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GENETIC ENGINEERING OF
ALGAE FOR ENHANCED
BIOFUEL PRODUCTION
Radakovits, R., Jinkerson, R. E., Darzins, A., &
Posewitz, M. C. (2010)
‫درس‬:‫بیوتکنولوژی‬
‫زیستی‬ ‫های‬ ‫سوخت‬ ‫به‬ ‫گرایش‬ ‫دالیل‬:
.1‫نفتی‬ ‫های‬ ‫سوخت‬ ‫قیمت‬ ‫ناپایداری‬
.2‫خارجی‬ ‫ناپایدار‬ ‫منابع‬ ‫به‬ ‫وابستگی‬
.3‫افزایش‬CO₂‫اتمسفر‬
‫مقدمه‬:
2
‫فتوسنتتیک‬ ‫های‬ ‫جلبک‬:
‫میکروجلبک‬
‫ماکروجلبک‬
‫جلبک؟‬ ‫از‬ ‫گونه‬ ‫کدام‬
3
‫میکروجلبک‬ ‫از‬ ‫استفاده‬ ‫دالیل‬:
4
(1‫مداوم‬ ‫تولید‬ ‫در‬ ‫دشواری‬biomass
(2‫مهاجم‬ ‫های‬ ‫گونه‬
(3‫نور‬ ‫کم‬ ‫نفوذ‬
(4‫صرفه‬ ‫به‬ ‫مقرون‬ ‫استخراج‬ ‫های‬ ‫تکنیک‬ ‫کمبود‬
(5‫ضعیف‬ ‫ویژگی‬cold flow
‫میکروجلبک‬ ‫از‬ ‫استفاده‬ ‫تکنیکی‬ ‫مشکالت‬:
5
EST database
‫ژنوم‬ ‫یابی‬ ‫توالی‬
Chlamydomonas reinhardtii
‫میکروجلبک‬ ‫ژنتیک‬ ‫مهندسی‬:
6
‫بیان‬ ‫پایداری‬:
.1‫کدون‬ ‫از‬ ‫استفاده‬‫مناسب‬
.2‫اندوژن‬ ‫پروموتور‬ ‫از‬ ‫استفاده‬‫قوی‬
.3‫گنجاندن‬5’,3’‫اختصاصی‬‫گونه‬
•‫روش‬‫های‬‫و‬ ‫ترانسفورماسیون‬‫بیان‬:
7
‫ترانسفورماسیون‬ ‫های‬ ‫روش‬:
8
‫جداسازی‬:
.1‫آنتی‬ ‫به‬ ‫مقاومت‬ ‫مارکر‬‫بیوتک‬
.2‫های‬ ‫مارکر‬‫فلورسنت‬/‫بیوشیمیایی‬
.3‫لوسیفراز‬
.4β‫گلوکورونیداز‬
.5β‫گاالکتوزیداز‬
.6GFP
9
‫بیوسنتز‬
‫کاتابولیسم‬
‫لیپید‬ ‫های‬ ‫ویژگی‬ ‫اصالح‬
‫میکروجلبک‬ ‫چربی‬ ‫محتوای‬ ‫اصالح‬ ‫پتانسیل‬
‫لیپید‬ ‫متابولیسم‬ ‫ژنتیک‬ ‫مهندسی‬:
10
• Overexpression of TAG assembly genes
• Blocking metabolic pathways
‫بیوسنتز‬
11
DAGAT
‫گلیسرول‬3
‫آسیل‬ ‫فسفات‬
‫ترانسفراز‬
‫ایزوفسفاتیدیک‬
‫آسیل‬ ‫اسید‬
‫ترانسفراز‬
‫آسیل‬ ‫دی‬
‫آسیل‬ ‫گلیسرول‬
‫ترانسفراز‬
‫کاتابولیسم‬
12
‫کاهش‬
‫کاتابولی‬‫سم‬
‫افزایش‬
‫لیپ‬ ‫تجمع‬‫ید‬
Random mutagenesis
RNA silencing
(1‫تکثیر‬ ‫و‬ ‫رشد‬ ‫بر‬ ‫آور‬ ‫زیان‬ ‫اثرات‬
(2‫ها‬ ‫آنزیم‬ ‫عملکرد‬ ‫پوشانی‬ ‫هم‬
(3‫مصرف‬ ‫از‬ ‫ممانعت‬TAG‫رشد‬ ‫کاهش‬
(4‫منتظره‬ ‫غیر‬ ‫های‬ ‫فنوتیپ‬
‫پیرامون‬ ‫نکاتی‬Knockout‫لیپ‬ ‫کاتابولیسم‬ ‫در‬ ‫دخیل‬ ‫های‬ ‫ژن‬ ‫کردن‬‫ید‬:
13
‫لیپید‬ ‫های‬ ‫ویژگی‬ ‫اصالح‬:
‫های‬ ‫اسید‬ ‫اکثر‬
‫چرب‬
‫میکروجلبک‬
14‫تا‬20
14
‫ها‬ ‫گونه‬ ‫اکثریت‬
16:0،16:1‫و‬18:1
‫آل‬ ‫ایده‬ ‫طول‬FA
‫برای‬‫دیزل‬ ‫تولید‬
12:0‫و‬14:0
Transgenic overexpression of thioesterases
Change fatty acid chain length
‫لگاریتمی‬ ‫رشد‬ ‫طی‬ ‫لیپید‬ ‫از‬ ‫باال‬ ‫مقادیر‬ ‫تولید‬ ‫عدم‬
‫محیطی‬ ‫ها‬ ‫استرس‬ ‫با‬ ‫مواجهه‬ ‫در‬ ‫تکثیر‬ ‫توقف‬
‫میشود‬ ‫سلولی‬ ‫تقسیم‬ ‫به‬ ‫منجر‬ ‫لیپید‬ ‫سنتز‬
Inducible promoter
‫محتوای‬‫لیپید‬‫دارد‬ ‫اصالح‬ ‫قابلیت‬ ‫میکروجلبک‬.
15
‫مشکالت‬:
‫اقتصادی‬ ‫صرفه‬ ‫عدم‬
‫سوخت‬ ‫بودن‬ ‫سمی‬
‫زیستی‬ ‫سوخت‬ ‫مستقیم‬ ‫سنتز‬
16
carbohydrate
butanol
H₂
lipidmethane
ethanol
‫کربوهیدرات‬ ‫متابولیسم‬ ‫ژنتیکی‬ ‫اصالح‬:
17
‫ذخیره‬ ‫افزایش‬ ‫برای‬ ‫ژنتیکی‬ ‫های‬ ‫استراتژی‬‫گ‬‫لوکان‬
‫کاهش‬‫میکروجلبک‬ ‫در‬ ‫نشاسته‬ ‫تخریب‬
‫محلول‬ ‫قند‬ ‫و‬ ‫ترشح‬ ‫استراتژی‬
Mutant consideration
‫میکروجلبک‬ ‫در‬ ‫نشاسته‬ ‫تخریب‬ ‫کاهش‬
18
‫ها‬ ‫یافته‬ ‫جهش‬ ‫مالحضات‬
19
•‫کمتر‬ ‫نشاسته‬ ‫که‬ ‫هایی‬ ‫موتانت‬‫ی‬
‫نشاس‬ ‫تخریب‬ ‫میزان‬ ‫یا‬ ‫میسازند‬‫ته‬
‫رشد‬ ‫اغلب‬ ،‫یافته‬ ‫کاهش‬ ‫ها‬ ‫آن‬
‫دارند‬ ‫کمتری‬.
•‫زمان‬ ‫مدت‬ ‫در‬ ‫موتانت‬‫کوتاه‬‫نور‬
‫رشد‬‫کمتری‬‫به‬ ‫نسبت‬WT‫دارد‬.
•‫نور‬ ‫در‬ ‫ولی‬‫مداوم‬‫دو‬ ‫هر‬ ‫رشد‬
‫برابر‬‫است‬.
Diurnal cycle
‫میکروجلبکی‬ ‫هیدروژن‬ ‫تولید‬
20
[FeFe]-hydrogenase H-cluster
[NiFe]-hydrogenase metallo-cluster
‫استرس‬ ‫های‬ ‫فاکتور‬:
 Salt concentration
 Temperature
 pH
 Light intensity
‫به‬ ‫مقاومت‬ ‫افزایش‬ ‫ی‬ ‫بوسیله‬ ‫یافته‬ ‫بهبود‬ ‫رشد‬ ‫ظرفیت‬‫یا‬ ‫استرس‬
‫فتوسنتتیک‬ ‫کارایی‬ ‫افزایش‬:
21
High-light stress
22
WT
tla 1
Photo
inhibition
(1‫فتوسنتتیک‬ ‫کارایی‬
(2‫تولید‬ ‫سرعت‬biomass
(3‫زیستی‬ ‫سوخت‬ ‫انواع‬ ‫تولید‬
(4‫مختلف‬ ‫های‬ ‫اکوسیستم‬ ‫در‬ ‫رشد‬
‫گیری‬ ‫نتیجه‬:
23
24
1. Radakovits, R., Jinkerson, R. E., Darzins, A., & Posewitz, M. C. (2010). Genetic engineering of algae for enhanced biofuel
production. Eukaryotic cell, 9(4), 486-501.
2. Zeeman, S. C., T. Delatte, G. Messerli, M. Umhang, M. Stettler, T. Mettler, S. Streb, H. Reinhold, and O. Kotting. 2007. Starch
breakdown: recent discoveries suggest distinct pathways and novel mechanisms. Funct. Plant Biol. 34:465–473
3. Ghirardi, M. L., M. C. Posewitz, P. C. Maness, A. Dubini, J. Yu, and M. Seibert. 2007. Hydrogenases and hydrogen
photoproduction in oxygenic photosynthetic organisms. Annu. Rev. Plant Biol. 58:71–91.
4. Melis, A., L. Zhang, M. Forestier, M. L. Ghirardi, and M. Seibert. 2000. Sustained photobiological hydrogen gas production
upon reversible inactivation of oxygen evolution in the green alga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii. Plant Physiol. 122:127–136.
5. Kosourov, S. N., and M. Seibert. 2009. Hydrogen photoproduction by nutrient-deprived Chlamydomonas reinhardtii cells
immobilized within thin alginate films under aerobic and anaerobic conditions. Biotechnol. Bioeng. 102:50–58
6. Ghirardi, M. L., A. Dubini, J. Yu, and P.-C. Maness. 2009. Photobiological hydrogen-producing systems. Chem. Soc. Rev. 38:52–
61.
7. Hankamer, B., F. Lehr, J. Rupprecht, J. H. Mussgnug, C. Posten, and O. Kruse. 2007. Photosynthetic biomass and H2
production by green algae: from bioengineering to bioreactor scale-up. Physiol. Plant. 131:10–21.
8. Melis, A. 2009. Solar energy conversion efficiencies in photosynthesis: minimizing the chlorophyll antennae to maximize
efficiency.PlantSci. 177:272– 280.
25
9. Huesemann, M. H., T. S. Hausmann, R. Bartha, M. Aksoy, J. C. Weissman, and J. R. Benemann. 2009. Biomass productivities in
wild type and pigment mutant of Cyclotella sp. (diatom). Appl. Biochem. Biotechnol. 157:507–526.
10. Suda, Y., T. Yoshikawa, Y. Okuda, M. Tsunemoto, S. Tanaka, K. Ikeda, H. Miyasaka, M. Watanabe, K. Sasaki, and K. Harada. 2009.
Isolation and characterization of a novel antistress gene from Chlamydomonas sp. W80. J. Biosci. Bioeng. 107:352–354.
11. Yoshimura, K., K. Miyao, A. Gaber, T. Takeda, H. Kanaboshi, H. Miyasaka, and S. Shigeoka. 2004. Enhancement of stress
tolerance in transgenic tobacco plants overexpressing Chlamydomonas glutathione peroxidase in chloroplasts or cytosol. Plant J.
37:21–33.
12. Shen, B., R. G. Jensen, and H. J. Bohnert. 1997. Increased resistance to oxidative stress in transgenic plants by targeting
mannitol biosynthesis to chloroplasts. Plant Physiol. 113:1177–1183.
13. Kumar, S. V., R. W. Misquitta, V. S. Reddy, B. J. Rao, and M. V. Rajam. 2004. Genetic transformation of the green alga—
Chlamydomonas reinhardtii by Agrobacterium tumefaciens. Plant Sci. 166:731–738.
14. Tetali, S. D., M. Mitra, and A. Melis. 2007. Development of the lightharvesting chlorophyll antenna in the green alga
Chlamydomonas reinhardtii is regulated by the novel Tla1 gene. Planta 225:813–829
15. Ng, I. S., Tan, S. I., Kao, P. H., Chang, Y. K., & Chang, J. S. (2017). Recent developments on genetic engineering of microalgae for
biofuels and bio‐based chemicals. Biotechnology journal, 12(10), 1600644.
26

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GENETIC ENGINEERING OF ALGAE FOR ENHANCED BIOFUEL PRODUCTION (in persian)

  • 1. GENETIC ENGINEERING OF ALGAE FOR ENHANCED BIOFUEL PRODUCTION Radakovits, R., Jinkerson, R. E., Darzins, A., & Posewitz, M. C. (2010) ‫درس‬:‫بیوتکنولوژی‬
  • 2. ‫زیستی‬ ‫های‬ ‫سوخت‬ ‫به‬ ‫گرایش‬ ‫دالیل‬: .1‫نفتی‬ ‫های‬ ‫سوخت‬ ‫قیمت‬ ‫ناپایداری‬ .2‫خارجی‬ ‫ناپایدار‬ ‫منابع‬ ‫به‬ ‫وابستگی‬ .3‫افزایش‬CO₂‫اتمسفر‬ ‫مقدمه‬: 2
  • 5. (1‫مداوم‬ ‫تولید‬ ‫در‬ ‫دشواری‬biomass (2‫مهاجم‬ ‫های‬ ‫گونه‬ (3‫نور‬ ‫کم‬ ‫نفوذ‬ (4‫صرفه‬ ‫به‬ ‫مقرون‬ ‫استخراج‬ ‫های‬ ‫تکنیک‬ ‫کمبود‬ (5‫ضعیف‬ ‫ویژگی‬cold flow ‫میکروجلبک‬ ‫از‬ ‫استفاده‬ ‫تکنیکی‬ ‫مشکالت‬: 5
  • 6. EST database ‫ژنوم‬ ‫یابی‬ ‫توالی‬ Chlamydomonas reinhardtii ‫میکروجلبک‬ ‫ژنتیک‬ ‫مهندسی‬: 6
  • 7. ‫بیان‬ ‫پایداری‬: .1‫کدون‬ ‫از‬ ‫استفاده‬‫مناسب‬ .2‫اندوژن‬ ‫پروموتور‬ ‫از‬ ‫استفاده‬‫قوی‬ .3‫گنجاندن‬5’,3’‫اختصاصی‬‫گونه‬ •‫روش‬‫های‬‫و‬ ‫ترانسفورماسیون‬‫بیان‬: 7
  • 9. ‫جداسازی‬: .1‫آنتی‬ ‫به‬ ‫مقاومت‬ ‫مارکر‬‫بیوتک‬ .2‫های‬ ‫مارکر‬‫فلورسنت‬/‫بیوشیمیایی‬ .3‫لوسیفراز‬ .4β‫گلوکورونیداز‬ .5β‫گاالکتوزیداز‬ .6GFP 9
  • 10. ‫بیوسنتز‬ ‫کاتابولیسم‬ ‫لیپید‬ ‫های‬ ‫ویژگی‬ ‫اصالح‬ ‫میکروجلبک‬ ‫چربی‬ ‫محتوای‬ ‫اصالح‬ ‫پتانسیل‬ ‫لیپید‬ ‫متابولیسم‬ ‫ژنتیک‬ ‫مهندسی‬: 10
  • 11. • Overexpression of TAG assembly genes • Blocking metabolic pathways ‫بیوسنتز‬ 11 DAGAT ‫گلیسرول‬3 ‫آسیل‬ ‫فسفات‬ ‫ترانسفراز‬ ‫ایزوفسفاتیدیک‬ ‫آسیل‬ ‫اسید‬ ‫ترانسفراز‬ ‫آسیل‬ ‫دی‬ ‫آسیل‬ ‫گلیسرول‬ ‫ترانسفراز‬
  • 13. (1‫تکثیر‬ ‫و‬ ‫رشد‬ ‫بر‬ ‫آور‬ ‫زیان‬ ‫اثرات‬ (2‫ها‬ ‫آنزیم‬ ‫عملکرد‬ ‫پوشانی‬ ‫هم‬ (3‫مصرف‬ ‫از‬ ‫ممانعت‬TAG‫رشد‬ ‫کاهش‬ (4‫منتظره‬ ‫غیر‬ ‫های‬ ‫فنوتیپ‬ ‫پیرامون‬ ‫نکاتی‬Knockout‫لیپ‬ ‫کاتابولیسم‬ ‫در‬ ‫دخیل‬ ‫های‬ ‫ژن‬ ‫کردن‬‫ید‬: 13
  • 14. ‫لیپید‬ ‫های‬ ‫ویژگی‬ ‫اصالح‬: ‫های‬ ‫اسید‬ ‫اکثر‬ ‫چرب‬ ‫میکروجلبک‬ 14‫تا‬20 14 ‫ها‬ ‫گونه‬ ‫اکثریت‬ 16:0،16:1‫و‬18:1 ‫آل‬ ‫ایده‬ ‫طول‬FA ‫برای‬‫دیزل‬ ‫تولید‬ 12:0‫و‬14:0 Transgenic overexpression of thioesterases Change fatty acid chain length
  • 15. ‫لگاریتمی‬ ‫رشد‬ ‫طی‬ ‫لیپید‬ ‫از‬ ‫باال‬ ‫مقادیر‬ ‫تولید‬ ‫عدم‬ ‫محیطی‬ ‫ها‬ ‫استرس‬ ‫با‬ ‫مواجهه‬ ‫در‬ ‫تکثیر‬ ‫توقف‬ ‫میشود‬ ‫سلولی‬ ‫تقسیم‬ ‫به‬ ‫منجر‬ ‫لیپید‬ ‫سنتز‬ Inducible promoter ‫محتوای‬‫لیپید‬‫دارد‬ ‫اصالح‬ ‫قابلیت‬ ‫میکروجلبک‬. 15
  • 16. ‫مشکالت‬: ‫اقتصادی‬ ‫صرفه‬ ‫عدم‬ ‫سوخت‬ ‫بودن‬ ‫سمی‬ ‫زیستی‬ ‫سوخت‬ ‫مستقیم‬ ‫سنتز‬ 16
  • 17. carbohydrate butanol H₂ lipidmethane ethanol ‫کربوهیدرات‬ ‫متابولیسم‬ ‫ژنتیکی‬ ‫اصالح‬: 17 ‫ذخیره‬ ‫افزایش‬ ‫برای‬ ‫ژنتیکی‬ ‫های‬ ‫استراتژی‬‫گ‬‫لوکان‬ ‫کاهش‬‫میکروجلبک‬ ‫در‬ ‫نشاسته‬ ‫تخریب‬ ‫محلول‬ ‫قند‬ ‫و‬ ‫ترشح‬ ‫استراتژی‬ Mutant consideration
  • 18. ‫میکروجلبک‬ ‫در‬ ‫نشاسته‬ ‫تخریب‬ ‫کاهش‬ 18
  • 19. ‫ها‬ ‫یافته‬ ‫جهش‬ ‫مالحضات‬ 19 •‫کمتر‬ ‫نشاسته‬ ‫که‬ ‫هایی‬ ‫موتانت‬‫ی‬ ‫نشاس‬ ‫تخریب‬ ‫میزان‬ ‫یا‬ ‫میسازند‬‫ته‬ ‫رشد‬ ‫اغلب‬ ،‫یافته‬ ‫کاهش‬ ‫ها‬ ‫آن‬ ‫دارند‬ ‫کمتری‬. •‫زمان‬ ‫مدت‬ ‫در‬ ‫موتانت‬‫کوتاه‬‫نور‬ ‫رشد‬‫کمتری‬‫به‬ ‫نسبت‬WT‫دارد‬. •‫نور‬ ‫در‬ ‫ولی‬‫مداوم‬‫دو‬ ‫هر‬ ‫رشد‬ ‫برابر‬‫است‬. Diurnal cycle
  • 21. ‫استرس‬ ‫های‬ ‫فاکتور‬:  Salt concentration  Temperature  pH  Light intensity ‫به‬ ‫مقاومت‬ ‫افزایش‬ ‫ی‬ ‫بوسیله‬ ‫یافته‬ ‫بهبود‬ ‫رشد‬ ‫ظرفیت‬‫یا‬ ‫استرس‬ ‫فتوسنتتیک‬ ‫کارایی‬ ‫افزایش‬: 21
  • 23. (1‫فتوسنتتیک‬ ‫کارایی‬ (2‫تولید‬ ‫سرعت‬biomass (3‫زیستی‬ ‫سوخت‬ ‫انواع‬ ‫تولید‬ (4‫مختلف‬ ‫های‬ ‫اکوسیستم‬ ‫در‬ ‫رشد‬ ‫گیری‬ ‫نتیجه‬: 23
  • 24. 24 1. Radakovits, R., Jinkerson, R. E., Darzins, A., & Posewitz, M. C. (2010). Genetic engineering of algae for enhanced biofuel production. Eukaryotic cell, 9(4), 486-501. 2. Zeeman, S. C., T. Delatte, G. Messerli, M. Umhang, M. Stettler, T. Mettler, S. Streb, H. Reinhold, and O. Kotting. 2007. Starch breakdown: recent discoveries suggest distinct pathways and novel mechanisms. Funct. Plant Biol. 34:465–473 3. Ghirardi, M. L., M. C. Posewitz, P. C. Maness, A. Dubini, J. Yu, and M. Seibert. 2007. Hydrogenases and hydrogen photoproduction in oxygenic photosynthetic organisms. Annu. Rev. Plant Biol. 58:71–91. 4. Melis, A., L. Zhang, M. Forestier, M. L. Ghirardi, and M. Seibert. 2000. Sustained photobiological hydrogen gas production upon reversible inactivation of oxygen evolution in the green alga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii. Plant Physiol. 122:127–136. 5. Kosourov, S. N., and M. Seibert. 2009. Hydrogen photoproduction by nutrient-deprived Chlamydomonas reinhardtii cells immobilized within thin alginate films under aerobic and anaerobic conditions. Biotechnol. Bioeng. 102:50–58 6. Ghirardi, M. L., A. Dubini, J. Yu, and P.-C. Maness. 2009. Photobiological hydrogen-producing systems. Chem. Soc. Rev. 38:52– 61. 7. Hankamer, B., F. Lehr, J. Rupprecht, J. H. Mussgnug, C. Posten, and O. Kruse. 2007. Photosynthetic biomass and H2 production by green algae: from bioengineering to bioreactor scale-up. Physiol. Plant. 131:10–21. 8. Melis, A. 2009. Solar energy conversion efficiencies in photosynthesis: minimizing the chlorophyll antennae to maximize efficiency.PlantSci. 177:272– 280.
  • 25. 25 9. Huesemann, M. H., T. S. Hausmann, R. Bartha, M. Aksoy, J. C. Weissman, and J. R. Benemann. 2009. Biomass productivities in wild type and pigment mutant of Cyclotella sp. (diatom). Appl. Biochem. Biotechnol. 157:507–526. 10. Suda, Y., T. Yoshikawa, Y. Okuda, M. Tsunemoto, S. Tanaka, K. Ikeda, H. Miyasaka, M. Watanabe, K. Sasaki, and K. Harada. 2009. Isolation and characterization of a novel antistress gene from Chlamydomonas sp. W80. J. Biosci. Bioeng. 107:352–354. 11. Yoshimura, K., K. Miyao, A. Gaber, T. Takeda, H. Kanaboshi, H. Miyasaka, and S. Shigeoka. 2004. Enhancement of stress tolerance in transgenic tobacco plants overexpressing Chlamydomonas glutathione peroxidase in chloroplasts or cytosol. Plant J. 37:21–33. 12. Shen, B., R. G. Jensen, and H. J. Bohnert. 1997. Increased resistance to oxidative stress in transgenic plants by targeting mannitol biosynthesis to chloroplasts. Plant Physiol. 113:1177–1183. 13. Kumar, S. V., R. W. Misquitta, V. S. Reddy, B. J. Rao, and M. V. Rajam. 2004. Genetic transformation of the green alga— Chlamydomonas reinhardtii by Agrobacterium tumefaciens. Plant Sci. 166:731–738. 14. Tetali, S. D., M. Mitra, and A. Melis. 2007. Development of the lightharvesting chlorophyll antenna in the green alga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii is regulated by the novel Tla1 gene. Planta 225:813–829 15. Ng, I. S., Tan, S. I., Kao, P. H., Chang, Y. K., & Chang, J. S. (2017). Recent developments on genetic engineering of microalgae for biofuels and bio‐based chemicals. Biotechnology journal, 12(10), 1600644.
  • 26. 26