Friendship is born at that moment when one person says to an.docx

Friendship is born at that moment
when one person says to another,
‘What! You too? I thought I was the only one.’
—C. S. Lewis
British scholar and novelist (1898–1963)
iStockphoto/Thinkstock
Overview of Interpersonal
Communication
2
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CHAPTER 2Section 2.1 Purposes of Interpersonal
Communication
Chapter 2 provides an overview of the purposes and elements of
interper-
sonal communication. It also examines the evolution of theories
and mod-
els and how interpersonal communication is viewed today.
Chapter 2 also
discusses the interpersonal skills that are crucial to master to be
a competent
communicator.

We humans seem to be “hard wired” for communication, to be
programmed from birth
for symbolic communication with other people. At a basic level,
interpersonal commu-
nication is the interaction between people; however, the
interaction is far more complex
than it might first seem. Interpersonal communication is a
process composed of multiple
elements, and skill and practice are required to be an effective
communicator. This chapter
begins the study of interpersonal communication by examining
its purposes and elements
and the communication process itself. What are the purposes for
which we communicate
with other people?
2.1 Purposes of Interpersonal Communication
As social animals, we want and need connections with other
people. Interpersonal communication is a social process, and we
usually communicate for one of three primary purposes: (1) to
meet personal needs; (2) to learn about ourselves, other
people, and the world; and (3) to build and maintain
relationships with others.
Meeting Personal Needs
One of the most basics reasons people interact with others is to
satisfy personal needs. In
1943, psychologist Abraham Maslow developed a theory of
human motivation that he
expanded upon in his 1954 book Motivation and Personality and
his 1962 book Toward a
Psychology of Being. He believed that all humans have an
essential nature and a set of basic
human needs that are good or, at the very least,

neutral and not evil. Maslow said that these
needs motivate us to seek psychological health
and full humanness, or self-actualization
(Maslow, 1968).
According to Maslow, healthy, self-actualizing
people are good, strong, and successful and can
act unselfishly. They are winners rather than
losers. They give to others as well as to society,
and they construct rather than destroy things
(Maslow, 1968). If self-actualization guides
your life, believed Maslow, you will have a
sense of achievement, healthy self-esteem, and
self-confidence, and grow into a healthy, pro-
ductive, and happy adult.
Jack Hollingsworth/Asia Images RM/Photolibrary
Maslow believed that self-actualizing
people are more likely to be productive and
happy.
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Communication
People have basic needs that must be met before they can move
toward self-actualization.
If essential needs for such things as safety and esteem are not
fulfilled then, we must
satisfy these “deficiency” needs before we can move forward in
the process of self-
actualization (Maslow, 1968). Like empty holes, deficiencies

need to be filled, and they
can only be filled by other people, through interpersonal
communication and interac-
tions (Abraham Maslow, 2009).
Let us look at the hierarchy of human needs that Maslow
identified, which is usually rep-
resented in a pyramid. As the arrow in Figure 2.1 indicates,
Maslow believed that human
needs emerge in order starting from the bottom of the pyramid.
Lower-level needs,
according to Maslow, must be satisfied first. Once the basic
needs have been realized, then
higher-level needs will emerge.
Basic physiological needs, the necessities for life such as food,
water, and shelter, are
the strongest needs. The first reason to communicate, believed
Maslow, is for survival.
Figure 2.1 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Safety Needs
Need for security, freedom from the threat of physical and
emo�onal
harm, and protec�on from violence
Self-Actualiza�on
Drive toward
purpose, meaning,
and full poten�al
Esteem Needs

Need for self-respect and respect from others
Social Needs
Need for affec�on, friendship, and apprecia�on;
to belong and to receive and give love
Physiological Needs
Need for food, water, shelter, sleep, and other necessi�es to
sustain life
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Communication
Communication enables us to call attention to ourselves, to
warn others of danger, and to
exchange critical information to meet these physiological needs.
Then we turn our atten-
tion to the need for safety and security. We may have enough
food to eat today, but we also
need to feel secure that we will have food, water, and shelter
tomorrow and the day after as
well. When these safety needs are met, we can then begin to
address social needs. The most
basic social need is the need to belong. Friendship, acceptance
by others, and the ability to
both give and receive love are powerful needs for all humans,
and they drive much of our
interpersonal communication. When we satisfy these needs,
thought Maslow, we are then
motivated toward fulfilling esteem needs, such as the need for

recognition, the pride of
accomplishment, and self-respect.
The top rung on Maslow’s
hierarchy of needs is self-
actualization. The self-
actualizing individual is
far less dependent on oth-
ers and is more autono-
mous and self-directed.
Less needy of praise and
affection and less anxious
for honors, prestige, and
rewards, this person is
able to pursue his or her
dreams, desires, and goals
and to strive to reach full
potential as a person. This
drive to self-actualization
can only be activated,
however, when lower-
level needs have been met.
Maslow believed that only a small percentage of people reach a
level of self-actualization,
fully using their talents, capacities, and potential. However, he
also believed that the moti-
vation to be self-actualizing rarely disappears. Even though full
potential has not been
attained, the motivation to seek it will persist for there is
always more to learn and new
ways to grow (Maslow, 1968).
Critics of Maslow’s theory say that the hierarchy of needs is not
absolute, meaning that
some higher-level needs like self-actualization can be attained
when lower-level needs

like food and shelter are not fully met (Wahba & Bridgewell,
1976). Others point out that
Maslow’s hierarchy describes those in individualistic cultures
like the United States but
is not as applicable to countries where the individual is less
valued than the greater good
(Hofstede, 1984). What is most important to take out of
Maslow’s hierarchy, however, is
that all humans have basic needs that must be fulfilled, and that
many of these needs are
fulfilled through interpersonal relationships.
Learning About Self and Others
In addition to interacting with other people to meet personal
needs, another primary
purpose of interpersonal communication is to learn about
oneself, other people, and the
© Michael Maslin/ The New Yorker Collection/
www.cartoonbank.com
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Communication
world. Communication is one of the most important ways that
societies maintain and
pass on knowledge about their society and culture. All societies
communicate the history,
traditions, and values of their culture through oral
communication; the roots of oral com-
munication reach as far back in human history as scholars can

trace, and more recently,
writing was used to communicate from generation to generation.
When we communi-
cate with others, we learn about their cultural
heritage and what is important in a particular
culture; we also learn about our own cultural
heritage.
Scientists who have studied oral communication
in societies point to the importance of rhythm—
in chanting, storytelling, singing, poetry, and
dance—as particularly important to human
societies. In fact, the performance of rhythmic
chanting, dancing, and singing has been found
to produce feelings of joy, peace, harmony, and
even mystical elevation in people. Scholars
believe this type of activity has a social purpose.
The rhythm affects the brains and the mood of
individuals and allows a group or a community
to become synchronized “on each other’s wave-
length,” which produces pleasure and helps
bind people together (Turner, 1986).
Interpersonal communication also helps us develop a concept of
ourselves. (In Chapter
3, we will discuss how we develop this concept of self and carry
it into communica-
tion with others.) Researchers believe that self-concept is a
complex mix of how we see
ourselves, what others have told us about ourselves, and what
society says we should
be. This concept of self is learned through interpersonal
communication. When we com-
municate with other people, what they say to us and about us to
others contributes to

our concept of self. However, the good news is that we are free
to accept or reject these
judgments, and our self-concept can change throughout life.
Building and Maintaining
Relationships
Finally, an important purpose of
interpersonal communication is to
help build and maintain relation-
ships with other people. (We will
talk more about different types
of relationships later in this text.)
Because we humans are social ani-
mals, we form a variety of relation-
ships, and we often band together
into larger groups to offer one
another the protection and strength
of numbers and to pool our talents
Dominique Halleux/Bios/photolibrary
The rhythm of singing binds people
together.
© Aaron Bacall/ The New Yorker Collection/
www.cartoonbank.com
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CHAPTER 2Section 2.2 Elements of Interpersonal
Communication
to help one another. You probably have a variety of

relationships and group memberships,
including the relationships with your family of origin and the
family that you might form as
an adult. Interpersonal communication is an important
component of building and main-
taining these relationships. It helps us meet needs for belonging
and for acceptance and
enables us to share values and principles, which are the
foundation of human society.
2.2 Elements of Interpersonal Communication
In Chapter 1, communication was defined as a process. Before
we examine the process itself, let us identify the elements of
this process and the role that each element plays. We begin our
study by defining the role of each of the participants in the
communica-
tion process.
Sender
The sender is the source of the interpersonal communication—
the person who originates
the communication encounter. Before communicating, the
sender must encode the idea
that he or she wants to communicate, or put it into some form or
code that the other per-
son can understand. Language is a type of code; if the other
person does not understand
the code, he or she will not be able to decode, or interpret, the
message correctly. It is
important to note, however, that gestures, facial expressions,
and other nonverbal ele-
ments of communication are codes as well. For example,
placing the thumb and forefinger
together to form a circle is a code that is interpreted in the

United States to mean “OK.”
However, this gesture is interpreted differently
and is offensive in Brazil and Germany, where it
is equivalent to the United States gesture of giv-
ing someone the middle finger (Hayden, 2007).
Receiver
The receiver is the recipient of the message. Early
communication models considered the receiver
to be a passive participant in the communication
process. However, researchers today believe that
the receiver is actively engaged in the commu-
nication process and that we are both senders
and receivers of communication, simultaneously,
whenever we interact with another person.
Message
In the communication process, the message is the content of the
communication itself—
the idea the sender wishes to communicate to the receiver. As
we previously discussed,
messages are communicated in a code, and the message must be
decoded correctly by the
receiver for the communication to be understood and to be
effective.
Lifesize/Thinkstock
The receiver of the communication
message is an active participant in the
communication process.
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Communication
Channel
The channel is the medium or the means through
which the message is transmitted from sender to
receiver. In interpersonal communication, when
two people are talking face to face, the channel
is the air around them that carries the message.
Often, however, the channel is mediated in some
way, which means that someone or something is
between the sender and the receiver in the com-
munication process. For example, if two people
are talking by cell phone, the cellular network
and air waves constitute the communication
channel, in email, the internet network would be
the channel.
Feedback
As we stated previously, the goal of communication is to share
meaning. In other words,
for communication to be effective, the message must have the
same or similar meaning
to both the sender and the receiver. We cannot be sure if the
message sent is the same as
the message received unless feedback is part of the
communication process. Feedback
is defined as any information a communicator gets from others
in response to his or her
message. This feedback can be a verbal or nonverbal response.
For example, if you tell a

child that lunch is ready, his or her race into the house
(nonverbal) and shout of “hooray”
(verbal) are both forms of feedback. Feedback is an important
component in the com-
munication process because it is the method by which we gauge
the success of the com-
munication. Feedback also provides the opportunity to change
the message and to try to
communicate again if the previous communication was not
understood.
Modern Communication: The Internet as Part of the
Communication Process
Have you ever thought about what role the Internet plays in
your life? Millions of people rely on
this unique form of communication to obtain and send
information every day. The Internet has
revolutionized the way people communicate from going online
to check the status updates of friends
around the world to connecting with people in the
neighborhood. People turn to the Internet to send
and receive written messages, to watch and share funny videos,
to browse through online versions of
their local newspaper, and even to read and discuss scholarly
materials such as books and journals.
However, no matter what we plan to do when we go online, we
are still employing the basic elements
found in all forms of interpersonal communication. Indeed, the
Internet provides a way for verbal and
nonverbal messages to be encoded by a sender and broadcast to
a particular individual—or to anyone
who wants to receive that message! Many websites even allow
for interactive feedback, with users
commenting on or responding to content on the site. Even
though people using the Internet do not
communicate in person, the Internet serves as a medium for

interpersonal communication, allowing
relationships to develop or be maintained. The Internet may
even be the channel through which a
new relationship begins.
The cellular network and air waves
constitute the channel for cell phone
communication.
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Communication
Environment
The external environment in which the communication takes
place is also an essential part
of the communication process and can have a significant
influence on any interaction.
What is considered appropriate in one communication
environment is not necessarily
appropriate in another. It is acceptable, for example, to yell
loudly at a football game, but
the same volume (and perhaps the same language) may not be
considered appropriate in
a place of business.
Noise
In communication, the term noise refers to anything that
disturbs or interrupts the com-

munication process or is unrelated to the message content. In
mediated communication,
noise can be caused by the devices used to send or receive the
message, such as problems
with the radio, television, or cell phone. It can also be caused
by trouble in the channel or
medium used to transmit the message, such as static in a
telephone line or a disturbance
in the air waves.
However, equipment problems or technical noise in the system
are not the only types
of noise that can interfere with interpersonal communication.
Noise can also occur in the
communication environment, such as when background music is
playing and making it
difficult for people to carry on a conversation.
The concept of noise also includes semantic noise, which
consists of interferences in
communication caused by language issues, and psychological
noise, which results from
internal issues within the people who are communicating. For
example, the person send-
ing the message may be tired or ill and not encode the message
effectively, or the receiver
may be distracted and not listening attentively. Thus, noise can
occur in any element of
the communication process.
Modern Communication: Noise
Have you ever been so distracted that you misunderstood what
someone was trying to say? In
order for communication to be successful, you must be able to
receive an intended message. Every
day you are presented with an inestimable amount of messages,

from signs and advertisements to
interactions with strangers to music, television, and
conversations. If you paid attention to every
possible message, you would suffer from what some scholars
call “information overload.” Regardless
of the type of noise , there is a limit to how much the brain can
process. Clearly you cannot rid
yourself of every distraction, but you can choose what messages
to allow in. For example, you remove
the earphones when you want to pay attention to the people you
are with and what they are saying.
You can unsubscribe from all the junk e-mail and pay more
attention to the messages that you do
want or need. You can keep the television off for one evening
and have a significant conversation
with someone. And, as an experiment, you could try not to fall
asleep with the television on; instead,
remove that psychological noise and reflect on all that happened
that day. We don’t have to put up
with noise; the more you work to reduce distractions and
interruptions, the better communicator
you’ll be!
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CHAPTER 2Section 2.3 Theories and Models of Interpersonal
Communication
2.3 Theories and Models of Interpersonal Communication
In the mid-twentieth century, scholars began to study
communication as an academic dis-cipline. As their study
advanced, they contributed to our knowledge of how the
commu-nication process operates and why it succeeds or fails to

achieve its purpose. From your
own experiences, you probably know that communication can go
astray and misunderstand-
ings can occur at any number of places when you try to
communicate with others. Perhaps
the receiver cannot hear or does not pay attention to the
message being sent, or equipment
being used to transmit the message fails, such as when a cell
phone call is dropped.
As researchers study phenomena, they develop theories. These
theories are beliefs the
researchers hold that they test in real-world situations. They
also often create physical
models to illustrate these theories. Models are simple
representations, in an ideal form,
of a process or an object. Although models provide a simplified
view of something that is
usually much more complex, they are useful because they
clarify the nature of a phenom-
enon or process. A model highlights the elements the scholar
believes are important and
allows us to examine the relationship of these elements to other
parts of the model. Thus,
they are tools to illustrate the thinking that has taken place.
In some academic fields of study, a number of different models
may exist at the same time,
and they may be tested to determine which most accurately
represents the phenomenon
or process. In the field of interpersonal communication,
however, the development of
communication theories and models was more of an evolution
whereby early scholars
laid a foundation that was improved and expanded by others
over time. We can divide

communication models into three primary types: (1) action
models, (2) interaction mod-
els, and (3) transaction models. Each type builds on earlier
models and adds new insights
to our knowledge of the communication process. Let us examine
these three types of com-
munication models and how they differ.
Action Models
Study of the methods people use in an attempt to
influence others can be traced as far back as the
philosopher Aristotle in ancient Greece. How-
ever, the formal study of interpersonal commu-
nication, as an academic discipline, did not begin
until about 60 years ago. The early communica-
tion models, developed from 1948 through 1960,
are generally referred to as action models and
can be compared to shooting an arrow, because,
at that time, communication was viewed as a
one-directional transmission of information from
a source or sender to some destination or receiver.
In these early models, the sender of the message was assumed to
be the only active par-
ticipant in the process. He or she was considered responsible for
communicating clearly
and accurately to the receiver, who was viewed as passive and
simply received whatever
Action models viewed interpersonal
communication as a one-way transmission
of information.

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Communication
Informa�on
Source Transmi�er Receiver Des�na�on
Message Message
Signal Received
Signal
Noise Source
message the sender transmitted. If the communication failed to
produce understanding or
desired results, researchers focused on how the sender formed
the message or on methods
for improving the manner in which the message was transmitted.
Do you recall the conver-
sation about bread that took place between Kim and Pat in
Chapter 1? If we analyze that
conversation using an action model, we would assume that Kim
has the responsibility to
communicate more clearly. We might suggest Kim’s statement
be rephrased as, “I don’t like
bread that has seeds,” to be clearer and more explicit and
instead state something like the
following: “I don’t like bread that has any type of seeds on top
of it or inside the bread itself.”
Shannon-Weaver Model
In 1948, in an attempt to help engineers find the most efficient

way to transmit electrical
signals from one location to another, Bell Telephone Company
engineer and mathemati-
cian Claude Shannon developed one of the most influential
early action models of com-
munication. Shannon worked with mathematician Warren
Weaver to come up with the
communication model known today as the Shannon-Weaver
model (see Figure 2.2).
Shannon postulated that all communication could be broken
down into three compo-
nents: an information source, a channel or path, and a
destination (Weaver & Shannon,
1963). In this model, the information source is the
communicator, who has a message to
transmit. This message is transformed into a signal, which
travels along a channel or path
to a destination, where it is delivered. The transmitter and
receiver shown in the Shannon-
Weaver model were devices such as telephone handsets that sent
and received the infor-
mation signal. The Shannon-Weaver model focused on the
mechanism of transmitting
electrical signals, not on the content of the information or the
message. While it illustrated
the mechanical and technical issues involved, the model did not
explain the complexities
of human communication. Nevertheless, Shannon was a
visionary, and his theories and
model made two important contributions to the field of
communication.
First, Shannon defined and quantified the vague notion of
information. He believed that
telephone signals, radio waves, photographs, film, and other

media could all be consid-
ered information, and this information could be encoded in
binary digits, or bits, which
would make it possible to use relay circuits to perform complex
mathematical operations
and to transmit this digital information without error. Almost 50
years elapsed before
Shannon’s information concept had practical application, but
today this concept forms the
Figure 2.2 Shannon-Weaver Model of Communication
Source: Shannon, C. E. (1948, July, October).
A mathematical theory of communication. The
Bell System Technical Journal, Vol. 27, pp.
379–423, 623–656. Used by permission.
soL6612X_02_c02_021-044.indd 30 4/1/11 10:18 AM
Communication
basis on which computers and other electronic devices operate,
and it made CDs, DVDs,
and broadband communication possible. In fact, Shannon has
been dubbed “The Father
of Information Technology” and is credited with single-
handedly creating today’s digital
revolution (Waldrop, 2001).
Second, the Shannon-Weaver communication model introduced
the word noise into
the communication process. Shannon defined noise as anything

that interferes with
or changes the communication signal as it travels through a
channel. Again, Shannon
was primarily focused on technical noise in the signal
transmission, such as static on a
telephone line. However, he recognized that communicators
could experience seman-
tic noise, which occurs when messages are misunderstood or
misinterpreted or when
interference arises out of the language being used by one or
more of the communication
participants.
As discussed earlier when we reviewed the elements of human
communication, the defi-
nition of noise has been expanded to include anything that
interferes with or distracts
from the communication, including external disturbances as
well as internal disturbances
in the people involved in the communication process.
In the 1950s and early 1960s, other researchers attempted to
adapt the Shannon-Weaver
model to the process of human communication. Several scholars
during this time made
significant contributions to our knowledge of interpersonal
communication. Two of these
models, in particular, are important to our understanding of
interpersonal communica-
tion today.
Early Schramm Model
Beginning in 1954, theorist Wilbur L. Schramm, who founded
the Institute of Communica-
tions Research at the University of Illinois, introduced several
models of communication

that built on the Shannon-Weaver model. An early Schramm
action model, illustrated in
Figure 2.3, recognized that the sender must first select a code
for the message and that the
receiver must decode the message correctly, using the same
code, for a shared meaning to
result. This code may be language, body gestures, music, art,
dance, or other methods of
conveying meaning.
In 1956, Schramm modified his model to include the term field
of experience as an impor-
tant component in the communication process. Field of
experience in Schramm’s model,
shown in Figure 2.4, was a common frame of reference or
shared experiences. In other
words, Schramm recognized that communication is more likely
to be effective if both the
Source Des�na�onSignal DecoderEncoder
Figure 2.3 Schramm’s Early Model of Communication
Source: The Process and Effects of Mass Communication, Ed.
by Wilbur Schramm.
Copyright © 1965 by the University of Illinois Press. Used by
permission.
soL6612X_02_c02_021-044.indd 31 4/1/11 10:18 AM
Communication
sender and the receiver have something in common. For

example, where there is a com-
mon culture, language, values, and experiences, there is a
greater likelihood of mutual
understanding. Without some shared experiences,
communication is difficult, if not
impossible (Hill et al., 2008).
Berlo’s SMCR Model
In 1960, communication
theorist David K. Berlo
developed an action model
of communication based
on the Shannon-Weaver
model. Berlo, who studied
with Schramm in Illinois
and later instituted the first
department of communica-
tion at Michigan State Uni-
versity, developed what
has become known as the
SMCR Model, where the
initials SMCR stand for
Source, Message, Channel,
and Receiver. See Figure 2.5.
Berlo theorized that both
the source (sender) and
the receiver of communi-
cation are influenced by
their skills, attitudes, and
knowledge as well as by the
social system and cultural
contexts in which the com-
munication takes place. The
Field of experience Field of experience

Source Des�na�onEncoder DecoderSignal
A later communica�on model by Schramm that includes fields
of experiences as
a component of the communica�on process. See permissions
log.
Figure 2.4 Schramm’s Later Model of Communication
Figure 2.5 Berlo’s SMCR Model of Communication
Source Message Channel Receiver
Communica�on
Skills
Communica�on
Skills
A�tudes A�tudes
Knowledge Knowledge
Social Social
Culture Culture
Content
Elements
Treatment
Structure

Code
Hearing
Seeing
Touching
Smelling
Tas�ng
Encodes Decodes
Source: Berlo, D. (1960). The process of communication: an
introduction to theory
and practice. New York: Holt, Reinhart, and Winston.
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Communication
message was a crucial element in Berlo’s model, and he defined
the components of the
message as the content, elements, treatment (emphasis),
structure, and code. Berlo posited
that the communication channel is governed by our five senses:
seeing, hearing, touch-
ing, smelling, and tasting (Berlo, 1960). His model was one of
the earliest to consider the
receiver as an active participant in the communication process
rather than as simply a
passive recipient of the message. Because the receiver is the

target of the message, he or
she must share meaning with the sender. In his writings, Berlo
(1960) discussed how we
create meaning. In short, he says:
• Communication does not consist of the transmission of
meanings but of the
transmission of messages.
• Words do not have meanings; people create meanings.
• Senders actively create their own meanings when they encode
the message, and
receivers actively create their own meanings when they decode
the message.
• People can have similar meanings only if they have or can
anticipate having
similar experiences.
• Meanings are never fixed; as experiences change, so meanings
change.
• No two people can have exactly the same meaning for
anything.
Interaction Models
By the mid-1960s, rather than viewing communication as a one-
way process from the
sender/source to a receiver, communication researchers began
examining in more detail
the role the receiver plays in communication. As scholars
continued their study of the
communication process, they realized that the receiver was not
simply a passive “catcher”
of whatever message was thrown his or her way but also bore
some responsibility for the

success of the communication. The one-directional action
models of communication were
succeeded by what are commonly called interaction models.
These interaction models
viewed communication as a two-way process, in which both the
sender and the receiver
equally share the responsibility for communication
effectiveness.
If we used an interaction model to analyze the conversation
between Kim and Pat in
Chapter 1, we might suggest that both Kim and Pat contributed
to the misunderstanding.
While Kim could have been clearer and more explicit about
bread with seeds, an interac-
tion model would consider that Pat had a responsibility in the
communication as well.
When Kim stated, “I don’t like bread that has seeds,” Pat could
have checked to make
sure the message received was the same as the message sent. By
asking, “Are you saying
that you don’t like any type of bread that has seeds?” Pat could
have confirmed that Kim’s
message was correctly understood.
Two of the most influential interaction models are discussed
next.
Osgood and Schramm Model
In 1965, professors Charles Osgood and Wilbur Schramm at the
University of Illinois
developed a model of communication that introduced the
concepts of interpretation and
feedback into the communication process. The Osgood-
Schramm model is shown in Figure

soL6612X_02_c02_021-044.indd 33 4/1/11 10:18 AM
Communication
2.6. Interpretation requires the receiver of the message to give
the message meaning and
creates the possibility that the message might be misunderstood.
Feedback, the response
to the message, is one way to minimize misunderstandings.
What makes the Osgood and Schramm model significantly
different from the early action
models we have studied is that it illustrates how, when a sender
encodes and transmits a
message, the receiver decodes and interprets the message and
transmits a message back
to the sender to respond to the message or to indicate what he or
she understood. This
concept of feedback means that no longer is communication
one-directional. Instead, in
the Osgood and Schramm model, communication moves in two
directions. Each person
alternately takes on the roles of sender and receiver—similar to
hitting a ball back and
forth in a tennis match.
Watzlawick, Beavin, and Jackson Model
In their 1967 book on communication, researchers Paul
Watzlawick, Janet Beavin, and
Don D. Jackson emphasized the dynamic nature of
communication and the back-and-
forth direction of communication when we have a conversation
with another person. They

compared communication to the jagged blade of a handsaw,
with messages going back
and forth continually between senders and receivers. Figure 2.7
illustrates this model,
which is also commonly referred to as a “sawtooth model.”
These researchers viewed
interpersonal communication as a give-and-take process where
neither person is just a
sender or just a receiver. Instead, they are two communicators
who are interacting and
constantly shifting between sending and receiving messages.
The communication model created by Watzlawick, Beavin, and
Jackson (1967) also empha-
sized the following principles about interpersonal
communication:
Message
Message
Encoder
Interpreter
Decoder
Encoder
Interpreter
Decoder
Figure 2.6 Osgood and Schramm’s Model of Communication
Source: The Process and Effects of Mass Communication, Ed.

by Wilbur Schramm.
Copyright © 1965 by the University of Illinois Press. Used by
permission.
soL6612X_02_c02_021-044.indd 34 4/1/11 10:18 AM
Communication
• We cannot not
communicate.
Because com-
munication is
ongoing, when-
ever we are in
the presence of
another person,
communication
is taking place.
Even if we are not
saying anything,
our silence sends
a message to the
other person.
• Communication
involves con-
scious choices and
unconscious influ-
ences. When we
communicate, we
make conscious
choices about the
language we use, tone of voice, and other aspects of the

communication. However,
factors such as our culture, the limitations of language, our
perception of a situa-
tion, and the past relationship between those communicating
also unconsciously
influence the communication. Communication has both verbal
and nonverbal com-
ponents. The nonverbal aspects of communication such as hand
and body gestures
and facial expressions are important elements of the message.
These verbal and
nonverbal components act like punctuation in a conversation
and can often lead to
misunderstandings or communication failure.
• Communication has both content and relational components.
The content of
the message consists of the words themselves and the
information that is being
communicated. The relational components concern the power or
status of the
other person or the feelings the other person is communicating
in addition to the
verbal message. Relational messages are often unclear or
ambiguous and may
require verbal checking. For example, if your boss says, “I’d
like to see you in my
office,” the content of the message is clear and simple.
However, the relational
component may cause you concern. You might analyze the tone
of voice the boss
used when he or she made that statement or wonder about the
way the boss
looked at you. Perhaps you mentally review your work to try to
determine if the
meeting will be a positive or a negative experience. Could the

boss be finding
fault with something you did or did not do recently?
• Communication is either symmetrical or complementary.
Symmetrical commu-
nication takes place between people who have equal status such
as co-workers
who are at approximately the same level of responsibility in an
organization.
Complementary communication, on the other hand, takes place
between people
who are of unequal status in the relationship, such as between a
boss and subor-
dinates (Watzlawick, Beavin, & Jackson, 1967).
1 1173 5 9
2 4 6 8 10
M
es
sa
ge
s
Person A
Person B
Figure 2.7 Watzlawick, Beavin, and Jackson’s Model
of Communication
Source: Watzlawick, P., Beavin, J., & Jackson, D.D. (1967).
Pragmatics of human
communication. New York: Norton. Used by permission.

soL6612X_02_c02_021-044.indd 35 4/1/11 10:18 AM
Communication
Transaction Models
Barnlund’s Transactional Model
One limitation of the interaction models of communication is
that they suggest the commu-
nicator and receiver take turns exchanging messages. As the
study of communication pro-
gressed, researchers recognized that it is not necessary to
receive a message before you send
one. Rather than take turns, communicators often send and
receive messages at the same
time. For example, while someone is speaking to you, you might
be smiling or frowning and
sending a nonverbal message to the other person. Thus, you can
be a sender and a receiver
of messages simultaneously. Instead of comparing
communication to shooting an arrow, like
the action models, or hitting a tennis ball back and forth, as in
the interaction models, commu-
nication began to be viewed more like a dance, in which each
person gets cues from the other
and each individual’s moves influence the direction of the
communication. This “dance”
or interplay between two people is known as a
transaction, and these later models of communi-
cation became known as transactional models.
In the transaction models of interpersonal com-

munication, both parties are active participants,
information is flowing in both directions, and
the communication takes place to meet the needs
of both people. The sender and the receiver are
mutually responsible for the creation of meaning,
and this meaning must be negotiated between
the two parties. Feedback is an important part of
the process to ensure that the meaning of a mes-
sage is shared by the communicators. Several
transaction models were proposed by theorists.
However, the most well-known of these models
was developed by Professor Dean C. Barnlund
of San Francisco State University in 1970. The
model, which resembles a complicated mathematical equation,
may appear at first glance
to be unbelievably complex. However, for purposes of our study
of interpersonal commu-
nication, two simple concepts are important to understand about
this model.
First, Barnlund believed that we perceive three types of signs or
cues in our environment:
(1) public cues, which are available to everyone in the
environment and are outside of
our control; (2) private cues, which operate in our own heads
and are part of our memo-
ries and experience that are not available to other people who
enter the communication
environment; and (3) behavioral cues, which are the observable
speech and nonverbal
activity that take place during the communication. In
Barnlund’s view, all three types of
cue are transferable, one to the other. Public cues can be
transformed into private cues,
and private cues can be transformed into behavioral cues that
others can perceive or into

private cues that become part of our memory. Thus,
transactions, or the transformation of
one type of cue to another, are always ongoing (Barnlund,
1970).
Let us look at an example of how these transformations occur.
Imagine that you are sit-
ting on a bench in a local park on your lunch break. The public
cues would be the sights,
Kablonk!/photolibrary
Transaction models view communication
as a dance, where there is interplay
between communicators and cues are sent
simultaneously.
soL6612X_02_c02_021-044.indd 36 4/1/11 10:18 AM
Communication
sounds, and smells around you. As you perceive these cues, you
assign them meaning.
Perhaps these public cues remind you of the park you used to
visit as a child, and you
remember the silly friend you used to play with at the park. This
memory makes you
smile and laugh out loud and is a private cue, known only to
you.
These nonverbal and verbal actions of smiling and laughing out
loud are behavioral cues
that can be perceived by others. However, because others do not

have access to the pri-
vate cues from your childhood, they may misunderstand your
actions or assign them a
meaning that is inaccurate. A distraught person walking just at
the moment you started
laughing could misunderstand the public cue of your laughter
and assign a meaning to
your behavior that is inaccurate (and perhaps think that you
were laughing at him or her).
With a multitude of cues in the outside environment that we can
focus on, another multi-
tude of private memories and experiences we can draw on, an
unlimited number of con-
scious and unconscious behaviors we might exhibit, and the
constant transactions among
public, private, and behavioral cues, is it any wonder that
misunderstanding can occur
whenever we are in the presence of other people?
Transaction Principles
The second important contribution of Barnlund’s transactional
model to our understand-
ing of interpersonal communication is the set of six principles
that accompany his model.
These principles have been generally accepted by researchers
who followed him and are
today considered to be fundamental principles of interpersonal
communication. Barn-
lund’s (1970) six principles are:
1. Communication is complex. It involves a number of factors
such as language,
power, the relationship between the parties in the
communication and other ele-
ments, and meaning is constructed through transactions with

other people.
2. Communication is continuous. Transactions are always taking
place.
3. Communication is dynamic; it is always changing due to the
constant transfor-
mations between public, private, and behavioral cues.
4. Communication is circular. Public cues and private cues are
transformed into
behavioral cues, and these behavioral cues then become public
cues—and the
process continues.
5. Communication is unrepeatable. We cannot exactly repeat
something we have
said in the past. Even if our words are the same, tone of voice
and other vocal
characteristics as well as body movement, facial expression, and
other nonverbal
elements will be somewhat different. In addition, the
communication may have
been perceived by others the first time and become one of their
private cues, so the
second time it is communicated it will make a different
impression.
6. Communication is irreversible. Once we communicate, we
cannot “take it back.”
We can try to communicate in a different manner, try to explain
previous commu-
nication, or perhaps apologize; however, it is impossible to
reverse the communi-
cation once it has been made public. For example, although
members of a jury in a

court trial may sincerely try to “disregard the previous
statement” if the judge has
instructed them to do so, the statement has already made an
impression that can-
not be undone (Barnlund, 1970).
soL6612X_02_c02_021-044.indd 37 4/1/11 10:18 AM
CHAPTER 2Section 2.4 Interpersonal Communication Theory
Today
Thus, transaction models teach us that interpersonal
communication is the shared respon-
sibility of both parties in the communication encounter. The
sender must attempt to com-
municate as clear a message as possible, and the receiver must
provide feedback to com-
municate whether the interpreted meaning of the message was
the same as the meaning
the sender intended or if further communication or clarification
is needed.
Let us turn our attention one last time in this chapter to the
conversation between Kim and
Pat regarding the bread and the seeds. Using a transaction
model of communication, we
might look at the entire interaction that took place between
these two people and note the
following about their communication. The direction of the
conversation is clear from early
in the interaction, and it is not positive.
Kim begins by accusing Pat of deliberately buying bread that
Kim did not like and uses

the strong, emotional word hate to express displeasure. Pat
defends the purchase by deny-
ing knowledge of Kim’s dislike for the bread, and Kim counters
by pointing out exactly
when Pat supposedly knew this information. Pat is again
defensive and claims no recol-
lection of hearing that statement. The conversation continues in
this back-and-forth dance
between the two people, and each person has some
responsibility for having carried the
conversation in a direction where shared meaning and
understanding is not likely, at least
not without both parties having some hurt feelings.
2.4 Interpersonal Communication Theory Today
Now that we have examined some of the action, interaction, and
transaction mod-els of interpersonal communication developed
during the first few decades of the study of the subject, where
do researchers stand today in their understand-
ing of interpersonal communication? Because this subject is
such an integral part of
our lives, theorists in a multitude of academic fields continue
study it. In 1972, scholars
Richard W. Budd at Regent University and Brent D. Ruben at
Rutgers University devel-
oped an anthology of communication theory that covered 24
disciplines, ranging from
anthropology to zoology; and a text by James A. Anderson at
the University of Utah
in 1996 identified 249 distinct communication theories. Robert
T. Craig (1999), associ-
ate professor in the Department of Communication, University
of Colorado, Boulder,
wrote:

If ours is a culture in which we tend to think that all problems
are funda-
mentally problems of communication (McKeon, 1957), in which
we often
find that we need to “sit down and talk” in order “to work out
problems”
in our relationships (Katriel & Philipsen, 1981), in which we
ritually avow
that communication is the only tie that can hold together a
diverse soci-
ety across the vast spatial and cultural gaps that divide us
(Carey, 1989),
then communication is already a topic much discussed
throughout society,
and everyone already knows that communication is important
and worth
studying in order to improve. (p. 130)
soL6612X_02_c02_021-044.indd 38 4/1/11 10:18 AM
CHAPTER 2Section 2.5 Interpersonal Communication Skills
2.5 Interpersonal Communication Skills
A large body of information and knowledge exists in the field of
interpersonal com-munication; however, our primary goals in
this text are to increase our awareness of the principles of
interpersonal communication and to apply these principles in
everyday interactions with other people. Interpersonal
communication is a lifelong study
that requires ongoing practice for everyone. To become a more
effective communicator,
scholars would most likely agree that five specific aspects of
interpersonal communica-

tion are crucial areas of focus. We will introduce
these five aspects here and explore them in depth
in the remaining chapters of this text.
Listening Skills
Researchers report that most of us spend more
time listening than we do talking; however, most
people have had little education on how to be
an effective listener. In this text, we will explore
different types of listening and the requirements
for listener effectiveness. Listening requires
focus and attention, and failure to listen is one of
the key causes of miscommunication.
People Skills
People skills involve a wide range of interpersonal skills
including appropriate self-
disclosure (determining how much personal information to share
with others), appro-
priate assertion skills (presenting your ideas and opinions so
that they are recognized),
collaborative skills (working well with others), problem-solving
skills, and conflict
resolution skills.
Emotional Intelligence
Understanding emotions and expressing these emotions
appropriately is the key to suc-
cessful communication with others. People who are aware of
their emotions and are sen-
sitive to the emotions of others are better able to handle the ups
and downs of life, to
rebound from adversity, and to maintain fulfilling relationships

with others. As a result,
say researchers, they can live more satisfying lives (Matthews,
Zeidner, & Roberts, 2003).
Emotional intelligence is a set of skills that can be learned. We
can improve our emo-
tional intelligence by increasing our awareness of emotional
issues and improving our
ability to identify, assess, and manage our feelings. We discuss
these skills of emotional
intelligence in more detail later in this text.
Eric Audras/Photoalto/photolibrary
Listening is a key component of effective
communication.
soL6612X_02_c02_021-044.indd 39 4/1/11 10:18 AM
CHAPTER 2Section 2.5 Interpersonal Communication Skills
Appropriate Skill Selection
Appropriate skill selection means recognizing communication
problems when they arise
and using effective skills to deal with those problems
constructively. To achieve these
goals, we must be able to identify possible causes for a
problem, know which tools in our
“communication tool box” to use in dealing with the problem,
and be able to use those
skills effectively.
Communicating Ethically

The final critical communication competency is the ability to
understand what constitutes
ethical communication and to make ethical choices in
communication with others. Ethics
is the set of moral values each person carries throughout life—
concepts of what is right
and wrong, good and bad, or just and unjust. When we say that
someone is ethical, we
mean that he or she is honest, trustworthy, and a person of
integrity. The information an
ethical person provides can be relied upon, and his or her
behavior is guided by principles
of right and wrong.
All people in a group, a community, or a society are
interdependent; their actions affect
others. We depend on the information others communicate, and
they depend on the mes-
sages we send to them. If, for example, you report incorrect
information at a business
meeting, a poor decision might be made on the basis of that
information. If you fail to give
someone clear instructions for operating a piece of machinery,
that person might be seri-
ously injured. The statements and actions of every person affect
others in the communities
to which that person belongs.
To ensure that you are an ethical communicator, keep the
following principles in mind
and strive to demonstrate them in your everyday interactions
with other people:
1. Take responsibility for your communication behavior. Strive
to be truthful, accu-

rate, and clear in your communication with others.
2. Remember that communication is shared meaning, and each
person in a com-
munication encounter has a responsibility to work toward
achieving this shared
understanding and interpretation.
3. Acknowledge that your view of a situation is not the only
view; strive to under-
stand the perspective of other people and to see how their point
of view makes
sense to them.
4. Respect others as well as yourself. Strive for win-win
outcomes in communica-
tion encounters, where both parties get their needs met, not
outcomes where one
person “wins” an argument or controls a discussion at the
expense of the other
person’s feelings or interests.
5. Listen and evaluate the other person’s statements before
responding to them and
choose your words carefully.
6. Honor the confidentiality of interpersonal communication. Do
not share informa-
tion that was given in confidence, and accept the consequences
for your commu-
nication behavior.
7. Continually work to become a better communicator.
Communication skills are
learned through knowledge and through practice.

soL6612X_02_c02_021-044.indd 40 4/1/11 10:18 AM
CHAPTER 2Section 2.6 Chapter Summary
2.6 Chapter Summary
From birth, we humans are social animals, and we want and
need connections with other
people. Interpersonal communication is a social process, and we
usually engage in inter-
personal communication for one of three purposes: to meet
personal needs; to learn about
ourselves, other people, and the world; and to build and
maintain relationships.
Psychologist Abraham Maslow constructed a hierarchy of needs,
which are illustrated in
a pyramid-shaped model. In Maslow’s hierarchy, physiological
needs are the most basic;
needs for food, water, and sleep must be satisfied first. Once
these needs are met, safety
and security needs can emerge. If a person is able to meet the
needs for safety and secu-
rity, higher-level social needs and then esteem needs will
emerge, in that order. These four
categories of needs Maslow labeled as deficiency needs because
he believed they must be
satisfied before a person’s motivation can turn toward self-
actualization.
In addition to meeting personal needs, interpersonal
communication also helps us learn
about ourselves, other people, and the world. It helps us develop
a concept of self and is
one of the most important ways in which societies pass on their

cultural heritage. Interper-
sonal communication also helps in building and maintaining
relationships and enables us
to share your values and principles.
The interpersonal communication process consists of several
key elements:
• The sender—the source of the communication
• The receiver—the recipient of the message and an active
participant in the com-
munication process
• The message—the content of the communication, which is
transmitted in some
type of code
• The channel—the medium through which the communication
is transmitted
• Feedback—the response to the communication that a
communicator gets from
others about the message
• The communication environment—the external situation in
which the communi-
cation takes place
• Noise—information unrelated to the message that disturbs or
interrupts the
communication process. This noise may be technical noise in
the communica-
tion system or the equipment used to transmit the message,
semantic noise that
consists of language problems, or psychological noise, that
results from internal

issues within the people who are communicating.
The study of interpersonal communication as an academic
discipline began in the mid-
twentieth century and is ongoing. As researchers continue to
learn about the complex
subject of interpersonal communication, our understanding of
this subject continues
to grow. Theories and models of communication that evolved
during the first decades
of formal study can be divided into three categories: (1) action
models that envisioned
interpersonal communication as one-directional, much like
shooting an arrow at a passive
receiver; (2) interaction models, which viewed interpersonal
communication as a two-
way process, similar to hitting a tennis ball back and forth; and
(3) transaction models,
in which the participants are senders and receivers
simultaneously, similar to a dance in
which each person gets cues from the other and each
individual’s moves influence the
soL6612X_02_c02_021-044.indd 41 4/1/11 10:18 AM
CHAPTER 2Key Terms
direction of the communication. In today’s transactional view of
interpersonal commu-
nication, both the sender and the receiver are responsible for
creating meaning, and this
meaning must be negotiated between the parties. Feedback is
crucial to ensure that the
meaning of a message is shared between the communicators.

Five essential aspects of interpersonal communication are
listening skills, people skills,
emotional intelligence, appropriate skill selection, and
communicating ethically.
Key Terms
action models Early descriptions of interper-
sonal communication as a one-directional
transmission of information from a source or
sender to some destination or receiver (also
called linear models)
behavioral cues Observable speech and non-
verbal activity that takes place when people
communicate
channel The medium through which communi-
cation is transmitted
communication environment The external sit-
uation in which communication takes place
decode The interpretation a receiver makes of
a message
emotional intelligence The ability people to
identify emotions and act appropriately
encode The sender’s action of putting ideas
into a form that the receiver can understand
ethics A set of moral values of what is right and
wrong, good and bad, or just and unjust

feedback The response to communication that
a communicator receives from others
information The data or content of a message
information source The communicator or
sender of a message
interaction models Descriptions of interper-
sonal communication as a two-way process in
which both the sender and the receiver share
equally the responsibility for communication
effectiveness
linear models Early descriptions of interper-
sonal communication as a one-directional
transmission of information from a source or
sender to some destination or receiver (also
called action models)
meaning The feeling, idea, or action that a sym-
bol represents to a sender or receiver
message The content of the communication
that is transmitted
noise Information unrelated to the message
that disturbs or interrupts the communication
process
private cues Signs in the environment that trig-
ger a person’s thoughts, memories, or personal
experiences and are not available to other
people
psychological noise Disturbances in the com-

munication process resulting from internal
issues within the people involved in the process
public cues Signs in the environment that are
available to everyone and are outside of indi-
vidual control
receiver The recipient of the communication
message and an active participant in the com-
munication process
self-actualization The achievement of one’s full
potential as a person
semantic noise Interferences in communica-
tion caused by language issues
sender The who originates the communication
encounter and the message
soL6612X_02_c02_021-044.indd 42 4/1/11 10:18 AM
CHAPTER 2Key Terms
signal Information sent from one place or from
one person to another using equipment or an
organized system of some type
technical noise Disturbances in the communi-
cation system or the equipment used to trans-
mit a message
transaction A communication exchange be-
tween two people in which each party affects

or influences the other
transaction models Descriptions of interper-
sonal communication as a process in which
both parties are active participants, informa-
tion is flowing in both directions, the commu-
nication takes place to meet the needs of both
people, and the sender and the receiver are
mutually responsible for the creation of mean-
ing (also called transactional models)
soL6612X_02_c02_021-044.indd 43 4/1/11 10:18 AM
soL6612X_02_c02_021-044.indd 44 4/1/11 10:18 AM
We don’t see things as they are,
We see them as we are.
—Anaïs Nin (1903–1977)
French author
Superstock/photolibrary
Intrapersonal Communication
3
soL6612X_03_c03_045-068.indd 45 4/20/11 8:28 AM

CHAPTER 3Section 3.1 Who Are You?
Chapter 3 examines the conscious and unconscious factors that
influence
how you see yourself and how you communicate with yourself.
In this chap-
ter, you attempt to answer the question, “Who Am I?” by
exploring the
terms self-concept, self-image, and self-esteem along with
factors such as
personality and perception that influence your communication
with yourself
and with others. You will also learn ways to improve your
communication
competency over your lifetime.
Intrapersonal communication refers to the internal
communication within and to yourself.
Yes, everyone talks to themselves, and this talk is perfectly
normal! In fact, you commu-
nicate with yourself in a number of ways, some of which are
similar to the conversations
you have with other people. Your thoughts are a form of
intrapersonal communication. So
are your dreams—in which you can carry on conversations with
yourself and with other
people you have created or carry in your mind.
You also communicate with yourself when you send verbal
messages to yourself, either
out loud or silently. For instance, you might congratulate
yourself with a message such
as “Wow, I did a great job on that project,” or scold yourself by
saying, “What an idiotic
thing I just did!” You also communicate by being a friend to
yourself with statements such

as “You need a break” or reassuring yourself with statements
such as “Maybe it won’t be
so bad.”
Whenever you communicate with others, you carry yourself—
your personality and your
view of the world—into that interpersonal communication
situation. As the opening quo-
tation in this chapter suggests, you may think of the world as a
finite place, but the truth
of the matter is that the world is a different place to each
person. As you will learn in this
chapter, you create your own reality. Who are you? Social
scientists use many terms such
as identity, self-concept, self-image, self-esteem, and
personality to describe your “self.” In this
chapter, we will define each of these terms and discuss how
they affect your intrapersonal
communication.
3.1 Who Are You?
If you were asked to “tell us about yourself,” what would you
say? Try this short, sim-ple exercise. Take out a piece of paper
and a pen or open a blank document on your computer and write
“I am . . .” Now, set a timer for 10 minutes and complete this
sentence by writing as many different descriptions of yourself
as possible that answer the
question, “Who are you?” Be sure to include descriptions of
your physical appearance,
your race and ethnic heritage, traits or talents you possess or do
not possess, how you
interact or relate to other people, the roles you play in your life
(father, mother, daughter,
son, friend, etc.), the values or beliefs that are important to you,
and other characteristics

that you believe describe you.
soL6612X_03_c03_045-068.indd 46 4/20/11 8:28 AM
When time is up, review the list of traits and characteristics you
compiled. This list repre-
sents what many social scientists call your self-concept. Self-
concept can be defined as an
appraisal of your own attributes and competencies.
You most likely have several components to your self-concept.
For example, you might
have a concept of yourself physically, which could include your
opinions about your
physical body or aspects of it such as your height, your hair,
your smile, or your mus-
cles. You might have another concept of yourself academically,
which could include
items on your list such as “I am good at math” or “I am a slow
reader.” You probably
have still another concept about how you behave in social
situations such as “I have a
difficult time meeting strangers” or “I am outgoing” or in the
roles you play, “I am a
good father/mother” or “I am a poor student.” William Watson
Purkey (1988), Profes-
sor of Counselor Education at the University of North Carolina
at Greensboro, believes
that “Many of the successes and failures that people experience
in their lives are closely
related to the ways they have learned to view themselves and
their relationships with

other people” (para. 13).
Self-Concept
Where do you get your concept of self? This subject has been
studied by philosophers as
well as psychologists, sociologists, and other social scientists
for centuries. Today most
researchers believe that who you think you are is a complex mix
of how you see your-
self; how others see you; what parents, teachers, and peers have
told you about yourself;
and what your society or culture tells you that you are or should
be. Your self-concept is
learned; it is organized, it is dynamic, and it is changeable
(Purkey, 1988). You construct
this sense of self through communication with yourself and with
others—by what you tell
yourself and what others tell you about yourself.
Modern Communication: What Your Facebook Profile Says
about How You
See Yourself
How do you see yourself, and how do you want others to see
you? Social networking sites like Facebook
prompt us to contemplate these things. When you set up an
online profile, you must ask yourself
basic questions: What core things should people know about
me? Is it helpful or necessary to share
my gender, birthday, or occupation? Do I have a religious or
political view, and if so, is it important
enough to my identity to list it online? After you’ve set up your
profile, you choose the people you want
to identify with and the groups you want to join. You might ask
yourself, is this someone I consider a
friend? Do I really want to join my high school alumni group?

You must also consider your hobbies and
interests, which affect and reflect how you see yourself. Are
you a runner, an artist, maybe a fan of a
certain music group? And finally, it’s important to consider the
pictures you post of yourself because
they show you in situations that say something about you. Do
you want to post a professional portrait
where every hair is in place, a photo acting silly with friends, or
a photo of you hiking a particularly
impressive mountain? The combination of items you post on
your page, including graphics and music
and comments, presents your image of yourself, or how you like
to think about yourself.
soL6612X_03_c03_045-068.indd 47 4/20/11 8:28 AM
When you were born, you had no clear concept of yourself.
However, you expressed
yourself by communicating with others through cries and other
sounds, through facial
expressions, and through bodily actions such as grabbing a
finger that was extended
toward you. At some point, you began to realize that your
behavior resulted in responses
from others. You cried and received something to eat or your
diaper was changed. Then
your behavior became purposeful: you made that cry or that
facial expression to elicit
responses from others. You most likely did not think through
this action and reason
“If I cry, I will be fed or changed.” However, at a conscious or
unconscious level, your

communication became purposeful and was aimed at achieving a
specific goal. As you
matured, your behavior became more consciously planned to get
your needs and desires
met.
Throughout life, you have an infinite number of opportunities to
express yourself and to
interact with people. These people may express opinions about
your behavior by smiling
or frowning at you or by making verbal judgments about your
behavior or appearance.
“That baby sure cries a lot, doesn’t he?” “You are a very pretty
child.” “She is stubborn
and willful.” “He plays well with other children.” The opinions
that other people express
to you or about you affect you in ways you might not realize.
They influence the way you
see yourself, the way you respond to difficulties in life, and the
way you interact with
others.
The “Looking-Glass” Self
Humans are social beings, and the early 20th-
century American sociologist Charles Horton
Cooley believed that people always see them-
selves in relation to other people. Your sense
of self, he believed, is formed by imagining
how you appear to other people. Cooley used
the term looking-glass self to describe this view
of your self-concept. He stated, “Each to each
a looking-glass / Reflects the other that doth
pass” (Cooley, 1902, p. 152).
Cooley’s rhyme suggests that other people are
like a looking glass, or a mirror, in which you

see yourself from others’ perspectives. In other
words, you are always considering how you look to other
people. You might have a spe-
cific person in mind that you want to impress, or you might just
have a general sense of
“other people” and how they might judge you.
When you see yourself in a mirror, or think about yourself, you
may be pleased or dis-
pleased by what you see, but not simply because it does or does
not reflect what you want
to be like. You also imagine how other people will judge you.
This judgment creates a feel-
ing in you such as pride or embarrassment or humiliation. For
example, in the presence of
a person you think is beautiful, you may feel ugly. In the
presence of someone who seems
to be less fashionable than you, you may feel sophisticated and
in vogue. According to
Cooley (1902), you are most likely to be affected by the
judgments of people who have
authority over you such as parents, teachers, and bosses.
Juice Images/photolibrary
When we see ourselves, we also see the
judgment of others.
soL6612X_03_c03_045-068.indd 48 4/20/11 8:28 AM
Now you might say that you, or some-
one you know, are not affected by what

other people think. However, when you
say, “I am not ashamed” or “I do not
care about other people’s opinions,”
that does not mean that you have not
considered them. In fact, to come to this
decision, you had to make a conscious
choice to disregard the judgment of oth-
ers. Instead of shame about an action you
took, for example, you might choose an
attitude of apathy and not allow yourself
to be bothered by the opinion of others,
or you might even feel pride at disobey-
ing the rules of society. However, Cooley
believed that the thought of other people
is always there (Cooley, 1902).
In 1983, psychologist Michael Argyle
provided a summary of four key fac-
tors that contribute to development of
self-concept: the reaction of others, your
comparison with others, the social roles
you play in society (e.g., I am a mother/father and a teacher so I
have to watch my language
and behave in a certain way), and groups with which you
identify. When you identify with
a particular group, called a reference group, you tend to
compare yourself with others in
that group. For example, you may think that you must have
certain possessions because
others in your reference group have them or you must
communicate in a certain way to fit
in with the group. The pressure exerted by reference groups
explains why teenagers adopt
the dress and the slang expressions or other vocabulary of their
peers.

The Self as an Object
In 1934, philosopher George Herbert Mead formulated a theory
of the self and how it
develops. Mead’s view of self-concept is similar in many ways
to that of Cooley; both
theorists speculated that self-concept emerges from your
interaction with other people.
Mead wrote, “The self is something which has a development; it
is not initially there, at
birth, but arises in the process of social experience and activity
. . .” (p. 135).
Mead’s view of self-concept suggests that the self is developed
through a reflective pro-
cess—it is built over time as you think about who you are and
your interactions with oth-
ers. According to Mead, you are conscious of having some type
of self, which is an object
to you and separate somehow from your physical being. For
example, you can lose an arm
or another part of your body without losing parts of your self.
According to Mead, your
self enters into interactions with others, and self-concept and
self-consciousness are the
result of a process in which you attempt to view yourself from
the standpoint of others.
You can see this process, Mead suggests, when you watch
children playing a game. The
children often take roles in the game and act them out (e.g.,
mother, child, doctor, nurse,
soL6612X_03_c03_045-068.indd 49 4/20/11 8:28 AM

teacher). They may also switch roles during the
game. The people these roles represent have cer-
tain characteristic ways of speaking and acting,
and the rules of the game require that all players
respond to the role appropriately.
For example, if someone is playing the mother,
other children must respond to them as though
they were the real mother. Others in the game rec-
ognize that “mother” is a specific person who has
certain characteristic ways of speaking and acting.
Similarly, the “child” has certain ways of speaking
and acting with the “mother.” The role, Mead sug-
gested, has a particular character, but this charac-
ter does not completely dictate the responses of others in the
game. Each game player must
choose his or her response. In other words, the game player’s
responses are conditioned but
not determined by the behaviors and words of others in the
game (Cronk, 2005).
Through this type of game playing and symbolic interactions
(social interactions with
others using shared symbols such as words, gestures, rituals,
etc.), Mead believes that you
become socialized. Like the game, your interactions in the
world are learned and condi-
tioned, but not determined, by the actions and words of others.
Through games, the child
becomes able to function as an independent self in organized
society and to determine
who he or she is in relationships with others. As Mead (1934)
stated,

By learning to speak, gesture, and play in “appropriate” ways,
the indi-
vidual is brought into line with the accepted symbolized roles
and rules of
the social process. The self is therefore one of the most subtle
and effective
instruments of social control. (p. 135)
The Personal Self
While your self-image is connected with the
thoughts and judgments of other people, at the
same time you can hold a view of yourself that is
separate and distinct from the opinions and judg-
ments of others. Your language reflects this fact.
For example, if you say, “That apple is mine,”
you are saying that other people do not have it.
Thus, you cannot think of “I” without thinking
of other people who are “not I” (Cooley, 1902).
By your words and actions, you tell others what
you consider yours and what you do not own
or accept as yours. Your self-concept is not just
a product of what other people think. It is also a
choice you make.
Self-concept is learned and maintained through interpersonal
communication with oth-
ers. However, self-concept is also changed through
interpersonal communication. How
you evaluate your skills and abilities, how you perceive objects
and situations in the
Robert Llewellyn/photolibrary
Our sense of self emerges from interaction
with others.

OJO Images/photolibrary
We are influenced by judgments of people
in authority.
soL6612X_03_c03_045-068.indd 50 4/20/11 8:28 AM
world, your values, your vocabulary, and your ability to use
language influence how you
communicate. And through your communication with others,
with your words and your
actions, you can inflluence the perceptions others have of you
(Yeung and Martin, 2003).
In fact, part of the way you construct your self-concept is by
choosing to accept or reject
what other people tell you about yourself. To grow and learn
about yourself, you must be
open minded about other people’s opinions. However, you can
choose to disregard state-
ments that others make about you, if you do not think they are
valid. For example, if some-
one judges you in a way that you do not accept, try responding
by saying, “Thank you
for your opinion. That is an interesting story, but it is not my
story. It is not true for me.”
Self-Image
If self-concept is the set of traits, characteristics, and judgments
you use to describe your-

self, what is self-image? The term self-image is a broader term
that psychologist Dennis
Coon (1994) defines as “the total subjective perception of
oneself, including an image of
one’s body and impressions of one’s personality, capabilities,
and so on” (p. 471).
Self-concept, as you just learned, refers to your view of
yourself in particular situations
or with respect to specific traits. Self-image, on the other hand,
is a more general view of
yourself; you might say that it is all the character-
istics of your self-concept rolled into a complete
picture of yourself. Your self-image is also more
permanent than your self-concept; it constitutes
the overall mental picture you have of your-
self—the combination of both your internal view
of yourself and the valuation of others as well as
your physical appearance and the integration of
your experiences, desires, and feelings.
For example, let us say that when you were a
child, you were laughed at when you tried to
dance or failed to catch a fly ball in a baseball
game. So, on the list of traits that made up your
self-concept, you may have listed that you are a
poor dancer and an inept baseball player. If you
have sufficient negative concepts such as these,
you may form a general negative self-image of
yourself as uncoordinated or unathletic.
Your self-image is formed and transformed, over
time, again through your interactions and communication with
other people, as you inter-
nalize what you learn about your strengths and weaknesses.

Through information you
continually receive from the evaluations others make of you and
your abilities, you form
this mental image of your physical appearance, of your
successes and failures, of your
adequacy, and of your worth. Self-image tends to be an either-
or set of opposites. Either
you think you are pretty or you see yourself as ugly; you are
smart or you are dumb. When
you have a positive self-image, you appreciate your assets and
your potential, while being
realistic about your imperfections and limitations. When you
have a negative self-image,
George Doyle/Stockbyte/Thinkstock
Body image is part of our self-image.
soL6612X_03_c03_045-068.indd 51 4/20/11 8:28 AM
you focus on your faults and weaknesses, distorting failures and
imperfections and mini-
mizing your successes and talents (Cleveland Clinic, 2009).
Remember, though, that you
can change your self-image by refusing to accept or believe
what others have told you.
Body image is an important part of your self-image. Your body
image involves how you
think, feel, and respond to your physical attributes (Cleveland
Clinic, 2009). Research on
body image is most prevalent with regard to women; however,

men have issues concern-
ing body image as well. In recent years, diagnosed eating
disorders among men appear
to be on the rise, and steroid and supplement use to improve
appearance or strength has
increased dramatically. These issues seem to be associated with
men’s preoccupation with
their weight, their dissatisfaction with their bodies, poorer
attitudes about health, and the
growth of men’s fitness magazines (Tager, Good, & Morrison,
2006).
All societies have ideals for body image of both men and
women, and these ideals are
reflected in the judgments of family and peers as well as in art,
literature, and media.
Sports Illustrated magazine’s annual swimsuit edition and
People magazine’s annual “Sexi-
est Man Alive” list are examples of how media promote ideals
of female and male bodies.
While the ideal male body has not undergone dramatic change
over time, the ideal female
body in United States society has changed greatly since the
1400s.
Plastic surgery and body art such as tattoos are other ways in
which some people choose
to alter their bodies in hopes of changing their self-image.
Professor Carl Elliott of the
The following steps are suggested by the Cleveland Clinic
mental health experts
to improve your self-image:
• Review your self-concept list.

• Identity negative childhood labels.
• Challenge distorted thinking about yourself.
• Accept and love yourself as you are today.
• Refuse to accept media assumptions about the ideal body
appearance.
• Stop comparing yourself to others.
• Define some realistic personal goals and objectives about your
self-image.
• Develop your strengths.
• Give yourself positive affirmations.
• Remember that you are unique.
• Learn to laugh and smile at yourself.
• Remember how far you have come.
Adapted from The Cleveland Clinic Foundation, 2009.
Figure 3.1 Improving Your Self-Image
soL6612X_03_c03_045-068.indd 52 4/20/11 8:28 AM
Center for Bioethics at University of Minnesota reports (2004)
that cosmetic surgery, once

a slightly shameful activity, is now performed at elite medical
institutions. According to
the American Society of Aesthetic Plastic Surgery, Americans
underwent 8.3 million cos-
metic medical procedures in 2003. That figure represents a 293
percent increase since 1997
(Elliott, 2004). Individuals spent $300 million for cosmetic
surgery in 1992, striving for a
“perfect look” (Black, 1992); that figure was estimated to be a
staggering $12.453 billion in
2007 (Beauty Obsession, 2008).
Whatever image you now hold about yourself, your self-image
is not permanently fixed.
As you age, every stage of your life is associated with changes
in your body. You can
learn to accept these changes and to develop a healthy view of
yourself. If you have a
negative self-image, you can learn to develop a more accurate
view of yourself (Cleve-
land Clinic, 2009).
Self-image is important because how you think about yourself
affects your physical,
mental, social, emotional, and spiritual well-being and how you
respond to events in
your life. Self-image can also determine the quality of your
relationships because you
carry that self-image into all your interpersonal relationships.
Weight reduction and
plastic surgery can be positive steps to improving your view of
yourself. However,
your self-image is not what you look like but what you tell
yourself that you look like.
Changing your exterior self also requires internal changes in
how you see yourself.

Changing self-image takes time and work. It requires you to
think and feel differently
about yourself, and it means you must alter how you respond to
your body. People who
thought they were fat, for example, and lost a considerable
amount of weight, might
continue to think of themselves as fat, even if they would no
longer be considered so
by others.
A positive self-image begins by accepting and loving yourself
and allowing yourself to
be accepted and loved by others. Figure 3.1 provides some
strategies for improving your
self-image suggested by a premier medical facility, the
Cleveland Clinic.
Self-Esteem
Self-esteem consists of your sense of self-worth
and the level of satisfaction you have with your-
self; it is how you feel about yourself. A good
self-image raises your self-esteem; a poor self-
image often results in poor self-esteem, lack of
confidence, and insecurity.
Some people have been taught that it is not desir-
able to think too highly of themselves. So, they
are often more aware of or focus more on their
weaknesses than on their strengths, and they
might think they are boasting if they are proud
of their accomplishments. However, healthy
Roger Lee/Superstock/photolibrary
Self-esteem gives us the power to make

changes and the belief that we can be
successful.
soL6612X_03_c03_045-068.indd 53 4/20/11 8:28 AM
self-esteem means thinking highly of yourself and creates the
confidence that is essential
to your successes in life.
Self-esteem is a particular way of experiencing the self.
Psychologist Nathaniel Branden
(1994), a renowned expert on the subject, defines self-esteem as
confidence in your abil-
ity to cope with the basic challenges of life and a belief that you
are worthy of happiness.
He suggests that positive self-esteem is the immune system of
your spirit that helps you
bounce back from adversity (1994).
Branden (2009) suggests that self-esteem has two components:
(1) a sense of self-efficacy,
or effectiveness, and (2) a sense of personal worth and self-
respect. Self-efficacy means
confidence in your ability to think, judge, choose, and decide—
trusting yourself and
being self-reliant. Self-respect refers to feeling assured of your
value and your right to
be happy and appropriately asserting your thoughts, wants, and
needs. Self-esteem, says
Branden, gives you a feeling of control over your life, rather
than thinking of yourself as
a passive spectator or a victim of circumstances. Self-esteem

also gives you the power to
change situations in your life and a belief that you can
successfully make those changes.
Some people are driven to succeed in spite of low self-esteem,
for example, workaholics
who strive to prove their worth to parents who predicted they
would never amount to
anything. Branden (2009) warns, however, that in a
circumstance such as this one, these
people will be less effective and less creative than they have the
power to be and will
be crippled in their ability to find joy in their achievements. On
the other hand, if you
have a realistic confidence in yourself, you feel secure and tend
to experience the world
as open to you, and you find pleasure and pride in your
achievements. Perhaps most
important, the higher your self-esteem, states Branden, the more
likely you are to form
nourishing relationships with others.
You have to work to develop your self-
esteem, and you build self-esteem by
experiences of success. When you are
successful at something, you create
confidence in yourself. This confidence
enables you to take on new challenges,
and each new success leads to further
self-confidence and increased self-
esteem. LiveStrong, an organization
founded and promoted by world-class
cyclist Lance Armstrong, stresses the fact
that all people have the power to make
their lives better and to achieve every-
day victories to help themselves and to

then help others. Read the article “Self-
Esteem” on the website for more infor-
mation and tips on self-esteeem. (http://
www.livestrong.com/article/13925-self-
esteem/#ixzz0x6vEuMcv).
© Mike Twohy/ The New Yorker Collection/
www.cartoonbank.com
soL6612X_03_c03_045-068.indd 54 4/20/11 8:28 AM
CHAPTER 3Section 3.2 Intrapersonal and Interpersonal
Communication
3.2 Intrapersonal and Interpersonal Communication
Now that you have a better understanding of yourself and the
factors that create your self-concept, self-image, and self-
esteem, how do these aspects of your self affect your
communication with other people? So far in this chapter, we
have
focused on how the messages other people give you throughout
your life affect your view
of the self. However, a great deal of research in the field of
psychology has determined
that just as your interpersonal communication with other people
affects your view of
yourself, the way in which you communicate internally also has
an affect on your ability
to build positive relationships with other people. In fact, two
important ways in which
intrapersonal and interpersonal functions are interrelated are
described next.

Self-Control and Interpersonal Communication
Research shows that your ability to interact well with other
people is improved if you
can exercise control of your behavior. Self-control—the ability
to regulate what you say
and how you act—is related to strong family bonds and low
family conflict; empathy, the
ability to understand the perspectives of other people; low
levels of anger and aggression;
and the ability to take responsibility for your failings. The
capacity to control your emo-
tions, urges, and desires has also been shown to result in
healthier intimate relationships
because you are willing and able to sacrifice your own needs, at
times, for the benefit of
your partner and the relationship (Rawn & Vohs, 2006).
Perhaps the most direct evidence of the importance of self-
control are research findings
that low self-control often results in abusive, violent, and
selfish responses in intimate
relationships, as well as an interest in finding alternative
partners. Researchers Rawn &
Vohs conclude: “The message gleaned from this research is
clear: low self-control is det-
rimental to having and maintaining close interpersonal
relationships, whereas high self-
control brings relational success” (p. 24).
Self-Esteem and Interpersonal Communication
It is desirable to have high self-esteem. However, some
individuals have such a high opin-
ion of their self-worth that they believe they are better, more
deserving, or more special

than others. An inflated self-image or extremely high self-
esteem can negatively impact
your friendships, work relationships, and romantic
relationships. Researchers have found
that people who keep trying to prove their worth focus
excessively on themselves and
have less successful relationships (Park, Crocker, & Vohs,
2006).
On the other hand, people who have low self-esteem tend to
engage in excessive attempts
to seek reassurance of their self-worth from others. They look
for reassurance to make
themselves feel more secure. However, the attempts frequently
backfire, and they tend to
push away the people they most want close to them. Because the
person with low self-
esteem needs constant reassurance, other people begin to feel
frustrated and irritated and
often socially reject the person (Van Orden & Joiner, 2006).
soL6612X_03_c03_045-068.indd 55 4/20/11 8:28 AM
CHAPTER 3Section 3.3 Personality and Perception in
3.3 Personality and Perception in Intrapersonal Communication
After the previous discussions of self-concept, self-image, and
self-esteem, it should be obvious that the statements and
judgments of others and your view of yourself can affect your
communication with others. Additional factors such as your per-
sonality and perception affect communication as well. Let us
next examine these factors

and the influence each has on communication.
Personality
Personality can be defined as the combination of traits or
qualities such as behavior, emo-
tional stability, and mental attributes that make a person unique.
For some people, the
“public self” and “private self” are congruent; the way these
individuals behave socially is
similar to the way they behave in their private lives. However,
other people have a public
personality they display in social situations and a very different
private self. The late televi-
sion talk-show host Johnny Carson, for example, appeared
sociable and seemed to enjoy
casual chats with guests on the show. However, outside the
studio, he was extremely pri-
vate, almost shy, and preferred not to engage in small talk
(Johnny Carson Biography, 2010).
Nature or Nurture
While scientists have known for years that genetics are
responsible for many of our physi-
cal traits, the source of our personalities is still a mystery. Is
personality fixed by our genes,
our nature, or is the environment in which we are raised and our
experiences in life, “nur-
ture,” responsible for our personality? The most likely answer
is, both.
In 2001, the Human Genome Project, a multinational scientific
effort to identify all the
genes in the human organism, published its first report. The
report revealed that humans
have about 3 billion DNA base pairs, or subunits, in our cells,

and we have trillions of
cells. However, these cells respond to the environment; thus, we
cannot say for certain
how much of who we are is due to our DNA and how much is
based on biological and
social factors that we encounter during our lifetimes (Genomics
and Its Impact on Science
and Society, 2010).
While the nature versus nurture controversy is still uncertain,
researchers tend to agree about
one important way in which you are different from other people:
your temperament type.
Temperament Types
David Keirsey, a clinical psychologist, author, and professor
emeritus of California State
University, Fullerton, wrote that the term personality has two
components: One is tem-
perament and the other is character. Temperament refers to the
tendencies or predis-
positions you have to behave in a particular way, and character
refers to your behavior,
including your habits (Keirsey, 2010).
That people have fundamentally different temperaments or
predispositions to act in cer-
tain ways is an ancient idea. The Greek physician Hippocrates,
known today as the father of
medicine, first proposed it around 370 BC when he wrote of
four temperaments, which he
soL6612X_03_c03_045-068.indd 56 4/20/11 8:28 AM

labeled the Sanguine, Choleric, Phlegmatic, and
Melancholic (Keirsey, 1998). His view, however,
was largely ignored, and through the early 20th
century, many researchers theorized that people
are all driven by the same basic motivations.
In 1920, Swiss psychiatrist Carl Jung, one of the
founders of modern psychology, disagreed with
Sigmund Freud and others who retained the idea
of a single motivation for people. Jung authored
a book titled Psychological Types in which he the-
orized that people are different in specific ways.
He claimed that each person is driven from
within by instincts he called archetypes. What is
important, stated Jung, is your natural inclina-
tion to either extraversion or introversion, com-
bined with your preference for what he called
the “four basic psychological functions”: think-
ing, feeling, sensation, and intuition. Your pref-
erence for a given function is so characteristic,
Jung wrote, that you can be identified and typed
by this preference (Jung, [1921] 1971).
In the 1940s, the mother-daughter team of Katherine Briggs and
Isabel Briggs Myers
developed a questionnaire largely inspired by Jung’s work. The
Myers-Briggs Type Indi-
cator (MBTI) personality inventory is designed to make Jung’s
theory of psychological
functions understandable and useful in people’s lives by
providing explanations of the 16
distinctive personality types that result from the combinations
of four basic psychologi-

cal functions (MBTI Basics, 2010). Myers and Briggs used the
following words found in
Jung’s book to label the four basic psychological functions
(Jung, [1921] 1971):
Extraverted (E) or Introverted (I)
Sensory (S) or Intuitive (N)
Thinking (T) or Feeling (F)
Judging (J) or Perceiving (P)
However, the MBTI created specific meanings for these terms
that were different from
those originally suggest by Jung. Here is what Myers and Briggs
meant by these terms
(Keirsey, 1998, p. 12):
E = Expressive or I = Reserved
S = Observant or N = Introspective
T = Tough-minded or F = Friendly
J = Scheduling or P = Probing
Photos.com/Thinkstock
We perceive only a small portion of our
environment.
soL6612X_03_c03_045-068.indd 57 4/20/11 8:28 AM

Since its development, the MBTI has been administered by
numerous psychologists,
career counselors, consultants, and other professionals to help
individuals understand
their personality preferences. Hundreds of studies over the past
decades have proven the
instrument to be both valid and reliable. In other words, the
instrument measures what
it says it does (validity) and produces the same results when
repeated (reliability) (MBTI
Basics, 2010). Figure 3.2 explains the basic MBTI preferences.
Favorite world: Do you prefer to focus on the outer world or on
your own
inner world? Response indicates Extraversion (E) or
Introversion (I).
Information: Do you prefer to focus on the basic information
you take in
or do you prefer to interpret and add meaning? This is called
Sensing
(S) or Intuition (N).
Decisions: When making decisions, do you prefer to first look
at logic and
consistency or first look at the people and special
circumstances? This
is called Thinking (T) or Feeling (F).
Structure: In dealing with the outside world, do you prefer to
get things
decided or do you prefer to stay open to new information and
options?

This is called Judging (J) or Perceiving (P).
Figure 3.2 Myers-Briggs Type Indicator Preferences
In 1978, David Keirsey developed the Keirsey Temperament
Sorter, a questionnaire that
combines the MBTI’s Jungian model of functions and
terminology with a model of four
temperament types developed by psychiatrist Ernst Kretschmer
in the early 20th cen-
tury (Keirsey, 1998). The result is a more useful, self-scoring
classification of 16 personal-
ity roles. If you are interested in completing the Keirsey
Temperament Sorter question-
naire yourself and learning more about your specific personality
type, you can do so
here:
http://www.keirsey.com/sorter/instruments2.aspx?partid=0.
For our study of communication, what is most important to
remember about tempera-
ment types is that all types can be effective communicators;
each type just communicates
differently. You might think of the various temperaments as
communication styles. In
fact, many management consultants and trainers have used the
information from Jung,
Myers-Briggs, and Keirsey to develop methods of identifying
communication styles and
have created their own labels for these styles. For example, the
global training firm, Wil-
son Learning, uses the terms Driver, Analytical, Amiable, and
Expressive for the four basic
functions Jung identified (Social Style, 2010).
Keirsey (1998) believes that the fact that four basic

personality/temperament types have
been consistently identified for more than 2,000 years is no
accident and seems to reflect
fundamental patterns of how people communicate with one
another. He contends that
some temperament types use more concrete words and others
tend to use language that
is more abstract. Some types are cooperative and other types
will pursue their goals by
whatever method promises success with minimum cost and
effort, whether or not they
observe the social rules. We will discuss communication styles
in more detail in later
chapters of this text.
Adapted from the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator.
soL6612X_03_c03_045-068.indd 58 4/20/11 8:28 AM
Perception
Perception is the process of acquiring, interpreting, and
organizing information that
comes in through your senses. The perceptual process allows
you to become conscious
of situations in your environment that might be dangerous or
that require your atten-
tion, and it is essential to your survival. Most people tend to
think that they perceive the
world as it really is; however, the truth is that they perceive
only a small portion of what

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