7][8] It includes in this definition the deserts south of the Ica Region in
Peru.
00131

32. To the east lies the less arid Central Andean dry puna ecoregion. The drier portion of this
ecoregion is located south of the Loa River between the parallel Sierra Vicuña Mackenna and
Cordillera Domeyko. To the north of the mentioned river lies the Pampa del Tamarugal.
The Patagonian Desert, also known as the Patagonia Desert or the Patagonian Steppe, is the
largest desert in Argentina and is the 7th largest desert in the world by area, occupying 673,000
square kilometers (260,000 mi²). It is located primarily in Argentina with small parts in Chile
and is bounded by the Andes, to its west, and the Atlantic Ocean to its east, in the region of
Patagonia, southern Argentina. To the north the desert grades into the semi-arid Cuyo Region
and the Dry and Humid Pampas. The central parts of the steppe are dominated by shrubby and
herbaceous plant species albeit to the west, where precipitation is higher, bushes are replaced by
grasses.[1] Topographically the deserts consist of alternating tablelands and massifs dissected by
river valleys and canyons. The more western parts of the steppe host lakes of glacial origin and
grades into barren mountains or cold temperate forests along valleys.
Inhabited by hunter-gatherers since Pre-Hispanic times the desert faced in the 19th century
migration of Mapuches, Chileans, Argentines, Welshs and other European peoples transforming
it from a conflictive borderland zone to an integral part of Argentina with cattle, sheep and horse
husbandry being the primary land use.
La Guajira Desert is located in the northernmost part of Colombia, 610 km (380 mi) north of
Bogota, in the La Guajira Department, covering most of La Guajira Peninsula including
Venezuelan territory. The area holds immense coal reserves, exploited in a zone known as El
Cerrejon. The area is also home to the indigenous Wayuu people and a variety of desert flora and
fauna.
The National Natural Park of Macuira is located in the La Guajira Desert and is a tropical oasis.
It has been a national park since 1977. The park covers 25,000 hectares (62,000 acres) in La
Guiajira’s only mountain chain, and ranges in altitude from 0 to 450 metres (1,480 ft). It has a
warm climate of about 27 °C (81 °F).
Largest cities
This list features the most populated cities in South America, considering the city proper only.
See the article on each city for sources.
Ranking Name Country Population
00132

33. 1 São Paulo Brazil 10,886,518
2 Bogotá Colombia 6,840,116
3 Lima Peru 6,321,173
4 Rio de Janeiro Brazil 6,093,472
5 Caracas Venezuela 5,576,000
6 Santiago Chile 5,428,590
7 Maracaibo Venezuela 4,163,670
8 Buenos Aires Argentina 3,776,138
9 Salvador da Bahia Brazil 2,892,625
10 Valencia Venezuela 2,585,202
11 Brasília Brazil 2,455,903
12 Fortaleza Brazil 2,431,415
13 Belo Horizonte Brazil 2,412,937
14 Medellín Colombia 2,214,494
15 Cali Colombia 2,119,908
16 Guayaquil Ecuador 1,985,379
17 Curitiba Brazil 1,797,408
18 Córdoba Argentina 1,613,211
19 Manaus Brazil 1,612,475
20 Barquisimeto Venezuela 1,600,000
21 Recife Brazil 1,533,580
22 Porto Alegre Brazil 1,420,667
00133

34. 23 Belém Brazil 1,408,847
24 Quito Ecuador 1,399,378
25 Rosario Argentina 1,325,090
26 Montevideo Uruguay 1,303,182
27 Maracay Venezuela 1,302,000
28 Goiânia Brazil 1,244,645
29 Guarulhos Brazil 1,236,192
30 Barranquilla Colombia 1,146,359
31 Santa Cruz de la Sierra Bolivia 1,113,582
32 Mendoza Argentina 1,109,104
33 Campinas Brazil 1,039,297
34 São Gonçalo Brazil 960,631
35 São Luís Brazil 957,899
36 La Plata Argentina 957,800
37 Ciudad Guayana Venezuela 946,606
38 San Miguel de Tucumán Argentina 903,100
39 Cartagena Colombia 892,545
40 Maceió Brazil 874,014
00134

35. GDP (PPP) per capita
2009 GDP per capita
Rank Country
US dollars (World Bank)
1 Argentina 14,559
2 Chile 14,331
3 Uruguay 13,208
4 Venezuela 12,341
5 Brazil 10,427
6 Colombia 8,870
7 Suriname 8,800
8 Peru 8,600
9 Ecuador 7,300
11 Bolivia 4,600
10 Paraguay 4,100
12 Guyana 3,900
Countries with its population and area
00135

36. Population
Country or Area Population density
[35] (July 2009 Capital
territory with flag (km²) (per sq mi) [35] per km²
est.)
2
2,766,890 km (1,068,300 14.3/km²
Argentina 40,482,000 Buenos Aires
sq mi) (37/sq mi)
2
1,098,580 km (424,160 8.4/km² La Paz and Sucre
Bolivia 9,863,000 [36]
sq mi) (21.8/sq mi)
2
8,514,877 km (3,287,612 22.0/km²
Brazil 191,241,714 Brasília
sq mi) (57/sq mi)
2
[37] 756,950 km (292,260
Chile 16,928,873 22/km² (57/sq mi) Santiago
sq mi)
2
1,138,910 km (439,740 40/km²
Colombia 45,928,970 Bogotá
sq mi) (103.6/sq mi)
2
283,560 km (109,480 53.8/km²
Ecuador 14,573,101 Quito
sq mi) (139.3/sq mi)
2
Falkland Islands (United 12,173 km [39] 0.26/km²
[38] 3,140 Port Stanley
Kingdom) (4,700 sq mi) (0.7/sq mi)
2
91,000 km (35,000 [40]
French Guiana (France) 221,500 2.7/km² (5.4/sq mi) Cayenne
sq mi)
2
214,999 km (83,012
Guyana 772,298 3.5/km² (9.1/sq mi) Georgetown
sq mi)
2
406,750 km (157,050 15.6/km²
Paraguay 6,831,306 Asunción
sq mi) (40.4/sq mi)
2
1,285,220 km (496,230
Peru 29,132,013 22/km² (57/sq mi) Lima
sq mi)
South Georgia and 2
3,093 km
South Sandwich Islands (United 20 0/km² (0/sq mi) Grytviken
[41] (1,194 sq mi)
Kingdom)
00136

37. Population
Country or Area Population density
[35] (July 2009 Capital
territory with flag (km²) (per sq mi) [35] per km²
est.)
2
163,270 km (63,040
Suriname 472,000 3/km² (7.8/sq mi) Paramaribo
sq mi)
2
176,220 km (68,040 19.4/km²
Uruguay 3,477,780 Montevideo
sq mi) (50.2/sq mi)
2
912,050 km (352,140 30.2/km²
Venezuela 26,814,843 Caracas
sq mi) (72/sq mi)
Total 17,824,513 385,742,554 21.5/km²
00137