This document discusses principles and techniques for closed reduction and casting of fractures. It covers: - Closed reduction principles including restoring length, rotation and angulation while minimizing soft tissue injury. - Anesthesia options for closed reductions like hematoma blocks, IV sedation, and Bier blocks. - Common closed reductions like distal radius, elbow dislocations and shoulder dislocations. - Splinting techniques using materials like plaster and fiberglass. - Casting techniques for different anatomical areas like the forearm, leg and arm. - Traction methods like skin, skeletal, distal femoral and calcaneal pins which provide stabilization and aid reduction.

1. Closed Reduction, Traction,
and Casting Techniques
David Hak, MD
Original Author: Dan Horwitz, MD; March 2004
New Author: David Hak, MD; Revised January 2006, October 2008

2. Closed Reduction Principles
• All displaced fractures should be reduced to
minimize soft tissue complications,
including those that require ORIF
• Use splints initially
– Allow for swelling
– Adequately pad all bony prominences

3. Closed Reduction Principles
• Adequate analgesia and muscle relaxation
are critical for success
• Reduction maneuver may be specific for
fracture location and pattern
• Correct/restore length, rotation, and
angulation
• Immobilize joint above and below

4. Closed Reduction Principles
• Reduction may require reversal of mechanism of
injury, especially in children with intact periosteum
• When the bone breaks because of bending, the soft
tissues disrupt on the convex side and remain intact
on the concave side
Figure from Chapman’s Orthopaedic Surgery 3rd Ed.
(Redrawn from Charnley J. The Closed Treatment of
Common Fractures, 3rd ed. Baltimore: Williams &
Wilkins, 1963.)

5. Closed Reduction Principles
• Longitudinal traction may not allow the fragments to
be disimpacted and brought out to length if there is an
intact soft-tissue hinge (typically seen in children who
have strong perisoteum that is intact on one side)
Figure from Chapman’s Orthopaedic Surgery 3rd Ed.
(Redrawn from Charnley J. The Closed Treatment of
Common Fractures, 3rd ed. Baltimore: Williams &
Wilkins, 1963.)

6. Closed Reduction Principles
• Reproduction of the mechanism of fracture to hook
on the ends of the fracture
• Angulation beyond 90° is usually required
Figure from Chapman’s Orthopaedic Surgery 3rd Ed.
(Redrawn from Charnley J. The Closed Treatment of
Common Fractures, 3rd ed. Baltimore: Williams &
Wilkins, 1963.)

7. Closed Reduction Principles
Three point contact (mold)
is necessary to maintain
closed reduction
Removal of any of the three
forces results in loss of reduction
Figure from: Rockwood and Green: Fractures
in Adults, 4th ed, Lippincott, 1996.

8. Closed Reduction Principles
• Cast must be molded to resist deforming
forces
• “Straight casts lead to crooked bones”
• “Crooked casts lead to straight bones”

9. Anesthesia for Closed Reduction
• Hematoma Block - aspirate hematoma and
place 10cc of Lidocaine at fracture site
– Less reliable than other methods
– Fast and easy
– Theoretically converts closed fracture to open
fracture but no documented increase in
infection

10. Anesthesia for Closed Reduction
IV Sedation
• Versed - 0.5 – 1 mg q 3 minutes up to 5mg
• Morphine - 0.1 mg/kg
• Demerol - 1- 2 mg/kg up to 150 mg
– Beware of pulmonary complications with deep
conscious sedation - consider anesthesia service
assistance if there is concern
– Pulse oximeter and careful monitoring are
recommended

11. Anesthesia for Closed Reductions
• Bier Block - superior pain relief, greater
relaxation, less premedication needed
• Double tourniquet is inflated on proximal arm and
venous system is filled with local
– Lidocaine preferred for fast onset
– Volume = 40cc
– Adults 2-3 mg/kg Children 1.5 mg/kg
– If tourniquet is deflated after < 40 minutes then deflate
for 3 seconds and re-inflate for 3 minutes - repeat twice
– Watch closely for cardiac and CNS side effects,
especially in the elderly

12. Common Closed Reductions
Distal Radius
• Longitudinal traction
• Local or regional block
• Exaggerate deformity
• Push for length and reversal
of deformity
• Apply splint or cast with
3-point mold
Figure from: Rockwood and Green: Fractures in
Adults, 4th ed, Lippincott, 1996.

13. Common Joint Reductions
• Elbow Dislocation - traction, flexion, and
direct manual push
Figures from Rockwood and Green, 5th ed.

14. Common Joint Reductions
• Shoulder Dislocation - relaxation, traction,
gentle rotation if necessary
Figures from Rockwood and Green, 5th ed.

15. Common Joint Reductions
Hip Dislocation
• Relaxation, flexion,
traction, adduction
and internal rotation
• Gentle and atraumatic
Relocation should be palpable and permit significantly
improved ROM. This often requires very deep sedation.
Figures from Rockwood and Green, 5th ed.

16. Splinting
• Non-cicumferential – allows for further
swelling
• May use plaster or prefab fiberglass splints
(plaster molds better)

17. Common Splinting Techniques
• “Bulky” Jones
• Sugar-tong
• Coaptation
• Ulnar gutter
• Volar / Dorsal hand
• Thumb spica
• Posterior slab (ankle) +/- U splint
• Posterior slab (thigh)

18. Sugar Tong Splint
• Splint extends around the
distal humerus to provide
rotational control
• Padding should be at least
3 - 4 layers thick with
several extra layers at the
elbow

19. • Medially splint ends in
the axilla and must be
well padded to avoid
skin breakdown
• Lateral aspect of splint
extends over the deltoid
Figure from Rockwood and Green, 4th ed.
Humeral Shaft Fracture Coaptation Splint

20. Fracture Bracing
• Allows for early functional ROM and
weight bearing
• Relies on intact soft tissues and muscle
envelope to maintain alignment and length
• Most commonly used for humeral shaft and
tibial shaft fractures

21. • Convert to humeral fracture
brace 7-10 days after fracture
(i.e. when fracture site is not
tender to compression).
• Allows early active elbow ROM
• Fracture reduction maintained
by hydrostatic column principle
• Co-contraction of muscles
- Snug brace during the day
- Do not rest elbow on table
Patient must tolerate a
snug fit for brace to be
functional Figure from Rockwood and Green, 4th ed.

22. Casting
• Goal of semi-rigid immobilization while
avoiding pressure / skin complications
• Often a poor choice in the treatment of
acute fractures due to swelling and soft
tissue complications
• Good cast technique necessary to achieve
predictable results

23. Casting Techniques
• Stockinette - may require two different
diameters to avoid overtight or loose
material
• Caution not to lift leg by stockinette –
stretching the stockinette too tight around
the heel may case high skin pressure

24. Casting Techniques
• To avoid wrinkles in
the stockineete, cut
along the concave
surface and overlap to
produce a smooth
contour
Figure from Chapman’s Orthopaedic
Surgery 3rd Ed.

25. Casting Techniques
• Cast padding
– Roll distal to proximal
– 50 % overlap
– 2 layers minimum
– Extra padding at fibular
head, malleoli, patella,
and olecranon
Figure from Chapman’s Orthopaedic
Surgery 3rd Ed.

26. Plaster vs. Fiberglass
• Plaster
– Use cold water to maximize molding time
• Fiberglass
– More difficult to mold but more durable and
resistant to breakdown
– Generally 2 - 3 times stronger for any given
thickness

27. Width
• Casting materials are available in various
widths
– 6 inch for thigh
– 3 - 4 inch for lower leg
– 3 - 4 inch for upper arm
– 2 - 4 inch for forearm

28. Figure from Chapman’s Orthopaedic
Surgery 3rd Ed.
• Avoid molding with
anything but the heels of
the palm in order to avoid
pressure points
• Mold applied to produce
three point fixation
Cast Molding

29. Below Knee Cast
• Support metatarsal heads
• Ankle in neutral – flex knee to relax gastroc
• Ensure freedom of toes
• Build up heel for walking casts - fiberglass
much preferred for durability

30. Padding for fibular head and plantar aspect of foot

31. Padded fibular
head
Flexed knee
Neutral ankle
position Toes free
Assistant or foot stand required to maintain ankle position
Figure from: Browner and Jupiter: Skeletal Trauma, 2nd ed, Saunders, 1998.

32. Short Leg Cast
• When working alone,
the patient can help
maintain proper ankle
position by holding
onto a muslin
bandage placed
beneath the toes
Figure from Chapman’s Orthopaedic
Surgery 3rd Ed.

33. Above Knee Cast
• Apply below knee first (thin layer proximally)
• Flex knee 5 - 20 degrees
• Mold supracondylar femur for improved
rotational stability
• Apply extra padding anterior to patella

34. Anterior padding
Support lower
leg / cast
Extend to
gluteal crease
Figure from: Browner and Jupiter: Skeletal Trauma, 2nd ed, Saunders, 1998.

35. Forearm Casts & Splints
• MCP joints should be free
– Do not go past proximal palmar crease
• Thumb should be free to base of MC
– Opposition of thumb to little finger should be
unobstructed

36. x
x

37. Examples - Position of Function
• Ankle - Neutral dorsiflexion – No Equinus
• Hand - MCPs flexed 70 – 90º, IPs in extension
70-90 degrees
Figure from Rockwood and Green, 5th ed.

38. Cast Wedging
• Early follow-up x-rays are required
to ensure reduction is not lost
• Cast may be “wedged” to correct
reduction
• Deformity is drawn out on cast
• Cast is cut circumferentially
• Cast is wedged to correct
deformity and the over-wrapped Example of cast wedging to correct
loss of reduction of a pediatric
distal both bone forearm fracture.
From Halanski M, Noonan KJ. J
Am Acad Orthop Surg. 2008.

39. Complications of Casts & Splints
• Loss of reduction
• Pressure necrosis – may occur as early as 2
hours
• Tight cast  compartment syndrome
Univalving = 30% pressure drop
Bivalving = 60% pressure drop
Also need to cut cast padding

40. Complications of Casts & Splints
• Thermal Injury - avoid plaster > 10 ply, water
>24°C, unusual with fiberglass
• Cuts and burns during removal
Keloid formation as a result of an injury
during cast removal. From Halanski M,
Noonan KJ. J Am Acad Orthop Surg. 2008.

41. Complications of Casts & Splints
• DVT/PE - increased in lower extremity fracture
– Ask about prior history and family history
– Birth Control Pills are a risk factor
– Indications for prophylaxis controversial in patients
without risk factors
• Joint stiffness
– Leave joints free when possible (ie. thumb MCP for
below elbow cast)
– Place joint in position of function

42. Traction
• Allows constant controlled force for initial
stabilization of long bone fractures and aids
in reduction during operative procedure
• Option for skeletal vs. skin traction is case
dependent

43. Skin Traction
• Limited force can be applied - generally not
to exceed 5 lbs
• More commonly used in pediatric patients
• Can cause soft tissue problems especially in
elderly or rheumatoid patients
• Not as powerful when used during operative
procedure for both length or rotational
control

44. Skin Traction - “Bucks”
• An option to provide temporary comfort in
hip fractures
• Maximal weight - 10 pounds
• Watch closely for skin problems, especially
in elderly or rheumatoid patients

45. Skeletal Traction
• More powerful than skin traction
• May pull up to 20% of body weight for the
lower extremity
• Requires local anesthesia for pin insertion if
patient is awake
• Preferred method of temporizing long bone,
pelvic, and acetabular fractures until operative
treatment can be performed

46. Traction Pin Types
• Choice of thin wire vs. Steinman pin
• Thin wire is more difficult to insert with hand
drill and requires a tension traction bow
Tension Bow
Standard Bow

47. Traction Pin Types
• Steinmann pin may be either smooth or
threaded
– Smooth is stronger but can slide if angled
– Threaded pin is weaker, bends easier with
higher weight, but will not slide and will
advance easily during insertion
• In general a 5 or 6 mm diameter pin is
chosen for adults

48. Traction Pin Placement
• Sterile field with limb exposed
• Local anesthesia + sedation
• Insert pin from known area of neurovascular
structure
– Distal femur: Medial  Lateral
– Proximal Tibial: Lateral  Medial
– Calcaneus: Medial  Lateral
• Place sterile dressing around pin site
• Place protective caps over sharp pin ends

49. Distal Femoral Traction
• Method of choice for acetabular and proximal
femur fractures
• If there is a knee ligament injury usually use distal
femur instead of proximal tibial traction

50. Distal Femoral Traction
• Place pin from medial
to lateral at the
adductor tubercle -
slightly proximal to
epicondyle
Figures from Althausen PL, Hak DJ. Am J Orthop. 2002.

51. Balanced Skeletal Traction
• Allows for suspension of leg with
longitudinal traction
• Requires trapeze bar, traction cord, and
pulleys
• Provides greater comfort and ease of
movement
• Allows multiple adjustments for optimal
fracture alignment

52. • One of many options for setting up balanced suspension
• In general the thigh support only requires 5-10 lbs of weight
• Note the use of double pulleys at the foot to decrease the total
weight suspended off the bottom of the bed
Figure from: Rockwood and Green: Fractures in Adults, 4th ed, Lippincott, 1996.

53. Proximal Tibial Traction
• Place pin 2 cm posterior
and 1 cm distal to tubercle
• Place pin from lateral to
medial
• Cut skin and try to stay
out of anterior
compartment - push
muscle posteriorly with
pin or hemostat
Figures from Althausen PL, Hak DJ. Am J Orthop. 2002.

54. Calcaneal Traction
• Most commonly used with a
spanning ex fix for “travelling
traction” or may be used with
a Bohler-Braun frame
• Place pin medial to lateral
2 - 2.5 cm posterior and
inferior to medial malleolus
Medial Structures
Lateral Structures
Figures from Althausen PL, Hak DJ. Am J Orthop. 2002.

55. Olecranon Traction
• Rarely used today
• Small to medium sized pin
placed from medial to lateral in
proximal olecranon - enter bone
1.5 cm from tip of olecranon
and walk pin up and down to
confirm midsubstance location.
• Support forearm and wrist with
skin traction - elbow at 90
degrees
Figure from Chapman’s Orthopaedic
Surgery 3rd Ed.

56. Gardner Wells Tongs
• Used for C-spine reduction / traction
• Pins are placed one finger breadth above
pinna, slightly posterior to external auditory
meatus
• Apply traction beginning at 5 lbs. and
increasing in 5 lb. increments with serial
radiographs and clinical exam

57. Halo
• Indicated for certain cervical fractures as
definitive treatment or supplementary
protection to internal fixation
• Disadvantages
– Pin problems
– Respiratory compromise

58. Left: “Safe zone” for halo pins. Place anterior pins about 1 cm above orbital rim,
over lateral two thirds of the orbit, and below skull equator (widest circumference).
Right: “Safe zone” avoids temporalis muscle and fossa laterally, and supraorbital and
supatrochlear nerves and frontal sinus medially.
Posterior pin placement is much less critical because the lack of neuromuscular
structures and uniform thickness of the posterior skull.
Figure from: Botte MJ, et al. J Amer Acad Orthop Surg. 4(1): 44 – 53, 1996.

59. Halo Application
• Position patient maintaining spine
precautions
• Fit Halo ring
• Prep pin sites
– Anterior - outer half above eyebrow avoiding
supraorbital artery, nerve, and sinus
– Posterior - superior and posterior to ear
• Tighten pins to 6 - 8ft-lbs.
• Retighten if loose
– Pins only once at 24 hours
– Frame prn
Figure from: Rockwood and Green:
Fractures in Adults, 4th ed, Lippincott, 1996.

60. References
• Freeland AE. Closed reduction of hand fractures.
Clin Plast Surg. 2005 Oct;32(4):549-61.
• Fernandez DL. Closed manipulation and casting
of distal radius fractures. Hand Clin. 2005
Aug;21(3):307-16.
• Halanski M, Noonan KJ. Cast and splint
immobilization: complications. J Am Acad
Orthop Surg. 2008 Jan;16(1):30-40.
• Bebbington A, Lewis P, Savage R. Cast wedging
for orthopaedic surgeons. Injury. 2005;36:71-72.

61. References
• Halanski MA, Halanski AD, Oza A, et al. Thermal injury
with contemporary cast-application techniques and
methods to circumvent morbidity. J Bone Joint Surg Am.
2007 Nov;89(11):2369-77.
• Althausen PL, Hak DJ. Lower extremity traction pins:
indications, technique, and complications. Am J Orthop.
2002 Jan;31(1):43-7.
• Alemdaroglu KB, Iltar S, Çimen O, et al.Risk Factors in
Redisplacement of Distal Radial Fractures in Children. J
Bone Joint Surg Am. 2008; 90: 1224 - 1230.
• Sarmiento A, Latta LL. Functional fracture bracing. J Am
Acad Orthop Surg. 1999 Jan;7(1):66-75.

62. Classical References
• Sarmiento A, Kinman PB, Galvin EG, Schmitt RH,
Phillips JG. Functional bracing of fractures of the shaft of
the humerus. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 1977 Jul;59(5):596-
601.
• Sarmiento A, Sobol PA, Sew Hoy AL, et al. Prefabricated
Functional Braces for the Treatment of Fractures of the
Tibial Diaphysis. JBone and Joint Surg. 1984. 66-A: 1328-
1339.
• Sarmiento A, Latta LL. 450 closed fractures of the distal
third of the tibia treated with a functional brace. Clin
Orthop Relat Res. 2004 Nov;(428):261-71.
• Sarmiento A. Fracture bracing. Clin Orthop Relat Res.
1974 Jul-Aug;(102):152-8.

63. Questions
Return to
General/Principles
Index
If you would like to volunteer as an author for the
Resident Slide Project or recommend updates to
any of the following slides, please send an e-mail
to ota@ota.org