The document summarizes a study that examined the effects of endurance, resistance, and concurrent (endurance and resistance) training on cardiac structure in female students. The study found that 8 weeks of concurrent training significantly increased left ventricular end diastolic diameter compared to endurance or resistance training alone. Concurrent training also significantly increased left ventricular end systolic diameter, mass, and mass index. No other measured variables showed significant differences between groups. The results indicate that concurrent training may have a greater impact on cardiac adaptations than single-mode endurance or resistance training.
Muscle activation during various hamstring exercisesFernando Farias
The main findings of this investigation demonstrate that
there are significant differences in activation within muscles
when comparing all exercises. Although one might expect
similar activation for a given muscle for activities of similar
kinematics, such as the prone leg curl and glute-ham raise,
this is not the case with the data herein
Impact of the Nordic hamstring and hip extension exercises on hamstring archi...Fernando Farias
The architectural and morphological adaptations of the hamstrings in response to training
33 with different exercises have not been explored. PURPOSE: To evaluate changes in biceps
34 femoris long head (BFLH) fascicle length and hamstring muscle size following 10-weeks of
35 Nordic hamstring exercise (NHE) or hip extension (HE) training. METHODS: Thirty
36 recreationally active male athletes (age, 22.0 ± 3.6 years, height, 180.4 ± 7 cm, weight, 80.8 ±
37 11.1 kg) were allocated to one of three groups: 1) HE training (n=10), NHE training (n=10),
38 or no training (CON) (n=10). BFLH fascicle length was assessed before, during (Week 5) and
39 after the intervention with 2D-ultrasound. Hamstring muscle size was determined before and
40 after training via magnetic resonance imaging.
Training Load and Fatigue Marker Associations with Injury and IllnessFernando Farias
This paper provides a comprehensive review of the litera-
ture that has reported the monitoring of longitudinal
training load and fatigue and its relationship with injury
and illness. The current findings highlight disparity in the
terms used to define training load, fatigue, injury and ill-
ness, as well as a lack of investigation of fatigue and
training load interactions. Key stages of training and
competition where the athlete is at an increased risk of
injury/illness risk were identified. These included periods
of training load intensification, accumulation of training
load and acute change in load. Modifying training load
during these periods may help reduce the potential for
injury and illness.
Epidemiological studies have consistently shown hamstring
strain injuries (HSIs) to have a high prevalence rate in many
sports, such as sprinting (11%; Lysholm & Wiklander, 1987),
Australian Rules Football (16–23%; Orchard, 2001; Orchard,
Marsden, Lord, & Garlick, 1997) and football (12–14%:
Ekstrand, Hagglund, & Walden, 2011; Hawkins, Hulse,
Wilkinson, Hodson, & Gibson, 2001). The epidemiology and
aetiology of HSI in football has received extensive attention in
the scientific literature (Ekstrand et al., 2011; Woods et al., 2004),
given the economic burden associated with professional
players missing training and competitive fixtures (Woods,
Hawkins, Hulse, & Hodson, 2002). b
Muscle activation during various hamstring exercisesFernando Farias
The main findings of this investigation demonstrate that
there are significant differences in activation within muscles
when comparing all exercises. Although one might expect
similar activation for a given muscle for activities of similar
kinematics, such as the prone leg curl and glute-ham raise,
this is not the case with the data herein
Impact of the Nordic hamstring and hip extension exercises on hamstring archi...Fernando Farias
The architectural and morphological adaptations of the hamstrings in response to training
33 with different exercises have not been explored. PURPOSE: To evaluate changes in biceps
34 femoris long head (BFLH) fascicle length and hamstring muscle size following 10-weeks of
35 Nordic hamstring exercise (NHE) or hip extension (HE) training. METHODS: Thirty
36 recreationally active male athletes (age, 22.0 ± 3.6 years, height, 180.4 ± 7 cm, weight, 80.8 ±
37 11.1 kg) were allocated to one of three groups: 1) HE training (n=10), NHE training (n=10),
38 or no training (CON) (n=10). BFLH fascicle length was assessed before, during (Week 5) and
39 after the intervention with 2D-ultrasound. Hamstring muscle size was determined before and
40 after training via magnetic resonance imaging.
Training Load and Fatigue Marker Associations with Injury and IllnessFernando Farias
This paper provides a comprehensive review of the litera-
ture that has reported the monitoring of longitudinal
training load and fatigue and its relationship with injury
and illness. The current findings highlight disparity in the
terms used to define training load, fatigue, injury and ill-
ness, as well as a lack of investigation of fatigue and
training load interactions. Key stages of training and
competition where the athlete is at an increased risk of
injury/illness risk were identified. These included periods
of training load intensification, accumulation of training
load and acute change in load. Modifying training load
during these periods may help reduce the potential for
injury and illness.
Epidemiological studies have consistently shown hamstring
strain injuries (HSIs) to have a high prevalence rate in many
sports, such as sprinting (11%; Lysholm & Wiklander, 1987),
Australian Rules Football (16–23%; Orchard, 2001; Orchard,
Marsden, Lord, & Garlick, 1997) and football (12–14%:
Ekstrand, Hagglund, & Walden, 2011; Hawkins, Hulse,
Wilkinson, Hodson, & Gibson, 2001). The epidemiology and
aetiology of HSI in football has received extensive attention in
the scientific literature (Ekstrand et al., 2011; Woods et al., 2004),
given the economic burden associated with professional
players missing training and competitive fixtures (Woods,
Hawkins, Hulse, & Hodson, 2002). b
The hamstring muscle group is the most frequently injured, representing
approximately 12 to 24% of all athletic injuries.1,2 These injuries may be due to
disproportionate training performed for the quadriceps,3 with hamstring strains
occurring more frequently in those who demonstrated hamstring weakness, and
lower hamstring-to-quadriceps strength ratios.2 Thus, hamstring strength is impor-
tant for athletic performance and injury prevention in a variety of sports.
COMPARATIVE STUDY OF SLOW AND FAST SURYANAMASKAR ON PHYSIOLOGICAL FUNCTIONYogacharya AB Bhavanani
Numerous scientific studies have reported beneficial physiological changes after short and long term yoga training. Suryanamaskar is an integral part of modern yoga training and may be performed either in a slow or rapid manner. As there are few studies on suryanamaskar we conducted this study to study differential effect of 6 months training in the fast and slow versions. 42 school children in the age group of 12 to 16 were randomly divided into two groups of 21 each. Group I and Group II received 6 months training in performance of slow suryanamaskar (SSN) and fast suryanamaskar (FSN) respectively. Training in SSN produced a significant decrease in diastolic pressure. In contrast, training in FSN produced a significant increase in systolic pressure. Although there was a highly significant increase in hand grip strength and hand grip endurance in both the groups, the increase in hand grip endurance in FSN group was significantly more than in SSN group. MIP and MEP increased significantly in both groups and the increase of MIP in the FSN group was more significant as compared to SSN. Training in SSN reduced the resting diastolic pressure and rate-pressure-product, which, indicates a decrease in load on the heart. In contrast, FSN increased diastolic pressure and rate-pressure-product. The present study shows suryanamaskar has positive physiological benefits as evidenced by changes in pulmonary function, respiratory pressures, handgrip strength, handgrip endurance and resting cardiovascular parameters. It also demonstrates that there are differences between performance of suryanamaskar in a slow and fast manner and that the effects of FSN are similar to physical aerobic exercises whereas the effects of SSN are similar to those of Yoga training.
Eccentric training using external loads greater than the
relative concentric training intensity is a potent stimulus for
enhancements in muscle mechanical function, and MTU
morphological and architectural adaptations. The inclusion
of eccentric loads above maximal concentric strength is
therefore an avenue to induce novel training stimuli and
effect change in key determinants, and functional metrics,
of strength, power and speed performance. Strength
improvements are largely mode-specific and arise from a
combination of neural, morphological and architectural
adaptations [8]. Increased agonist volitional drive is posited
as the primary contributing factor to the marked increases
in eccentric strength observed following training [54].
Eccentric training improves concentric muscle power and
SSC performance to a greater extent than concentric or
traditional modalities
Currently, athletes with the aim of improving their physical performance or even those into functional rehabilitation programs have had the benefits of resistance training (RT). The suitable adjustment of variables during their prescription, such as the type of muscle contraction, weight, and number of exercises repetitions and the recovering time between one set and another must be considered to achieve the aimed adaptations. Studies which have evaluated those variables about the impact on cardiovascular system have brought out some questions referring to changes in the kinds of contractions, dynamics or statics, on hemodynamic parameters. Comprehending the hemodynamics repercussions of those exercise modalities is determinant for a safe and efficient prescription.
To Compare the Mean Percentage Improvement in Coordination, Strength and Disability in Overhead Throw Athletes with Partial Thickness Tear of the Rotator Cuff Following Plyometric Training in Different Phases of Rehabilitation by Anu Bangal in Examines in Physical Medicine & Rehabilitation
EFFECTS OF STRENGTH TRAINING ON SQUAT AND SPRINT PERFORMANCE IN SOCCER PLAYERSFernando Farias
We have demonstrated that a simple in-season strength training program resulted in an improvement in maximal back squat performance, which was reflected in improve- ments in short sprint performance, as identified by a decrease in sprint time over 5, 10, and 20 m, in professional soccer players, in line with the hypotheses. Furthermore, the changes in relative 1RM squat strength demonstrate strong associations with the changes in 5 (r = 0.62), 10 (r = 0.78), and 20-m (r = 0.60) sprint performances.
The use of stretching in the training programs of recrea-
tional and competitive athletes has been historically common-
place. The role of stretching in enhancing athletic performance
has been debated (49). The purpose of this review was to
examine the literature regarding the effect of stretching on
performance, without regard to any of the other purported
effects of stretching, including improvements in joint range
of motion, muscle length, or recovery from or susceptibility
to injury.
Mechanics of the human hamstring muscles during sprintingFernando Farias
As peak musculotendon
force and strain for BF
LH
, ST, and SM occurred around the same time during terminal swing, it is suggested that this period in the
stride cycle may be when the biarticular hamstrings are at greatest injury risk. On this basis, hamstring injury prevention or rehabilitation
programs should preferentially target strengthening exercises that involve eccentric contractions performed with high loads at longer
musculotendon lengths.
F
oam rollers and massage sticks have increased in popularity
in the fitness industry and are often recommended by
strength and conditioning professionals (5,6,10). There is
evidence that shows positive effects of foam rolling on range of
motion (ROM), recovery, and performance (8,9,10,14). Despite its
effectiveness, the mechanisms as to how foam rolling works are
not fully understood. However, it is likely that acute responses in
foam rolling are similar to those elicited by manual therapy, which
are thought to be neurophysiological in origin .
Methods of developing power to improve acceleration for the non track athleteFernando Farias
IN MOST TEAM-BASED SPORTS
ATHLETES MUST BE ABLE TO
GENERATE EXPLOSIVE MUSCULAR
FORCES TO ACCELERATE,
CHANGE DIRECTIONS, AND THEN
RE-ACCELERATE OVER RELA-
TIVELY SHORT DISTANCES.
THEREFORE, TO BE SUCCESSFUL,
ACCELERATION RATHER THAN
MAXIMAL VELOCITY IS LIKELY A
GREATER PREDICTOR OF SUC-
CESS IN THESE SPORTS. THIS
ARTICLE WILL EXPLORE SOME OF
THE TECHNIQUES COMMONLY
USED TO IMPROVE AN ATHLETE’S
ABILITY TO ACCELERATE BY
IMPROVING FORCE, VELOCITY,
AND THE COMBINATION OF THESE
2 ELEMENTS.
A evidência apresentada sugere que a variação é um componente necessário do planejamento efetivo do treinamento. Apoiando essa perspectiva, outras pesquisas sugerem que a monotonia de treinamento elevado - que pode ser amplamente percebida como uma falta de variação20 - leva a uma maior incidência de síndromes de overtraining21, um mau desempenho e freqüência de infecções banais.22 Inversamente, as reduções na monotonia têm Tem sido associada a uma maior incidência de melhor desempenho pessoal 22, e os índices de monotonia têm sido defendidos como ferramentas benéficas de treinamento-regulação na elite rowing23 e no sprint24.
The hamstring muscle group is the most frequently injured, representing
approximately 12 to 24% of all athletic injuries.1,2 These injuries may be due to
disproportionate training performed for the quadriceps,3 with hamstring strains
occurring more frequently in those who demonstrated hamstring weakness, and
lower hamstring-to-quadriceps strength ratios.2 Thus, hamstring strength is impor-
tant for athletic performance and injury prevention in a variety of sports.
COMPARATIVE STUDY OF SLOW AND FAST SURYANAMASKAR ON PHYSIOLOGICAL FUNCTIONYogacharya AB Bhavanani
Numerous scientific studies have reported beneficial physiological changes after short and long term yoga training. Suryanamaskar is an integral part of modern yoga training and may be performed either in a slow or rapid manner. As there are few studies on suryanamaskar we conducted this study to study differential effect of 6 months training in the fast and slow versions. 42 school children in the age group of 12 to 16 were randomly divided into two groups of 21 each. Group I and Group II received 6 months training in performance of slow suryanamaskar (SSN) and fast suryanamaskar (FSN) respectively. Training in SSN produced a significant decrease in diastolic pressure. In contrast, training in FSN produced a significant increase in systolic pressure. Although there was a highly significant increase in hand grip strength and hand grip endurance in both the groups, the increase in hand grip endurance in FSN group was significantly more than in SSN group. MIP and MEP increased significantly in both groups and the increase of MIP in the FSN group was more significant as compared to SSN. Training in SSN reduced the resting diastolic pressure and rate-pressure-product, which, indicates a decrease in load on the heart. In contrast, FSN increased diastolic pressure and rate-pressure-product. The present study shows suryanamaskar has positive physiological benefits as evidenced by changes in pulmonary function, respiratory pressures, handgrip strength, handgrip endurance and resting cardiovascular parameters. It also demonstrates that there are differences between performance of suryanamaskar in a slow and fast manner and that the effects of FSN are similar to physical aerobic exercises whereas the effects of SSN are similar to those of Yoga training.
Eccentric training using external loads greater than the
relative concentric training intensity is a potent stimulus for
enhancements in muscle mechanical function, and MTU
morphological and architectural adaptations. The inclusion
of eccentric loads above maximal concentric strength is
therefore an avenue to induce novel training stimuli and
effect change in key determinants, and functional metrics,
of strength, power and speed performance. Strength
improvements are largely mode-specific and arise from a
combination of neural, morphological and architectural
adaptations [8]. Increased agonist volitional drive is posited
as the primary contributing factor to the marked increases
in eccentric strength observed following training [54].
Eccentric training improves concentric muscle power and
SSC performance to a greater extent than concentric or
traditional modalities
Currently, athletes with the aim of improving their physical performance or even those into functional rehabilitation programs have had the benefits of resistance training (RT). The suitable adjustment of variables during their prescription, such as the type of muscle contraction, weight, and number of exercises repetitions and the recovering time between one set and another must be considered to achieve the aimed adaptations. Studies which have evaluated those variables about the impact on cardiovascular system have brought out some questions referring to changes in the kinds of contractions, dynamics or statics, on hemodynamic parameters. Comprehending the hemodynamics repercussions of those exercise modalities is determinant for a safe and efficient prescription.
To Compare the Mean Percentage Improvement in Coordination, Strength and Disability in Overhead Throw Athletes with Partial Thickness Tear of the Rotator Cuff Following Plyometric Training in Different Phases of Rehabilitation by Anu Bangal in Examines in Physical Medicine & Rehabilitation
EFFECTS OF STRENGTH TRAINING ON SQUAT AND SPRINT PERFORMANCE IN SOCCER PLAYERSFernando Farias
We have demonstrated that a simple in-season strength training program resulted in an improvement in maximal back squat performance, which was reflected in improve- ments in short sprint performance, as identified by a decrease in sprint time over 5, 10, and 20 m, in professional soccer players, in line with the hypotheses. Furthermore, the changes in relative 1RM squat strength demonstrate strong associations with the changes in 5 (r = 0.62), 10 (r = 0.78), and 20-m (r = 0.60) sprint performances.
The use of stretching in the training programs of recrea-
tional and competitive athletes has been historically common-
place. The role of stretching in enhancing athletic performance
has been debated (49). The purpose of this review was to
examine the literature regarding the effect of stretching on
performance, without regard to any of the other purported
effects of stretching, including improvements in joint range
of motion, muscle length, or recovery from or susceptibility
to injury.
Mechanics of the human hamstring muscles during sprintingFernando Farias
As peak musculotendon
force and strain for BF
LH
, ST, and SM occurred around the same time during terminal swing, it is suggested that this period in the
stride cycle may be when the biarticular hamstrings are at greatest injury risk. On this basis, hamstring injury prevention or rehabilitation
programs should preferentially target strengthening exercises that involve eccentric contractions performed with high loads at longer
musculotendon lengths.
F
oam rollers and massage sticks have increased in popularity
in the fitness industry and are often recommended by
strength and conditioning professionals (5,6,10). There is
evidence that shows positive effects of foam rolling on range of
motion (ROM), recovery, and performance (8,9,10,14). Despite its
effectiveness, the mechanisms as to how foam rolling works are
not fully understood. However, it is likely that acute responses in
foam rolling are similar to those elicited by manual therapy, which
are thought to be neurophysiological in origin .
Methods of developing power to improve acceleration for the non track athleteFernando Farias
IN MOST TEAM-BASED SPORTS
ATHLETES MUST BE ABLE TO
GENERATE EXPLOSIVE MUSCULAR
FORCES TO ACCELERATE,
CHANGE DIRECTIONS, AND THEN
RE-ACCELERATE OVER RELA-
TIVELY SHORT DISTANCES.
THEREFORE, TO BE SUCCESSFUL,
ACCELERATION RATHER THAN
MAXIMAL VELOCITY IS LIKELY A
GREATER PREDICTOR OF SUC-
CESS IN THESE SPORTS. THIS
ARTICLE WILL EXPLORE SOME OF
THE TECHNIQUES COMMONLY
USED TO IMPROVE AN ATHLETE’S
ABILITY TO ACCELERATE BY
IMPROVING FORCE, VELOCITY,
AND THE COMBINATION OF THESE
2 ELEMENTS.
A evidência apresentada sugere que a variação é um componente necessário do planejamento efetivo do treinamento. Apoiando essa perspectiva, outras pesquisas sugerem que a monotonia de treinamento elevado - que pode ser amplamente percebida como uma falta de variação20 - leva a uma maior incidência de síndromes de overtraining21, um mau desempenho e freqüência de infecções banais.22 Inversamente, as reduções na monotonia têm Tem sido associada a uma maior incidência de melhor desempenho pessoal 22, e os índices de monotonia têm sido defendidos como ferramentas benéficas de treinamento-regulação na elite rowing23 e no sprint24.
Effect of Aerobic Training on Percentage of Body Fat, Total Cholesterol and H...IOSR Journals
Abstract: The aim of the present research was to determine the effect of aerobic training on Percentage of
Body Fat, total Cholesterol (TC) and High Density Lipoprotein Cholesterol (HDL-C) among obese Children.
For this purpose, 20 obese Children (age17-25) were selected. The subjects received endurance training only
one session in the morning between 6-7 am for three alternate days a week for six weeks. To analyse the
collected data,'t'-ratio was used at 0.05 level of confidence. The results showed that there were significant
changes in Percentage of Body Fat, TC and HDL-C. It was concluded that the aerobic training is widely
believed to induce changes in the lipid profiles and Percentage of Body Fat of Children.
The purpose of this investigation is comparing the effects of three admitting models using maximum admits in increasing the maximum strength and hypertrophy of unexercised men in the muscles of arm forth. Statistical sample of this investigation are 45 non-athlete male students of Mazandaran University of Science and Technology of the Department of Public Physical Education. Maximum strength and the mass of muscles in the sample was measured using the maximum repeating test in moving arm form by Haler or measured using the arm, before and after the match. Then, the samples were grouped in 3 empirical groups (15 per groups). They exercised for 8 weeks, 3 sessions per week, and 75 minutes per session. The data were analyzed by variance and (LSD) by using SPSS20 software (p≤0.05). There was no meaningful difference among 3 models; normally pyramidal, Counter-pyramidal, and Flat-pyramidal in increasing the shape of arm forth. Also, there was a meaningful difference between two methods, pyramids and flat pyramid after the test. There was no meaningful difference among the methods between counter-pyramidal and flat-pyramidal. So, we can suggest that when the purpose is increasing the muscle, we can use every method, but if the purpose is increasing the strength, it is preferring to use flat pyramidal method.
Crimson Publishers: Effect of Strength Training on Physical Variable of Colle...Crimson-ForensicScience
Effect of Strength Training on Physical Variable of College Men Cricket Players by Zahoor Ahmad Bhat* in Forensic Science & Addiction Research
The purpose of the present study was to find out the effect of strength training on Physical Variable of college men cricket players. To achieve the purpose twenty male students (n=20) were randomly selected as subjects and the age were ranged between 18 and 24 years. The selected subjects were randomly assigned into two equal groups such as training group (TG) and control group (CG) for the strengths of fifteen (n=10) each. Experimental training group underwent respective strength training program me for twelve weeks for three days per week and a session on each day. The control group did not involve in any special training apart from their regular activities. The criterion variable arm strength was measured by pull-ups. Analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) was used to analyse the collected data. The results revealed that that the strength training was made significant improvement (p≤0.05) in arm strength of the selected subjects. The level of confidence was fixed at 0.05 in all cases.
Effects of Eccentric Strength Training’s Time on Daily Plasma Testosterone Le...IOSR Journals
This study aims to evaluate the effects of the eccentric physical training’s time on daily plasma concentrations of testosterone among sedentary athletes. Sixty male athletes, with homogeneous age, size and weight were selected for the study during three months. They were subjects to a strength training of the extensor and flexor muscles of the knee. After they were divided in two groups of thirty subjects and then had physical training either in the morning between 6 and 7, or in the evening, between 16 and 17. The dosage of testosterone on each athlete was performed before and after submission to an eccentric physical program at the antecubital vein in a restful sitting. Our results have shown that eccentric physical training induces the increase of this steroid hormone in the two groups of athletes and the training in the evening promotes better its production. Our results also showed that the rate of this androgen drop significantly during the day in both groups of athletes trained in the morning or in the evening as well as their respective controls. However, the decline was even more pronounced for subjects trained in the morning
Hip extension and Nordic hamstring exercise training both promote the elongation of
biceps femoris long head fascicles, and stimulate improvements in eccentric knee
flexor strength.
Hip extension training promotes more hypertrophy in the biceps femoris long head
and semimembranosus than the Nordic hamstring exercise, which preferentially
develops the semitendinosus and the short head of biceps femoris
The effect of an educational program on strength-trainingadh.docxarnoldmeredith47041
The effect of an educational program on strength-training
adherence in older adults
Charilaos Papadopoulosa and Johnna M. Jagerb
aDepartment of Kinesiology, Pacific Lutheran University, Tacoma, Washington, USA; bDepartment of Nutrition,
Exercise and Health Sciences, Central Washington University, Ellensburg, Washington, USA
ABSTRACT
The purpose of this study was to compare the effects of a strength-training
program combined with an educational intervention on resistance-training
knowledge, adherence, psychological parameters, and functionality in older
individuals residing in assisted living facilities. Twenty-four (mean age:
83.8 ± 8.0 years) participants were divided into three groups; one group
participated in strength-training plus an educational program, the second
group participated in a strength-training program, and the third group
served as a reference group. Both strength-training groups completed an
8-week training program using elastic tubing twice per week. The educa-
tional program was offered once a week for 20 minutes and consisted of
various strength-training topics. All participants completed the Up and Go
test; handgrip strength test; questionnaires to determine quality of life,
depression and fatigue; and a strength-training knowledge test before
and after 8 weeks of training. Repeated Measures ANOVA was used to
determine differences. The strength training plus education group had a
significantly (p = .03) higher (87.5%) attendance rate compared to the
strength training only group (69.2%). After 8 weeks of training, the partici-
pants in the combined strength and education group experienced a sig-
nificant (p > .05) increase in strength-training knowledge, functional ability,
and quality of life compared to baseline testing. The results showed that an
educational intervention has a positive effect on strength knowledge, func-
tion, and attendance rate. Additional research is needed to determine the
long-term effect of such educational components when added to regular
strength-training programs.
Older adults (65 years and older) in the United States are the fastest growing segment of the
population and are projected to continue to increase for the next 20–30 years compared to other
segments of the population (Nelson et al., 2007; Skelton, Greig, Davies, & Young, 1994). As the
human body ages, the functions of the respiratory, cardiovascular, and muscular systems are
affected. The decline in skeletal muscle begins in the 4th decade of life (Doherty, 2003; Nair,
2005). As muscle mass is reduced, the ability to generate force decreases, therefore, reducing the
individual’s ability to participate in activities of daily living (Doherty, 2003; Nair, 2005; Narici,
Maganaris, Reeves, & Capodaglio, 2003). Porter, Vandervoort, and Lexell (1995) reported that by the
age of 70, cross-sectional muscle area decreases by 25% to 30%. The functional implication is that
muscular strength is decreased by 30% to 40% (Porter et al., 1995). A.
1. Biology of Sport, Vol. 29 No1, 2012 17
Endurance and resistance training and the heart
Reprint request to:
Masoumeh Hosseini
P.O.Box: 339551163, Tehran, Iran
Telephone: +9821 33594951
Fax: +98 21 66919206
E-mail: mhbisadi@yahoo.com
Accepted
for publication
7.08.2010
INTRODUCTION
Physical training causes structural and functional changes in the
heart, particularly in the left ventricle [6]. These changes constitute
the cardiac adaptability phenomenon following the physiological, in
contrast with the pathological changes brought about by hypertension
and aortic stenosis [15,16]. In the case of disease, the heart confronts
elevated pressures, but physiologically such pressures affect the heart
only during physical training. The impact of physical training on
cardiac structure and function depends on the type, intensity and
duration of training, as well as previous physical fitness, genetics
and gender [5]. Continuous, long-term physical activities exert an
overload on cardiac muscles, resulting in an exogenous hypertrophic
pattern with normal ventricular walls and increased ventricular
(especially left ventricular) volume [9,10,13,23]. In addition, these
individuals have greater diastolic filling volume, left ventricle diameter
and mass, ventricular capacity, and stronger myocardial contraction,
as explained by the Frank-Starling law [7]. Resistance training leads
to an increase in the peripheral vascular resistance and blood pressure
during training, and consequently pressure overload of the heart,
THE EFFECT OF ENDURANCE, RESISTANCE
AND CONCURRENT TRAINING ON
THE HEART STRUCTURE OF FEMALE
STUDENTS
AUTHORS: Hosseini M.1
, Piri M.2
, Agha-Alinejad H.3
, Haj-Sadeghi Sh.4
1
Department of East Tehran Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran
2
Islamic Azad University, Central Tehran Branch, Tehran, Iran
3
Tarbiat Modarres University, Tehran, Iran
4
Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
ABSTRACT: The aim of this study was to compare the effect of endurance, resistance and concurrent training on
the heart structure. Thirty-nine untrained female students (mean age 24±2.58 yrs) were randomly divided into four
groups: Control (C; n=9), Endurance (E; n=10), Strength (S; n=10) and Concurrent (SE; n=10).E group training consisted
of running at 65% of maximum heart rate (MHR) for 16 min per training unit during the first week, reaching 80% of MHR
for 30 min during the 8th week. S group training consisted of performing four leg presses, bench presses, pull down
curls, and leg curls. During the first week, the training was performed at 50% of one repetition maximum (1RM) in 2
sets with 10 repetitions. The intensity of training increased to 80% 1RM in 3 sets and 6 repetitions during the 8th week.
The SE training included the sum of the training performed by the E and S training groups. Left ventricular end diastolic
and systolic diameters, post-wall thickness, left ventricular mass and mass index and septum wall thickness were measured
by m-mode and 2-D echocardiography as the structural parameters. The end diastolic diameter in E and SE groups, the
ventricular end systolic diameter, left ventricular mass and mass index of the SE group after the training increased (P≤0.05).
In comparing the groups, only the increase of the end diastolic diameter in the SE group was significant (P≤0.05).
The 8 weeks of concurrent training compared with endurance or resistance training alone resulted in a significant increase
in left ventricular end diastolic diameter. However, no significant differences were found for any other measured variables.
KEY WORDS: left ventricular end diastolic diameter, left ventricular end systolic diameter, septum
wall thickness, left ventricular mass index
resulting in concentric hypertrophy of the left ventricle in the long
run [2,3]. In this type of structural adaptation, the septum and the
posterior left ventricular wall thicken, whereas the ventricular volume
remains intact [12]. However, training multiple energy systems and
performing various types of training such as endurance and strength
training simultaneously, referred to as concurrent training, has
important implications for the physiological adaptations of such
training programmes. Concurrent training produces greater cardiac
hypertrophy and ventricular wall thickness than endurance and
resistance training alone [14,21,22]. Two studies demonstrated
similar cardiac structural changes with concurrent and endurance
training [1,4].
In another study, concurrent training did not cause significant
structural changes in the heart in comparison to resistance and
endurance training [20]. Sagiv [18] compared the echocardiographic
cardiac structure of endurance runners and weight lifters with non-
athletes and concluded that the interventricular septum is significantly
thicker in athletes than non-athletes.
Original Paper Biol. Sport 2012;29:17-21DOI: 10.5604/20831862.979404
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2. 18
Hosseini M. et al.
Pluim et al. [17] studied the hearts of 1451 athletes and concluded
that the absolute average thickness of the posterior wall of the left
ventricle and the interventricular septum in the control group is
significantly less than in the resistance, endurance, or concurrent
training groups. Also, the thickness of the left ventricle, the
interventricular septum, and the posterior wall is greatest in power
athletes. Sanjay [19] studied the cardiac structure of athletes
practising concurrent exercises for judo, endurance swimming, rowing,
and cycling; the afterload and thickness of the left ventricle wall were
greater in judo, without significant changes in the left ventricle volume.
The concurrent group had the greatest left ventricular mass index.
Urhausen et al. [22] assessed the hearts of female endurance runners
and rowers by echocardiography and reported that left ventricular
mass, thickness of the posterior left ventricular wall, and hypertrophy
index were significantly greater in rowers than in the control group,
but similar to the endurance runners.
Considering the limitations in studying female cardiac adaptations
to endurance and resistance training and also the rarity of studies
dealing with concurrent training, the present study was designed to
assess the effects of endurance, resistance, and concurrent training
on female cardiac structure.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Subjects. Thirty-nine non-athletic female students were chosen as
subjects of the study. The study protocol was approved by the research
ethics committee of Tarbiat Modarres University and each participant
gave informed consent before enrolment. The inclusion criteria were
cardiovascular and general health, and lack of previous regular
physical training. The criterion for cardiovascular health was the data
obtained from the questionnaire devised by the researcher.
Subsequently, the subjects’ ECGs were studied to confirm their cardiac
health. Before the initiation of the study, the subjects were informed
of the process and filled out the medical sport questionnaire and
the consent form. Then they were randomly assigned to 3 training
groups as the endurance, resistance, concurrent and control group.
The reason for using these two groups (endurance and resistance) was
to enable us to separate the pure effects of resistance and endurance
training on the structure of the heart during data interpretation.
Training programmes
The endurance training consisted of jogging with the intensity of 65%
of maximum heart rate (MHR) on a treadmill for 16 min per training
unit during the first week, reaching 80% of MHR for 30 min during
the 8th week [8].
The resistance training consisted of leg press, bench press, pull
down curls, and leg curls. During the first week, the exercises were
performed with 50% of one repetition maximum (1RM) in 2 sets
with 10 repetitions and a recovery period of 1-2 min. The intensity
of the workout increased to 80% of 1RM in 3 sets with 6 repetitions
during the 8th week. At the end of the first 4 weeks, the 1RM was
measured and the training programme for the second 4 weeks was
devised based on the new 1RM [8].
The training for the concurrent group was the sum of the programmes
for the endurance and the resistance groups in each session.
The resistance training was performed before the endurance to avoid
premature fatigue caused by endurance training [8]. All of the training
programmes were performed 3 days per week for 8 weeks.
The subjects warmed up for 10 min before starting the main
programme, and cooled down for 10 min after the main programme.
All the training sessions were supervised by the researcher.
Measuring the cardiac structural variables
The structural variables were measured by echography before and
after training, using 1 and 2 dimensional methods. These variables
were measured in the echocardiography ward at Tehran Rasul-e-
Akram Hospital by a cardiologist, using an HP Sono 1500 device
made in the United States.
Before echocardiography, height, weight, and body fat percent
(measuring the subcutaneous fat at triceps, suprailiac, and thigh,
using the Jackson and Pollack formula) were measured [11]. The
subjects were not significantly different in terms of weight, body surface
area (BSA), or body mass index (BMI) before the study. Subsequently,
the subjects were asked to assume the left lateral decubitus position
and the optimal images of heart chambers were chosen to measure
left ventricular end diastolic diameter (LVEDD), left ventricular end
systolic diameter (LVESD), septum wall thickness (SWT) and posterior
wall thickness (PWT). Using the 2-dimensional technique, the left
ventricular mass (LVM) was measured and the left ventricular mass
index (LVMI) was calculated using weight and height of the subject.
Statistical method
Descriptive statistics, one way ANOVA and Scheffe’ tests were used
for statistical analyses, and p equal to or less than 0.05 was
considered as the significance level.
Groups Number
Age
(yr)
Height
(cm)
Body mass
(kg)
Body fat percent
(%)
BMI
(kg · m-2
)
BSA
(m2
)
Control 9 25.2 ± 2.5 161 ± 8.3 51.8 ± 4.4 17.4 ± 2.7 21.0 ± 1.2 1.51 ± 0.10
Endurance 10 25.3 ± 3.6 160 ± 9.9 59.5 ± 11.2 19.0 ± 4.4 23.2 ± 1.8 1.60 ± 0.14
Resistance 10 23.4 ± 1.6 162 ± 7.4 59.8 ± 14.6 18.4 ± 5.0 22.8 ± 1.9 1.63 ± 0.16
Concurrent 10 23.2 ± 2.5 160 ± 10.5 57.9 ± 12.8 18.0 ± 4.3 22.3 ± 1.7 1.60 ± 0.16
TABLE 1. GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE SUBJECTS
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3. Biology of Sport, Vol. 29 No1, 2012 19
Endurance and resistance training and the heart
TABLE 2. ABSOLUTE VALUES OF CARDIAC STRUCTURAL FEATURES IN THE RESISTANCE, ENDURANCE, CONCURRENT,
AND CONTROL GROUPS
RESULTS
General features and demographic characteristics of the participants
are summarized in Table 1. Absolute values of cardiac structural
features of the participants are summarized in Table 2.The left
ventricular end diastolic diameter of the endurance and concurrent
groups increased significantly after training (P≤0.05). The highest
increase pertained to the concurrent group. The increase in end systolic
diameter, left ventricular mass, and mass index were significant only
in the concurrent group (P≤0.05).
The change in left ventricular end diastolic diameter in
the concurrent group was significantly different from the other groups
(P≤0.05). No significant difference was observed in end systolic
diameter, posterior wall thickness, septum wall thickness, left
ventricular mass or mass index among the groups (P0.05).
A sample echocardiogram of subjects at end diastole at rest, in
the Control (C), Endurance (E), Strength (S) and Concurrent (SE)
groups, is shown in Figure 1.
DISCUSSION
In the present study, the left ventricular end diastolic diameter
increased significantly following endurance and concurrent training,
maximally in the concurrent group. Endurance activities bring about
a volume overload which increases the initial diastolic filling at rest
and exercise. The elevated end diastolic diameter in the concurrent
group may be due to the combination of endurance and resistance
training which adds pressure overload to volume overload, as
a result of the duration and intensity of training. Other researchers
including Urhausen et al. [22] and Pluim et al. [17] did not observe
significant differences in end diastolic diameter between athletic
and control groups.
These contradictory results are probably due to differences in
training duration, methods, subjects’ experience, ethnicity, gender,
and also the techniques for measuring the left ventricular end diastolic
diameter. In our study, the left ventricular end systolic diameter, left
ventricular mass, and mass index increased significantly only in
Variables Endurance Resistance Concurrent Control
Beforetraining
LVEDD (mm) 43.2 ± 3.2 43.6 ± 3.2 41.2 ± 5.1 41.9 ± 2.3
LVESD (mm) 25.9 ± 3.0 26.2 ± 2.7 25.3 ± 2.0 25.5 ± 1.9
SWT (mm) 7.9 ± 3.8 7.0 ± 0.3 6.9 ± 0.4 6.7 ± 1.1
PWT (mm) 6.0 ± 0.8 5.8 ± 0.8 6.0 ± 1.0 5.3 ± 1.0
LVM (g) 96.3 ± 19.3 88.5 ± 18.0 79.9 ± 23.2 70.8 ± 11.8
LVMI (g · m-2
) 60.2 ± 10.6 53.8 ± 8.4 48.9 ± 9.5 46.4 ± 6.30
Aftertraining
LVEDD (mm) 44.4 ± 3.1* 44.4 ± 4.0 45.4 ± 5.7* 41.0 ± 2.2
LVESD (mm) 26.7 ± 3.1 26.4 ± 2.3 27.0 ± 3.4* 24.5 ± 2.0
SWT (mm) 7.9 ± 1.8 6.9 ± 0.6 6.8 ± 0.6 6.7 ± 1.9
PWT (mm) 5.8 ± 1.2 6.2 ± 1.5 6.4 ± 1.4 5.4 ± 1.1
LVM (g) 98.8 ± 36.5 93.1 ± 23.0 91.5 ± 23.7* 70.7 ± 11.8
LVMI (g · m-2
) 61.8 ± 20.4 56.0 ± 9.1 56.3 ± 10.2* 46.0 ± 6.7
*significant compared with before training (P≤0.05)
FIG. 1. SAMPLE ECHOCARDIOGRAM OF SUBJECTS’ LEFT VENTRICULAR
END DIASTOLIC DIAMETER AT REST, IN THE CONTROL (C), ENDURANCE
(E), STRENGTH (S) AND CONCURRENT (SE) GROUPS.
(ARROW ( ) SHOWS THE LEFT VENTRICULAR END DIASTOLIC
DIAMETER, LVEDD)
C
E
S
SE
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4. 20
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the concurrent group, which may be due to the nature of concurrent
training, that is, exertion of both overload patterns.
A non-significant increase in structural variables was observed in
endurance and resistance groups. The changes in left ventricular end
systolic diameter, mass, and mass index were not significant among
groups. The short duration of the training programme impeded
the development of obvious structural modifications. Sanjay [19],
Missault et al. [14] and Alijani [1] did not report significant structural
changes in the heart. On the other hand, Wernstedt et al. [24],
Di Bello et al. [4] and Somauroo et al. [21] observed significant
differences between athletes and control groups. These differences
may be due to longer duration of training, type of training, history of
training in subjects, different statistical populations, and
the psychological stress level of subjects.
In this study, the thickness of the posterior wall and the inter-
ventricular septum were not different in groups and among them.
An 8-week training programme with the mentioned intensities does
not provide sufficient stimuli for such modification of cardiac structure.
One reason for the increase in the end diastolic diameter in concurrent
and endurance groups and the end systolic diameter in the concurrent
group may be that the ventricular chambers are enlarged because of
the lack of wall thickening. D’Andrea et al. [3], Somauroo et al. [21],
Missault et al. [14] Sagiv [18], Urhausen et al. [22] and Alijani [1]
reported a significant difference in the thickness of cardiac walls
between athletes and control groups. The intensity and duration of
training, ethnicity, age, and gender explain these inconsistencies.
Since the researchers used athletes of different sports in their studies,
and performed some post-training sessions emphasizing the perma-
nence of exercise effects, contradictory results and sometimes various
changes of factors may occur during the course of study.
CONCLUSIONS
The results of this study indicate that the athlete’s heart (particularly
the left ventricle) enlarges following training. It seems that this
enlargement not only hinders cardiac function, but also enhances
it. However, in our study, the thickness of the posterior wall and
the interventricular septum were not significantly different within
or between groups after 8 weeks of training.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank Farzan Institute for Research and
Technology for technical assistance.
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