This document discusses gender inequality in the workforce. It summarizes that society structures expectations based on gender, with masculinity expected to be assertive/dominant and femininity expected to be nurturing/caring. This leads to two major barriers - occupational segregation, where men and women cluster into traditional gender-typed careers, and a sex gap in pay, where women typically earn less than men. While changes are occurring, gender stereotypes still influence career choices and perpetuate inequality between men and women in the home and workplace.
This document summarizes research on wage differentials between gay/lesbian and heterosexual individuals. It finds that while gay men typically earn less than straight men, lesbians often earn more than straight women. The document reviews literature exploring two potential explanations for these differences. First, it examines theories of discrimination against gay men and stronger workforce attachment among lesbians. Second, it reviews research on how personality traits may affect wages differently for men and women. The document aims to understand how masculinity traits specifically could influence the wages of gay men and lesbians.
This document discusses competency as a potential factor in workplace bullying. It begins by providing background on workplace bullying, defining it as abuse of power that can be costly to organizations. It then discusses competency and how an individual's perceived competency may determine their reaction to bullying. Specifically, the authors develop a framework where a victim's self-perception of competency has a strong mediating relationship with outcomes of bullying behaviors. They believe examining this link between competency and bullying could provide insights, and future research should empirically test this relationship. Managers should also be aware of how allowing employee development could help reduce instances of bullying.
Women’s abuse experiences in Jordan: A comparative study using rural and urba...Rula alsawalqa
This study explored the patterns of economic abuse among working married women from rural and urban areas in Jordan, and identified their experiences with other abuses
nterconnected with economic abuse, including psychological, emotional, and physical abuse and
harassment. A quantitative research approach using a descriptive comparative design was
employed. The findings indicated that 55.5% of urban and 44.5% of rural women have
encountered spousal economic abuse in two ways: (1) controlling their economic resources
and managing their financial decisions and (2) exploiting their economic resources. Economic
abuse was found to be intertwined with other forms of abuse; women who faced economic
abuse also endured primarily emotional and psychological abuse, followed by physical abuse
and harassment, as tactics to reinforce economic abuse and maintain control over them. The
most common form of psychological abuse was being made to feel frustrated and neglected
when requesting emotional support, while emotional abuse was typified by resentment and
being told they are inadequate. Physical abuse included partners shaking, slapping, or
throwing objects at them. Both rural and urban women reported being harassed at their
workplace by their partners’ repeated phone calls. In general, urban women faced more
This study explored the patterns of economic abuse among working married women from rural and urban areas in Jordan, and identified their experiences with other abuses interconnected with economic abuse, including psychological, emotional, and physical abuse and harassment. A quantitative research approach using a descriptive comparative design was employed. The findings indicated that 55.5% of urban and 44.5% of rural women have encountered spousal economic abuse in two ways: (1) controlling their economic resources and managing their financial decisions and (2) exploiting their economic resources. Economic abuse was found to be intertwined with other forms of abuse; women who faced economic abuse also endured primarily emotional and psychological abuse, followed by physical abuse and harassment, as tactics to reinforce economic abuse and maintain control over them. The most common form of psychological abuse was being made to feel frustrated and neglected when requesting emotional support, while emotional abuse was typified by resentment and being told they are inadequate. Physical abuse included partners shaking, slapping, or throwing objects at them. Both rural and urban women reported being harassed at their workplace by their partners’ repeated phone calls. In general, urban women faced more economic and other forms of abuse than rural women, especially emotional and physical abuse.
Gender workplace segregation, also known as occupational sex segregation, refers to the phenomenon where men and women tend to work in different industries, occupations, or roles within the same industry. This document discusses explanations for occupational sex segregation, such as socialization influencing traditional career choices for men and women. It also discusses consequences, such as women earning less pay on average and facing barriers to promotion. The document proposes alternatives to address gender workplace segregation, such as expanding anti-discrimination laws, desegregating jobs, and addressing the fact that women are often primary caregivers through policies like paid family leave.
This study examined the lack of female leadership and explored ways to increase self-promotion in women. The researcher conducted an experiment with two groups that watched either a motivational video on female leadership or an unrelated video. The group that saw the motivational video displayed significantly higher self-promotion behaviors, suggesting motivation can help address the underrepresentation of women in leadership roles. The study concluded motivation and education are important for providing organizational support to promote more female leaders.
Sexual harassment includes unwelcome sexual conduct that affects employment. It includes quid pro quo harassment, where favors are demanded to avoid consequences, and hostile work environments. Studies show 40-75% of women and 13-31% of men experience harassment. Employers are liable for harassment and must prevent it through clear policies, training, and responding promptly to complaints. Harassment has negative consequences for victims' health, careers, and organizations through costs of lawsuits, replacement of employees, and lost productivity.
The Investment Model proposes that commitment to a relationship is predicted by satisfaction, quality of alternatives, and investment. Satisfaction is determined by rewards minus costs. Investment includes resources like shared friends, property, and emotional attachment that would be lost if the relationship ended. Research found students more committed when satisfaction and investments were higher. The model was also applied to abusive relationships, finding highest commitment when investment was high but alternatives were low. However, the model is reductionist in assuming people are purely rational and does not account for differences in expected investments by gender or culture.
This document summarizes research on wage differentials between gay/lesbian and heterosexual individuals. It finds that while gay men typically earn less than straight men, lesbians often earn more than straight women. The document reviews literature exploring two potential explanations for these differences. First, it examines theories of discrimination against gay men and stronger workforce attachment among lesbians. Second, it reviews research on how personality traits may affect wages differently for men and women. The document aims to understand how masculinity traits specifically could influence the wages of gay men and lesbians.
This document discusses competency as a potential factor in workplace bullying. It begins by providing background on workplace bullying, defining it as abuse of power that can be costly to organizations. It then discusses competency and how an individual's perceived competency may determine their reaction to bullying. Specifically, the authors develop a framework where a victim's self-perception of competency has a strong mediating relationship with outcomes of bullying behaviors. They believe examining this link between competency and bullying could provide insights, and future research should empirically test this relationship. Managers should also be aware of how allowing employee development could help reduce instances of bullying.
Women’s abuse experiences in Jordan: A comparative study using rural and urba...Rula alsawalqa
This study explored the patterns of economic abuse among working married women from rural and urban areas in Jordan, and identified their experiences with other abuses
nterconnected with economic abuse, including psychological, emotional, and physical abuse and
harassment. A quantitative research approach using a descriptive comparative design was
employed. The findings indicated that 55.5% of urban and 44.5% of rural women have
encountered spousal economic abuse in two ways: (1) controlling their economic resources
and managing their financial decisions and (2) exploiting their economic resources. Economic
abuse was found to be intertwined with other forms of abuse; women who faced economic
abuse also endured primarily emotional and psychological abuse, followed by physical abuse
and harassment, as tactics to reinforce economic abuse and maintain control over them. The
most common form of psychological abuse was being made to feel frustrated and neglected
when requesting emotional support, while emotional abuse was typified by resentment and
being told they are inadequate. Physical abuse included partners shaking, slapping, or
throwing objects at them. Both rural and urban women reported being harassed at their
workplace by their partners’ repeated phone calls. In general, urban women faced more
This study explored the patterns of economic abuse among working married women from rural and urban areas in Jordan, and identified their experiences with other abuses interconnected with economic abuse, including psychological, emotional, and physical abuse and harassment. A quantitative research approach using a descriptive comparative design was employed. The findings indicated that 55.5% of urban and 44.5% of rural women have encountered spousal economic abuse in two ways: (1) controlling their economic resources and managing their financial decisions and (2) exploiting their economic resources. Economic abuse was found to be intertwined with other forms of abuse; women who faced economic abuse also endured primarily emotional and psychological abuse, followed by physical abuse and harassment, as tactics to reinforce economic abuse and maintain control over them. The most common form of psychological abuse was being made to feel frustrated and neglected when requesting emotional support, while emotional abuse was typified by resentment and being told they are inadequate. Physical abuse included partners shaking, slapping, or throwing objects at them. Both rural and urban women reported being harassed at their workplace by their partners’ repeated phone calls. In general, urban women faced more economic and other forms of abuse than rural women, especially emotional and physical abuse.
Gender workplace segregation, also known as occupational sex segregation, refers to the phenomenon where men and women tend to work in different industries, occupations, or roles within the same industry. This document discusses explanations for occupational sex segregation, such as socialization influencing traditional career choices for men and women. It also discusses consequences, such as women earning less pay on average and facing barriers to promotion. The document proposes alternatives to address gender workplace segregation, such as expanding anti-discrimination laws, desegregating jobs, and addressing the fact that women are often primary caregivers through policies like paid family leave.
This study examined the lack of female leadership and explored ways to increase self-promotion in women. The researcher conducted an experiment with two groups that watched either a motivational video on female leadership or an unrelated video. The group that saw the motivational video displayed significantly higher self-promotion behaviors, suggesting motivation can help address the underrepresentation of women in leadership roles. The study concluded motivation and education are important for providing organizational support to promote more female leaders.
Sexual harassment includes unwelcome sexual conduct that affects employment. It includes quid pro quo harassment, where favors are demanded to avoid consequences, and hostile work environments. Studies show 40-75% of women and 13-31% of men experience harassment. Employers are liable for harassment and must prevent it through clear policies, training, and responding promptly to complaints. Harassment has negative consequences for victims' health, careers, and organizations through costs of lawsuits, replacement of employees, and lost productivity.
The Investment Model proposes that commitment to a relationship is predicted by satisfaction, quality of alternatives, and investment. Satisfaction is determined by rewards minus costs. Investment includes resources like shared friends, property, and emotional attachment that would be lost if the relationship ended. Research found students more committed when satisfaction and investments were higher. The model was also applied to abusive relationships, finding highest commitment when investment was high but alternatives were low. However, the model is reductionist in assuming people are purely rational and does not account for differences in expected investments by gender or culture.
Newman Research proposal Final Draft (1)Ryan Newman
Women continue to face gender inequality and barriers to career advancement in the workplace. Research has shown that industries tend to model the policies and practices of other similar organizations, resulting in increased homogeneity and barriers for women seeking leadership roles. Women experience obstacles such as the glass ceiling effect where an invisible barrier prevents advancement, as well as higher rates of sexual harassment compared to men. While having more women in leadership roles within an organization can help create opportunities for other women, simply having women on corporate boards does not guarantee greater equity or reduce the gender wage gap. Further research is needed to better understand and address the ongoing issue of gender inequality faced by women in the workforce.
Signature assignment organizational ethics & social responsibilityAmartin2009
The team analyzed the ethical issues surrounding sexual harassment. They discussed how it presents challenges to organizations by negatively impacting employee health and company finances. The team also synthesized best practices for dealing with harassment, such as zero tolerance policies, training, and protecting complainants. They evaluated how companies' responses to harassment affect their social responsibility and stakeholders. The team recommended strict enforcement of policies, education, and ensuring a safe reporting process.
This document discusses managing diversity and equal employment in staffing organizations. It covers defining diversity management and why it is important. It also discusses affirmative action, issues around gender including work-family balance and job assignments. Other topics covered include managing individuals with disabilities, religious beliefs, sexual harassment, and an aging workforce. The document provides learning objectives and definitions to frame the discussion around these issues.
This article analyzes why rates of sexual assault remain high on college campuses. Through ethnographic research including interviews and observations, the authors find that sexual assault occurs through the intersection of individual, organizational, and interactional factors. At the individual level, students have expectations of partying and drinking heavily. Organizationally, residential arrangements and fraternity control of parties concentrate students and normalize risk. Interactionally, expectations that women be nice and defer to men, combined with drinking, create vulnerability. The authors argue this synergistic intersection reproduces gender inequality and predicts sexual assault as an outcome of the college party culture.
Impact of career enablers and flexible working methods on workforce participa...IAEME Publication
This document summarizes a research study examining factors that influence career enablers for women professionals and their impact on workforce participation in India. The study used a sample of 1,064 women who attended a job fair. Most were under age 30, married, working full-time with less than 5 years' experience. The study aims to analyze relationships between work-life balance, career growth, longevity, engagement and use of flexible work arrangements. Initial analysis found that personal demographics like age, marital status and family type can influence women's work participation more than workplace factors for many in the sample. The research will further examine how career enablers like flexible schedules relate to indicators of career strength and longevity in the workforce.
The document discusses gender differences in leadership effectiveness and the barriers that women face in achieving leadership positions. While men and women are equally effective leaders overall, women tend to be more effective in leadership roles that align with stereotypical feminine traits, like education and social services. However, women are underrepresented in top leadership positions due to factors like human capital differences related to domestic responsibilities, gender differences in self-promotion, and prejudice stemming from perceptions that leadership requires stereotypically masculine traits. The "glass ceiling" refers to the invisible barrier preventing women's advancement, and its persistence is related to a lack of recognition of women's business, strategic, and financial acumen.
this presentation give you a general view of gender specially what need to as a organization in gender aspect. pls give me feedback and quarry send me email: ai_shahin@yahoo.com
Barriers women in Senior Management face in across Public and Private sectorsVanessa C
This document summarizes a report that compares the rates of women in senior management positions across the public and private sectors in Australia. It finds that while women make up over half the public sector workforce, they only hold about 40% of senior roles. In the private sector, women represent 34% of managers but it is estimated it would take 177 years for equal representation. The summary discusses barriers like organizational culture, glass ceilings, and gendered work environments that have limited women's advancement. While equal opportunity laws have been enacted, the impact has been minimal and changes are still largely dependent on policies at the organizational level.
This document discusses the need for leadership development programs designed specifically for women in higher education. It summarizes that while women now earn over half of college degrees, they hold significantly fewer top administrative positions than men. Gender-specific leadership programs can help advance more women by addressing barriers like unconscious biases, lack of mentors and networks, and challenges balancing career and family responsibilities. The document examines differences in typical leadership styles between men and women, and argues leadership training should consider reinforcing women's tendency toward transformational leadership styles.
This document summarizes a study that explored factors that contributed to women reaching senior policymaking positions in Israel. The study used in-depth interviews and questionnaires with 20 high-ranking women in Israel and a comparison group of 60 other women.
The findings identified diverse factors at multiple levels - including organizational properties that supported work-life balance, familial features like support at home, and personal attributes such as androgynous personality traits - that contributed to the advancement of women leaders. The researchers aimed to understand the obstacles women faced and how some overcame barriers to provide recommendations for promoting more women to positions of influence.
This document discusses gender inequality in the workforce. It outlines how gender roles shape lifestyles, careers and work styles. Specifically, it describes how masculinity is associated with agentic traits like independence and femininity with communal traits like nurturing. This occupational segregation and gender essentialism leads to two main barriers for women: occupational segregation into traditionally female jobs and a sex gap in pay. It provides data showing women dominate in caring jobs like teaching and nursing while men dominate physical jobs. The document also examines glass ceilings that limit women's career advancement, the "mommy track" where women forgo promotions for family, and glass escalators that promote men in female-dominated fields.
Gender matters 1st may, Glasgow Centre for International Development, Unviers...Matthew Maycock
This document summarizes the evolution of approaches to gender in development, beginning with Boserup's (1970) work highlighting the impact of development projects on women. It describes the Women in Development (WID) approach of the 1970s, which emphasized women's economic roles but was criticized for oversimplifying gender roles. The Gender and Development (GAD) perspective emerged in the 1980s-90s to consider gender divisions of labor and power relations, but was difficult to implement. More recently, the importance of analyzing masculinities and including men has been recognized, though there are concerns this could recentralize patriarchal perspectives. The document reviews critiques of each approach.
This document summarizes a paper analyzing patterns of harmful behaviors such as suicide, substance abuse, and deliberate self-harm among young adults ages 15-25 from a Durkheimian sociological perspective. It discusses how an imbalance of social integration and moral regulation can help explain these behaviors. Specifically, it finds that college students have higher levels of social integration and moral regulation due to social opportunities on campus, resulting in lower suicide rates compared to non-students. However, pressures to conform and use substances to manage stress can also lead to harmful behaviors like binge drinking and prescription drug abuse among college students if regulation is too low.
The document examines gender inequality that still exists in workplace culture despite advances towards equality. Two major issues are the gender wage gap and underrepresentation of women in certain fields. The Equal Pay Act of 1963 and Lilly Ledbetter Fair Pay Act of 2009 gave women legal rights to equality, but loopholes allow discrimination to continue. Debate focuses on whether discrimination causes the wage gap or if other factors are responsible. More research is needed to understand and address ongoing gender inequality issues.
Final submitted - GED - 21st September 2010Farhana Zaveri
The document discusses bride kidnapping in Kyrgyzstan through the lens of the capability approach. It provides background on Kyrgyzstan and the practice of bride kidnapping. While some claim bride kidnapping was not a traditional practice, it rose significantly in the 20th century. Currently, around 1 in 5 marriages involve kidnapping, though consent is only given in 1/3 of cases. Bride kidnapping limits women's freedoms and capabilities. While some women feel compelled to comply due to social stigma and pressure, the practice does not lead to truly valuable functioning for the brides. The capability approach aims to expand individuals' freedoms and opportunities to achieve valued states of being, but bride kidnapping constrains women's agency
21921, 10(36 am print page 1 of 63httpscontent.ashford.abhi353063
The document discusses the history and current state of residential placement of juveniles. It describes how the number of juveniles in residential facilities has declined significantly in recent years due to reforms aimed at reducing the use of confinement. The document also provides data on the types of residential facilities that exist and the numbers of juveniles placed in each state.
This document discusses the experiences of Black women in the workplace and strategies to improve retention. It summarizes that Black women face imposed invisibility and hypervisibility at work, which leads to increased harassment and health issues. Mentorship is identified as the most effective strategy, but it must involve educating mentors about systemic racism, building diverse networks, advocating for advancement, and acknowledging personal commitments. Broad and involved mentorship can counter struggles faced by Black women and elevate their skills and contributions to be properly recognized. While research on this topic has existed for over a decade, retention efforts are still needed to dismantle underlying white supremacy in addition to increasing representation.
What Should Be Done About Workplace Bullying?Philip J. Moss
Workplace bullying is a significant problem, affecting up to 1/3 of workers. While bullying itself is not unlawful, it can cross into unlawful harassment if directed at a protected class. Bullying has severe negative impacts on victims and organizations, increasing costs and decreasing productivity. While the US has not mandated anti-bullying policies, experts recommend employers implement policies prohibiting bullying and train managers to address issues promptly.
1) The study aimed to examine how adverse social conditions can lead to the development of social schemas that increase the likelihood of criminal behavior. It tested a model linking parenting, community disadvantages, and discrimination to the formation of three social schemas: a hostile view of relationships, concern for immediate gratification, and a cynical view of social norms.
2) The results found the three schemas were interrelated but did not conclusively demonstrate that they formed a "criminogenic knowledge structure" that predicted criminal acts. However, the social factors did influence schema formation in expected ways.
3) Future research could improve on limitations like the homogenous sample and test how situational definitions mediated the relationship between schemas and crime. A more
Obstacles to women's political empowerment include persistent gender stereotypes and institutional barriers. Stereotypes view women as unsuitable leaders or demand they excel at everything like a "wonder woman". Institutions also disadvantage women through a lack of training opportunities and male-dominated networks. Further, traditional gender roles that assign domestic responsibilities primarily to women prevent many from having time for political participation. Overcoming these obstacles requires challenging stereotypes and the gender division of labor to allow women equal opportunities in public life.
Gender discrimination in the workplace continues to negatively impact women. Women earn less than men and face unfair stereotypes that prevent equal treatment and opportunity. Examples include a persistent wage gap where women make 78 cents for every dollar earned by men. Women also experience discrimination in hiring practices and workplace conditions due to the assumption that men are more capable. However, efforts are being made to promote fairness and women, such as Hillary Clinton, Beyoncé, and Oprah Winfrey, have overcome discrimination through determination and success.
Gender inequality persists in the workplace. While women now make up around half the workforce, they remain underrepresented in leadership positions and continue to earn less than men for similar work. This pay gap can be partially explained by women more often taking on lower-paying jobs and prioritizing family responsibilities over career advancement. However, gender biases and stereotypes also contribute significantly to inequality. Studies show women are judged more harshly than men and face barriers when breaking from traditional gender norms. Overcoming inequality will require addressing its deep-seated structural and societal causes, not just individual factors.
Newman Research proposal Final Draft (1)Ryan Newman
Women continue to face gender inequality and barriers to career advancement in the workplace. Research has shown that industries tend to model the policies and practices of other similar organizations, resulting in increased homogeneity and barriers for women seeking leadership roles. Women experience obstacles such as the glass ceiling effect where an invisible barrier prevents advancement, as well as higher rates of sexual harassment compared to men. While having more women in leadership roles within an organization can help create opportunities for other women, simply having women on corporate boards does not guarantee greater equity or reduce the gender wage gap. Further research is needed to better understand and address the ongoing issue of gender inequality faced by women in the workforce.
Signature assignment organizational ethics & social responsibilityAmartin2009
The team analyzed the ethical issues surrounding sexual harassment. They discussed how it presents challenges to organizations by negatively impacting employee health and company finances. The team also synthesized best practices for dealing with harassment, such as zero tolerance policies, training, and protecting complainants. They evaluated how companies' responses to harassment affect their social responsibility and stakeholders. The team recommended strict enforcement of policies, education, and ensuring a safe reporting process.
This document discusses managing diversity and equal employment in staffing organizations. It covers defining diversity management and why it is important. It also discusses affirmative action, issues around gender including work-family balance and job assignments. Other topics covered include managing individuals with disabilities, religious beliefs, sexual harassment, and an aging workforce. The document provides learning objectives and definitions to frame the discussion around these issues.
This article analyzes why rates of sexual assault remain high on college campuses. Through ethnographic research including interviews and observations, the authors find that sexual assault occurs through the intersection of individual, organizational, and interactional factors. At the individual level, students have expectations of partying and drinking heavily. Organizationally, residential arrangements and fraternity control of parties concentrate students and normalize risk. Interactionally, expectations that women be nice and defer to men, combined with drinking, create vulnerability. The authors argue this synergistic intersection reproduces gender inequality and predicts sexual assault as an outcome of the college party culture.
Impact of career enablers and flexible working methods on workforce participa...IAEME Publication
This document summarizes a research study examining factors that influence career enablers for women professionals and their impact on workforce participation in India. The study used a sample of 1,064 women who attended a job fair. Most were under age 30, married, working full-time with less than 5 years' experience. The study aims to analyze relationships between work-life balance, career growth, longevity, engagement and use of flexible work arrangements. Initial analysis found that personal demographics like age, marital status and family type can influence women's work participation more than workplace factors for many in the sample. The research will further examine how career enablers like flexible schedules relate to indicators of career strength and longevity in the workforce.
The document discusses gender differences in leadership effectiveness and the barriers that women face in achieving leadership positions. While men and women are equally effective leaders overall, women tend to be more effective in leadership roles that align with stereotypical feminine traits, like education and social services. However, women are underrepresented in top leadership positions due to factors like human capital differences related to domestic responsibilities, gender differences in self-promotion, and prejudice stemming from perceptions that leadership requires stereotypically masculine traits. The "glass ceiling" refers to the invisible barrier preventing women's advancement, and its persistence is related to a lack of recognition of women's business, strategic, and financial acumen.
this presentation give you a general view of gender specially what need to as a organization in gender aspect. pls give me feedback and quarry send me email: ai_shahin@yahoo.com
Barriers women in Senior Management face in across Public and Private sectorsVanessa C
This document summarizes a report that compares the rates of women in senior management positions across the public and private sectors in Australia. It finds that while women make up over half the public sector workforce, they only hold about 40% of senior roles. In the private sector, women represent 34% of managers but it is estimated it would take 177 years for equal representation. The summary discusses barriers like organizational culture, glass ceilings, and gendered work environments that have limited women's advancement. While equal opportunity laws have been enacted, the impact has been minimal and changes are still largely dependent on policies at the organizational level.
This document discusses the need for leadership development programs designed specifically for women in higher education. It summarizes that while women now earn over half of college degrees, they hold significantly fewer top administrative positions than men. Gender-specific leadership programs can help advance more women by addressing barriers like unconscious biases, lack of mentors and networks, and challenges balancing career and family responsibilities. The document examines differences in typical leadership styles between men and women, and argues leadership training should consider reinforcing women's tendency toward transformational leadership styles.
This document summarizes a study that explored factors that contributed to women reaching senior policymaking positions in Israel. The study used in-depth interviews and questionnaires with 20 high-ranking women in Israel and a comparison group of 60 other women.
The findings identified diverse factors at multiple levels - including organizational properties that supported work-life balance, familial features like support at home, and personal attributes such as androgynous personality traits - that contributed to the advancement of women leaders. The researchers aimed to understand the obstacles women faced and how some overcame barriers to provide recommendations for promoting more women to positions of influence.
This document discusses gender inequality in the workforce. It outlines how gender roles shape lifestyles, careers and work styles. Specifically, it describes how masculinity is associated with agentic traits like independence and femininity with communal traits like nurturing. This occupational segregation and gender essentialism leads to two main barriers for women: occupational segregation into traditionally female jobs and a sex gap in pay. It provides data showing women dominate in caring jobs like teaching and nursing while men dominate physical jobs. The document also examines glass ceilings that limit women's career advancement, the "mommy track" where women forgo promotions for family, and glass escalators that promote men in female-dominated fields.
Gender matters 1st may, Glasgow Centre for International Development, Unviers...Matthew Maycock
This document summarizes the evolution of approaches to gender in development, beginning with Boserup's (1970) work highlighting the impact of development projects on women. It describes the Women in Development (WID) approach of the 1970s, which emphasized women's economic roles but was criticized for oversimplifying gender roles. The Gender and Development (GAD) perspective emerged in the 1980s-90s to consider gender divisions of labor and power relations, but was difficult to implement. More recently, the importance of analyzing masculinities and including men has been recognized, though there are concerns this could recentralize patriarchal perspectives. The document reviews critiques of each approach.
This document summarizes a paper analyzing patterns of harmful behaviors such as suicide, substance abuse, and deliberate self-harm among young adults ages 15-25 from a Durkheimian sociological perspective. It discusses how an imbalance of social integration and moral regulation can help explain these behaviors. Specifically, it finds that college students have higher levels of social integration and moral regulation due to social opportunities on campus, resulting in lower suicide rates compared to non-students. However, pressures to conform and use substances to manage stress can also lead to harmful behaviors like binge drinking and prescription drug abuse among college students if regulation is too low.
The document examines gender inequality that still exists in workplace culture despite advances towards equality. Two major issues are the gender wage gap and underrepresentation of women in certain fields. The Equal Pay Act of 1963 and Lilly Ledbetter Fair Pay Act of 2009 gave women legal rights to equality, but loopholes allow discrimination to continue. Debate focuses on whether discrimination causes the wage gap or if other factors are responsible. More research is needed to understand and address ongoing gender inequality issues.
Final submitted - GED - 21st September 2010Farhana Zaveri
The document discusses bride kidnapping in Kyrgyzstan through the lens of the capability approach. It provides background on Kyrgyzstan and the practice of bride kidnapping. While some claim bride kidnapping was not a traditional practice, it rose significantly in the 20th century. Currently, around 1 in 5 marriages involve kidnapping, though consent is only given in 1/3 of cases. Bride kidnapping limits women's freedoms and capabilities. While some women feel compelled to comply due to social stigma and pressure, the practice does not lead to truly valuable functioning for the brides. The capability approach aims to expand individuals' freedoms and opportunities to achieve valued states of being, but bride kidnapping constrains women's agency
21921, 10(36 am print page 1 of 63httpscontent.ashford.abhi353063
The document discusses the history and current state of residential placement of juveniles. It describes how the number of juveniles in residential facilities has declined significantly in recent years due to reforms aimed at reducing the use of confinement. The document also provides data on the types of residential facilities that exist and the numbers of juveniles placed in each state.
This document discusses the experiences of Black women in the workplace and strategies to improve retention. It summarizes that Black women face imposed invisibility and hypervisibility at work, which leads to increased harassment and health issues. Mentorship is identified as the most effective strategy, but it must involve educating mentors about systemic racism, building diverse networks, advocating for advancement, and acknowledging personal commitments. Broad and involved mentorship can counter struggles faced by Black women and elevate their skills and contributions to be properly recognized. While research on this topic has existed for over a decade, retention efforts are still needed to dismantle underlying white supremacy in addition to increasing representation.
What Should Be Done About Workplace Bullying?Philip J. Moss
Workplace bullying is a significant problem, affecting up to 1/3 of workers. While bullying itself is not unlawful, it can cross into unlawful harassment if directed at a protected class. Bullying has severe negative impacts on victims and organizations, increasing costs and decreasing productivity. While the US has not mandated anti-bullying policies, experts recommend employers implement policies prohibiting bullying and train managers to address issues promptly.
1) The study aimed to examine how adverse social conditions can lead to the development of social schemas that increase the likelihood of criminal behavior. It tested a model linking parenting, community disadvantages, and discrimination to the formation of three social schemas: a hostile view of relationships, concern for immediate gratification, and a cynical view of social norms.
2) The results found the three schemas were interrelated but did not conclusively demonstrate that they formed a "criminogenic knowledge structure" that predicted criminal acts. However, the social factors did influence schema formation in expected ways.
3) Future research could improve on limitations like the homogenous sample and test how situational definitions mediated the relationship between schemas and crime. A more
Obstacles to women's political empowerment include persistent gender stereotypes and institutional barriers. Stereotypes view women as unsuitable leaders or demand they excel at everything like a "wonder woman". Institutions also disadvantage women through a lack of training opportunities and male-dominated networks. Further, traditional gender roles that assign domestic responsibilities primarily to women prevent many from having time for political participation. Overcoming these obstacles requires challenging stereotypes and the gender division of labor to allow women equal opportunities in public life.
Gender discrimination in the workplace continues to negatively impact women. Women earn less than men and face unfair stereotypes that prevent equal treatment and opportunity. Examples include a persistent wage gap where women make 78 cents for every dollar earned by men. Women also experience discrimination in hiring practices and workplace conditions due to the assumption that men are more capable. However, efforts are being made to promote fairness and women, such as Hillary Clinton, Beyoncé, and Oprah Winfrey, have overcome discrimination through determination and success.
Gender inequality persists in the workplace. While women now make up around half the workforce, they remain underrepresented in leadership positions and continue to earn less than men for similar work. This pay gap can be partially explained by women more often taking on lower-paying jobs and prioritizing family responsibilities over career advancement. However, gender biases and stereotypes also contribute significantly to inequality. Studies show women are judged more harshly than men and face barriers when breaking from traditional gender norms. Overcoming inequality will require addressing its deep-seated structural and societal causes, not just individual factors.
Qiang 6Gender NormsIntroductionAs human beings, we have a.docxmakdul
Qiang 6
Gender Norms
Introduction
As human beings, we have assigned ourselves roles in society that typify our different genders. Women have been assigned specific roles within society while the men have been assigned different set of roles as well. + Examples? Whereas this separation of roles between genders may be beneficial and accepted in some instances, it has worked to alienate a particular gender from various spheres of life in general. This paper argues that women have been disadvantaged by these accepted gender norms and as a result, stereotypes that are detrimental to women have been developed, women have been stifled when it comes to certain work industries such as the media and the portrayal of women in different media has as well worked to enhance these detrimental stereotypes (O’Brien, 14). It is important that these negative aspects of norms are considered (addressed and tackled) so that gender equality as envisaged by a majority of the world’s governments is achieved.
Gender norms refer to what society views as the correct male or female behavior. These expected norms of behavior are what would normally lead to the development of different gender roles for the males and females. The gender norms differ from one culture to another. The Middle East for instance is known for having their women solely dedicated to household and family duties, with minimal say in the affairs of government or anything beyond the family life. Women in these parts would as well have limited access to an education. Men in these areas, such as Pakistan for instance, have a greater say in the affairs of the country and in development as opposed to women.
Thesis Statement
Gender norms that have been accepted by society have had a detrimental effect on the females, with women being stereotyped in negative ways, their portrayal in society being negative and their progress in various job industries stifled as a result of these assigned norms.
Gender norms pose gender stereotypes on females, leading the public to view them with biased opinions and preventing them to make progress in their careers.
Discussion
Gender norms lead to the development of gender roles which normally develop in human beings from as early as childhood. This is normally as a result of the interactions we have with our parents, peers and teachers as well. + Evidence. These adults will normally reinforce the gender norms through education or the clothes they buy for their children, the colors they decorate rooms with or the different toys they provide to their children. It is these different roles that will normally lead to the development of stereotypes associated with either gender.
Stereotypes are generalizations and assumptions about what ought to be male or female characteristics. In most instances, these assumptions are inaccurate and hence they tend to have a negative impact. The stereotypes that are associated with women have worked to affect their progress in various s ...
Understanding Gender: A Journey Beyond Stereotypes*UsamaShabir11
This document summarizes a research article about gender categorization and stereotyping of targets beyond the male/female binary. The study investigated how people categorize targets based on facial features, behavioral information, and occupation when those factors are clearly masculine/feminine or ambiguous. Participants completed a gender categorization task and measures of stereotypes and attitudes. Results found that facial features had the strongest influence - targets were usually categorized as male or female when the face was clearly so. However, when the face was ambiguous, behavior and occupation provided additional cues that significantly impacted categorization. Around 10-13% of targets were categorized as nonbinary, more often by women and for ambiguous faces combined with ambiguous or feminine information. Nonbinary targets were
Gender Stratification Essay
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GENDER EQUITY AND LEADERSHIP IN EDUCATION GROUP ASSIGN FINAL DOC.pptxKibet Fredrick
The document discusses the effects of interactions between gender and the structures of education institutions on leadership, the economy, and academic achievement. Some key effects mentioned include discrimination, low academic achievement for female learners when teachers favor boys, negative influence on the subject choices of male and female students, maltreatment of different genders in educational institutions, workplace prejudice against particular genders, uneven access to education between males and females, lack of employment equality and legal protections for women, and societal mindsets impacting gender inequality. Gender is also shown to influence decision making, time management, and self-confidence in leadership positions. Interactions between gender further impact the economy through higher unemployment rates for women during economic downturns.
The document discusses gender stereotypes among married couples in family. It aims to critically examine stereotypical gender roles through a study of 100 married couples selected randomly. The study objectives are to identify major areas of gender stereotypes in household responsibilities, decision making, independence, and social life. It analyzes data collected through questionnaires and interviews using statistical techniques to understand stereotypical perceptions between husbands and wives. Preliminary results show disagreements around equal sharing of household work and a tendency to see men as achievers outside home while women take care of family.
The document provides an overview of course content for a class on gender and youth in value chains. The course covers topics such as gender analysis frameworks, gender mainstreaming in value chain management, and related policy issues. Assessment will be based on continuous assessments (50%) and a final exam (50%). Key concepts discussed in Chapter 1 include the differences between gender and sex, gender roles and identities, and approaches to promoting women's development including Women in Development (WID), Women and Development (WAD), and Gender and Development (GAD).
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Copyright 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
253
● Understand gender as a
social construction
● Explain the process of
gender socialization
● Identify different
components of gender
stratification
● Compare and contrast
different theories of
gender stratification
● Relate gender inequality in
the United States to that in
other nations
● Evaluate the different
components of change
with regard to gender
in this chapter, you will learn to:
The Social Construction
of Gender 254
Gender Socialization 257
Gender Stratification 264
Theories of Gender 271
Gender in Global Perspective 274
Gender and Social Change 275
Chapter Summary 278
Imagine suddenly becoming a member of the other sex. What would you have to change? First, you would probably change your appearance—clothing, hairstyle, and any adorn-
ments you wear. You would also have to change some of
your interpersonal behavior. Contrary to popular belief, men
talk more than women, are louder, are more likely to inter-
rupt, and are less likely to recognize others in conversation.
Women are more likely to laugh, express hesitance, and be
polite. Gender differences also appear in nonverbal communi-
cation. Women use less personal space, touch less in imper-
sonal settings (but are touched more), and smile more, even
when they are not necessarily happy (Wood 2013). Research-
ers even find that men and women write email in a different
style, women writing less opinionated email than men and
using it to maintain rapport and intimacy (Colley and Todd
2002; Sussman and Tyson 2000). Finally, you might have
to change many of your attitudes because men and women
differ significantly on many, if not most, social and political
issues (see ▲ Figure 11.1).
If you are a woman and became a man, perhaps the
change would be worth it. You would probably see your
income increase (especially if you became a White man). You
would have more power in virtually every social setting. You
would be far more likely to head a major corporation, run your
own business, or be elected to a political office—again, assum-
ing that you are White. Would it be worth it? As a man, you
would be far more likely to die a violent death and would
probably not live as long as a woman (National Center for
Health Statistics 2013).
If you are a man who became a woman, your income
would most likely drop significantly. More than fifty years
after passage of the Equal Pay Act in 1963, men still earn
22 percent more t ...
Gender is shaped by three intertwined levels - identity, interaction, and institution. From a young age, boys and girls are socialized through dress, education, and relationships to conform to societal gender expectations. One's gender identity influences how they are perceived and evaluated in institutions. For example, women often face criticism for deviating from expectations of motherhood or appearance. Gender inequality persists in many areas of society, including in politics where women face obstacles to leadership positions. Race also impacts social relationships and access to opportunities. The social structure of gender is complex and varies between cultures and over time.
Pathways to Equality: The Role of Men and Women in Gender EquityAtharv Kurhade
Gender sensitivity is a multifaceted concept that encompasses understanding, acknowledging, and addressing the impact of gender inequality on individuals and society. It involves recognizing the complex interplay between biological sex and socially constructed gender roles, as well as the ways in which these dynamics shape power dynamics, access to resources, and experiences of discrimination. In this comprehensive exploration of gender sensitivity, we will delve into various aspects, including the implications of gender inequality, the role of patriarchy, the importance of breaking stereotypes, and the necessity of promoting gender equality for the liberation of all genders.
Gender inequality manifests in numerous ways, affecting both men and women. Historically, women have faced systemic discrimination and oppression, resulting in limited opportunities for education, employment, and political participation. This inequality not only violates women's rights as citizens and individuals but also perpetuates harmful stereotypes and restricts the full realization of their potential. However, it is essential to recognize that gender inequality also impacts men, albeit differently. Traditional notions of masculinity can create pressure to conform to rigid gender roles, leading to mental health issues, and inhibiting emotional expression.
Understanding the notion of citizenship is crucial for contextualizing gender inequality within broader social and political frameworks. Citizenship entails not only legal rights and responsibilities but also social and cultural recognition within a community or nation. However, gender-based discrimination often undermines women's citizenship rights, denying them equal access to resources, opportunities, and decision-making processes. This violation of women's rights as citizens reflects the pervasive nature of gender inequalities and highlights the urgent need for systemic change.
Central to the perpetuation of gender inequality is the patriarchal system, which privileges men's power and dominance over women. Patriarchy operates through social structures and institutions, reinforcing traditional gender norms and perpetuating inequalities in access to resources and positions of power. By understanding patriarchy as a root cause of gender inequality, we can begin to challenge and dismantle its harmful effects, paving the way for more equitable societies.
Biological sex and socially constructed gender are distinct yet interconnected aspects of identity that shape individuals' experiences and opportunities. While biological sex refers to physical characteristics such as anatomy and genetics, gender encompasses the roles, behaviors, and identities that society attributes to individuals based on their perceived sex. It is essential to recognize that gender is not inherently tied to biology but is instead shaped by cultural norms and expectations.
1) This document contains notes from a formative structured debate on the topic of whether equality means making all people roughly the same and is a goal all societies should aim for.
2) The first argument presented is that gender equality in the workplace improves organizational performance and employee well-being by providing a more comprehensive perspective and higher quality work life.
3) The counter argument is that physiological differences between men and women do not necessarily lead to differences in skills or potential, and underrepresentation of women in some fields is likely due to social and institutional barriers rather than biology.
Euthanasia and physician-assisted suicide (PAS) present bioethical challenges for social workers due to tensions between client autonomy and risk of harm. Euthanasia is defined as deliberately ending a person's life to relieve suffering, while PAS involves a doctor providing a patient with lethal medication for self-administration. Both respect patient choice but may also involve feelings of burdening others or problems in healthcare systems. Social workers aim to balance self-determination and beneficence by limiting client actions that could seriously harm themselves or others, as per ethical codes. The document discusses debates around these issues.
This document discusses euthanasia and physician-assisted suicide. It defines active and passive euthanasia as deliberately or unintentionally ending a patient's life through action or inaction. Physician-assisted suicide involves a doctor providing a terminally ill patient with a lethal dose of medication to end their life. The document outlines debates around these issues, with some arguing they respect patient autonomy and end suffering, while others believe they could increase abuse and pressure vulnerable people into suicide. It also discusses the challenges they pose for social workers and doctors between patient self-determination and preventing harm.
This document summarizes research on gender differences in same-sex friendships. It finds that women's friendships tend to be more affectively oriented and focused on maintaining social networks and intimacy, while men's friendships are more instrumentally oriented and focused on promoting individuality and status. Some key differences discussed include women using gossip to build social networks while men use it to promote individuality, and men being more likely to disclose negative information to other men they see as more feminine. The document also discusses challenges to cross-sex friendships, like maintaining an appropriate emotional bond and public presentation without developing romantic feelings. In conclusion, it finds men and women can be friends but there are complexities, and men tend to receive more
This document discusses gender differences and similarities in same-sex and cross-sex friendships. It argues that while same-sex friendships appear different for men and women based on gender stereotypes, there are also many similarities in what each gender desires from friendships. Cross-sex friendships face additional complexity due to societal expectations of romantic intent between men and women. Gender plays an influential role in shaping friendship norms but may not reflect the realities of how men and women engage in actual friendships.
- The document presents a study examining the relationship between age and technology use. A survey was conducted with 115 participants across different age groups.
- Results showed those aged 18-30 were less likely to own a desktop but more likely to own a laptop. Those over 70 were more likely to own a desktop.
- Those aged 18-34 were more likely to use social networks, while those over 34 were half as likely. Those aged 18-64 were more likely to own a smartphone than those 65+.
This document discusses elder abuse and the issues surrounding an aging population in the United States. It notes that the elderly population is increasing dramatically and will continue to do so. As seniors become more dependent on others, cases of elder abuse from caregivers are also rising. The document outlines the different types of elder abuse and examines legislation aimed at preventing abuse and protecting seniors. However, it also notes some unintended consequences of legislation, such as a lack of uniformity between state laws and not accounting for cultural factors. Overall, the document analyzes the problems of an increasing elderly population, dependency, elder abuse, and the role of social workers and legislation in addressing this important social issue.
This document discusses Kanaka Maoli (Native Hawaiian) culture from several perspectives. It begins by noting the diversity within Hawaii and the importance of understanding different cultural identities as a social worker. It then examines the ethnicities within Hawaii, particularly Native Hawaiians, and the difficulties in defining who is truly Hawaiian. The document outlines some of the major historical oppressions Kanaka Maoli faced, from European diseases to colonization that took their land and imposed foreign value systems. It also discusses the traditional Hawaiian spirituality practices around healing and how they differed from Western religious views introduced by missionaries. Overall, the summary emphasizes that understanding the history of oppression and unique cultural beliefs around areas like spirituality is crucial for social workers to avoid stereotyping
1. Running Head: STRUCTURED BY GENDER
Structured by Gender: Inequality for Women in the Workforce
Kumiko Sasa
Colorado Mesa University
2. Structured by Gender 1
To a degree, everything in society is structured around gender, particularly the lifestyles
of people. Whether an individual is male or female, gender structures how they are supposed to
behave and where their priorities are supposed to be. This includes the types of careers, the
occupations, the style of work, and the responsibilities at home. As a result of ascribing status
according to gender, there are barriers placed within the social structure of the United states.
Two major barriers that impact both men and women is occupational segregation and the sex gap
in pay. However, in order to understand how these barriers are created, it is necessary to address
the concepts of “glass ceilings”, “the mommy track” and “glass escalators.”Ultimately, each of
these concepts illustrate how these barriers continually promote gender inequality for both men
and women in their homes and at work.
Gender Roles: Masculinity and Femininty
Before addressing the structure of gender inequality, gender itself should be defined. In
contrast to the concept of sex, as the fixed biologically determination of male and female
differences, the concept of gender is socially determined. Rather gender is “a result of cultural,
social, and psychological factors” (Marger 2014). In short, the behavioral expectations for males
and females is established by society. Then through socializ.ation, these expectations are taught
and individuals are socially expected to conform. For men and women, these expectations differ.
For men, they are held to the standards of masculinity. One of major traits for this particular
standard is being less emotional or less “feminine.” If a male acts more “feminine” then it is seen
as a negative, unacceptable, and the individual may be perceived as “gay or homosexual” and
less manly (Porter 2010). Furthermore, they are taught by society to be more competitive,
independent, and aggressive (Felmlee, Sweet, and Sinclair 2012). They are also “rated more
highly than women on agentic qualities such as instrumental competence, assertiveness,
3. Structured by Gender 2
confidence, independence, forcefulness, and dominance” (Ridgeway 2011:58). In short, the
acceptable behavior for men is to talk less and act more.
Women on the other hand are held to these standards of femininity, which are essentially
the opposite of masculinity. Instead of being non-communal, society perceives women to be
intimate, emotional, caring, and communal (Watson 2012). They are told to value these traits of
interconnectedness and nurturance (Felmlee, Sweet and Sinclair 2012). They are also “rated
more highly than men on communal attributes such as emotional expressiveness, nurturance,
interpersonal sensitivity, kindness, and responsiveness” (Ridgeway 2011:58). In contrast to
masculinity, women aren’t supposed to be domineering or arrogant. If they are perceived to be
more masculine, aggressive, demanding and assertive they may be labeled as a “butch” or
“bitch.” Overall, they must balance their femininity without appearing too masculine.
Given these ascribed statuses, society creates this social structure based on these
gendered behaviors. Males are to maintain assertiveness, dominance and instrumental action;
whereas, women are to maintain their interconnectedness, submission and nurturing behaviors.
As a result of these expectations, women and men have assimilated to these responsibilities
within the workforce and homelife. In all, society has assimilated to these expectations, and in
doing so has created barriers for both men and women to pursue options that differ from their
stereotypical gender roles. Two of which include occupational segregation and the sex gap in
pay.
Barrier One: Occupational Segregation
Entering the workforce, men and women are faced with the pressures of gender
stereotypes. For example, “if it is assumed that men are more aggressive and daring by nature,
police officer and firefighter become “natural” male occupations. If women are assumed to be
4. Structured by Gender 3
more compassionate and nurturing, nurse and schoolteacher become “natural” female
occupations” (Marger 2014:340). Essentially, each gender is automatically sorted into these
occupations based on their socially ascribed behaviors. For men, they are faced with the social
pressures of finding a job that demonstrates their strength, aggression, success, independence,
and action; in other words, their masculinity. In addition to these, men are to be seen holding
positions of authority and status. Occupations such as automative mechanics, lawyers, doctors,
pilots, truck drives, firefighters, engineers, and STEM field workers can be seen demonstrating
these various traits. In contrast, women are faced with the social pressures of finding a job that
highlights their “natural” abilities to care, nurture and give emotional support.This may include
jobs as teachers, nurses, dental hygenists, waitressing, social workers, and secretaries. Once
again, women are seen in jobs that require more of housekeeping tasks, caretaking, and behind
the scene actions rather than the central high status, highly active and engaged roles. Marger
emphasize that “this gender essentialism-the idea that there are unique male and female traits that
make men and women naturally suited to different occupational roles—continues to drive
women into the nonmanual sector of the labor force and, conversely, men into the manual
sector” (2014:341). In 2002, Liben and Bigler’s study found that the attitudes of both female and
male college students endorse these stereotypical occupations for themselves as well as others
(DiDonato and Strough 2013). On average, “men were more likely than women to state that they
would want to be an auto mechanic and that only men should be auto mechanics.Women were
more likely than men to state that they would want to be a dental assistant and that only women
should be dental assistants” (DiDonato and Strough 2013:538). When choosing a major, both
men and women were consistent with these traditional gender stereotypes. Data sugessts that
women make up 79% of education majors while men make up 82% of engineering majors
5. Structured by Gender 4
(Corbett and Hill 2012). In all, this research suggests that gender stereotypes can often lead to
self-fullfilling prophecies, ultimately sustaining and reinforcing occupational clustering and
gender inequality in the work force.
Occupational Clustering
Within the United States, men and women typically remain clustered into particular
occupations. For example, the majority of service occupations consist primarily of females.
According to the United States Department of Labor (2013), there are 30 leading occupations
that women are employeed in. A few of these include elementary and middle school teachers,
where women make up 81% of the total employeed, secretaries and administrative assistants
with 94%, registered nurses with 90%, health aids with 89%, receptionists with 92%, childcare
workers with 95%, preschool and kindergarten teachers with 98%, and social workers, where
80% of the employeed being female. Men on the other hand, make up the majority of
construction and engineering occupations. In relation to the percentage of women, men make up
almost 99% of jobs that include being a metal worker, central heating installer, and car mechanic
(CBS.nl 2004). This data suggests that gender stereotypes may play an important role in
occupational clustering. The socialization of women to be more communal and caring pushes
them to take on the more nurturing jobs. Whereas, for men, they are socialized to be more
competent in mathematics, building and action, which pushes them towards occupations within
construction.
In spite of these trends, the division of labor has become less rigid and defined according
to stereotypically female or male professions. Today, more women can be found in typically
male dominated career fields; including pharmacology, editing, and insurance agencies (Marger
2014). Furthermore, the number of women in some of the more prestigious professions, such as
6. Structured by Gender 5
medicine and law, have increased. According to the Department for Professional Employees, “in
2008, women accounted for 32.4% of all lawyers, 32.2% of all physicians and surgeons, and
68.8% of all psychologists” (2010). To some degree these percentages, as of 2012, have
increased. The percentage of women in legal occupations is approximately 50% (Bureau of
Labor Statistics 2014:35). From 32% it can be argued that this is a significant increase. In
contrast, the percentage of female physicians and surgeons has increased slightly to 34.3%
(Bureau of Labor Statistics 2014:36). This is similar for female psychologists, as the percentage
has risen slightly from 68% to 72.7% (Bureau of Labor Statistics 2014:35). These trends
illustrate, that although gender segregation still characterizes the labor force, changes are
occurring. It is important to note that in addition to these trends of females becoming more
integrated into typically male-dominated occupations, males are also becoming more involved in
typically female-dominated occupations. Dewan and Gebeloff explain that “nationally, two-
thirds more men were bank tellers, almost twice as many were receptionists and two-thirds more
were waiting tables in 2010, than a decade later” (2012). In addition to these occupations, men’s
representation in the nursing field has also increased. In 1970, only 2.7% of nurses were men, but
by 2011 9.6% of nurses were male (U.S. Census Bureau 2013:2). It can be argued that this is a
minor increase over a 31 year time span. However, it is still an increase of male participation in
female occupations.
Barrier Two: The Sex Gap in Pay
Although the division of labor appears to be less defined, who receives the larger
paycheck is still very distinct. Women still make relatively less money than men. On average,
they make 23% less (Marger 2013:342).This inequality of pay can have tremendous deficits for
women. In 2007, the Center for American Progress, found that over a 40-year period, female
7. Structured by Gender 6
workers lose approximately $434,000 in wages due to this pay inequity (Arons 2008). With
regards to this, it is important to look at the ranking of the U.S. and its level of inequality.
According to the Department for Professional Employees,“out of 23 Organization for Economic
Cooperation and Development (OECD) countries, the United States has the seventh largest
gender earnings gap. The gender wage gap in the U.S. is 21.6% well above the OECD average of
18.5%” (2010). Given this statistic, the wage gap can vary across countires.
This is also true for the wage gap across occupations; yet, this lag in women’s pay is
across almost every occupation, whether they are signified as predominately female or male
occupationss. In short, equal pay remains a problem and its significance comes from the dramatic
gap seen among various professions, both those stereotypically female occupations and
stereotypically male. First, looking at service occupations, that are deemed to be “naturally”
fitting for females, “women in professional and related occupations earned over 26% less than
their male counterparts, while women in sales and office occupations earned 20% less than
similarly employeed men” (Department for Professional Employees 2010). This trend is similar
for other occupations; for example, female elementary or middle school teachers earned over
14% less than similarly employed men; female registered nurses, whom comprise the majority of
the field, earn more than 5% less than those who were male; female physicians and surgeons
earned 36% less than males in the same position; and female lawyers typically earn 25% less
than lawyers who are male (U.S. Department of Labor 2010). These levels of pay inequality need
to be recognized as a social problem. In spite of whatever occupation a woman holds, she
continually makes less than her male coworker. To further explain why this problem exists it is
necessary to look at the concepts of “glass ceilings”, “the mommy track” and “glass escalators.”
8. Structured by Gender 7
Glass Ceilings and The Mommy Track
In reference back to gender roles, it is traditionally seen as a female’s role to be the care
taker and service provide. In addition, they have been given is this achieved status of
motherhood. That is to say they are given the status of bearing children, taking care of them and
working hard to be responsible mother. As a result of these stereotypes, a “glass ceiling” or
rather an invisible limit has been placed on women’s opportunities for career advancements
(Conley 2013:313). For example, if a young woman applies for a corporate manager position,
there may be the assumption that she will have kids in the future. As she is identified with the
stereotypical female role of motherhood, to some degree she is already sorted out from greater
economic opportunities. She is perceived to potentially take what is called the “mommy track,”
which dictionary.com defines as “a career path for women who are willing to forgo promotions,
raises, etc. so as to spend more time with their children” (2014). Ultimately, as Stewart
concludes, “young women …may find themselves caught between economic realities which
increasingly demand that women work and norms which still advocate motherhood as the most
‘noble of professions’” (2003:8). When women face this dilemma they often choose jobs that
allow them to work as well as be a mother. However, these part time jobs typically pay less and
provide little skill development for an enhanced job in the future. As a result, women are at a
further loss of opportunity to improve skills and wages (Marger 2013:345). Furthermore, within
these part time jobs women are regarded as less committed (Harvard Law Review 1996).
Glass Escalators
A male on the other hand, is associated with working longer to provide for his family;
therefore, if he was in that corporate position he would be more dedicated. Through socialization
the perception of men has been to hold positions of authority, to be the primary breadwinner, and
9. Structured by Gender 8
provide for his family. In addition, men haven’t been held to the same caretaking responsibilities
as women. As a result, they tend to be penalized less for being a father and working overtime;
whereas, women once again tend to be perceived as being a good worker, while also being a
good mother. In the workforce, this can be seen through the concept of the “glass escalator”,
which is the “promotional ride men take to the top of a work organization” (Conley 2013: 314).
Men, in both stereotypically female occupations and male occupations, are perceived to hold
positions of authority and status. In short, very little, if any social barriers, are placed in their
way from quickly advancing up the management ladder.
Who Cares?
Overall, due to the socialization of female and male gender roles, advantages as well as
disadvantages are set into place. First, women are given the ascribed status of motherhood, along
with the responsibilities of caretaking, nurturing, housekeeping and serving. Their positions in
the work force reflect these attributes, as they comprise the majority of service oriented
occupations. Within these jobs women often receive a lower income, lower opportunity for
career advancement, and little chance for skill development; in short they hit what’s called the
“glass ceiling”. In addition, they are also faced with the conflict of work and being a good
mother; which leads to the perception of women taking the “mommy track.” Employers view
women as the primary caretakers of their children, and as a result the women they hire may be
penalized for working too much. Yet, they may also be penalized for working too little, not being
fully dedicated to their jobs. Men on the other hand, are encouraged to work more in order to fit
the socially ascribed status of masculinity and fulfilling their role as a provider. This includes
occupations that are seen as primarily male dominated or female dominated. In any case, within
10. Structured by Gender 9
these occupations they are seen in positions of authority and given the promotional opportunities
to place them in these positions; hence the concept of the “glass escalator.”
Under such circumstances, women face two primary barriers: occupational segregation
and the sex gap in pay. First, women have been encouraged to hold primarily service
occupations because of their “natural” abilities at care taking. This has limited their opportunities
to obtain higher paying occupations. In addition, within these service jobs, they have been set to
balance their responsibilities at home and at work. Even then, women are often perceived to be
less dedicated to their work than a man. As a consequence, women often face lower pay than
their male counterparts who hold the same occupation; as well as little chance for moving up on
the promotional ladder. In short, these socially ascribed gender roles that are place on men and
women have promoted the patterns of social inequality as described above. Women in particular
are at a disadvantage within the workforce as they face the gender roles or barriers of
motherhood responsibilities and work. Whereas, men are lifted to positions of status and
authority. In other words, as a result of socializing one another to these standards of gender a
cyclical pattern of social inequality is established.
11. Structured by Gender 10
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