This report analyzes microplastic ingestion by blue mussels (Mytilus edulis) cultivated for human consumption from four UK locations. Mussel flesh samples were digested in nitric acid and the remaining particles were examined under scanning electron microscope. All sample groups contained plastic particles ranging in size from 54.40 μm to 2140 μm, with an average of 439.81 μm. Statistical analysis found significant differences in plastic abundance between locations. The presence of microplastics in mussels intended for human consumption indicates potential risks to both marine life and human health.
This document provides an overview of microplastic pollution and its potential threat to marine organisms and food webs. It discusses that microplastics originate from the breakdown of larger plastics and certain manufactured plastics. These microplastics have been found globally in marine habitats from surface waters to sediments. Due to their small size, microplastics can be ingested by various marine organisms, including filter feeders, and have the potential to biomagnify up food chains. Specifically, this document examines the potential for trophic transfer of microplastics between the blue mussel, common starfish, and edible crab in intertidal food webs.
Slides from the Deschutes Land Trust's Nature Night presentation by Dr. Susanne Brander, researcher at Oregon State University considering the impacts of microplastic pollution on our environment.
Microplastics, small pieces of plastic, less than 5 mm (0.2 inches) in length, that occur in the environment as a consequence of plastic pollution. Microplastics are present in a variety of products, from cosmetics to synthetic clothing to plastic bags and bottles. Many of these products readily enter the environment in wastes.
This document provides an overview of a student's research project on microplastics on beaches in North Devon, England. The student aims to study the relationship between microplastic concentrations and particle size along beach profiles. Background information discusses sources and pathways of microplastics. The methodology describes field work sampling microplastics from different areas of beaches and laboratory analysis of microplastic fibers and sediment particle sizes. Results show fiber types and average particle sizes from two beaches but no clear correlation. Discussion notes limitations and ideas for future work, and the summary concludes no significant correlation was found and more research is needed.
Microplastic uptake and retention in Perna perna (L.); Tripneustes gratilla (...MACE Lab
Gemma Gerber, Thembani Mkhize, Robertson-Andersson, Gan Moodley. Presented at the ninth Scientific Symposium of the Western Indian Ocean Marine Science Association (WIOMSA) 2015.
A Novel Methodology for the Separation of Known Suspended Microplastics (<...MACE Lab
This document presents a novel methodology for separating microplastics (<500μm) from particulate organic matter (POM) in water samples. Current separation methods are inefficient at separating suspended microplastics and POM due to similarities in size and density. The developed method uses a two-phase separation where a non-polar solvent is added to draw microplastics into a separate immiscible layer, allowing removal without POM. Testing recovered over 90% of fluorescent polyethylene terephthalate and polypropylene microplastics added but only 1% of denser polyethylene terephthalate microbeads. This accurate separation method can be applied to experimental studies examining microplastic ingestion and effects in marine organisms.
1) The study aims to determine the effects of microplastic consumption and retention in marine fish by examining microplastic settlement times, gut retention times in various fish species, and the physiological impacts of prolonged microplastic consumption.
2) Preliminary results found that smaller microplastics remain bioavailable and are retained in fish guts longer than larger ones, and that microplastics can serve as a delivery mechanism for pollutants by remaining in fish guts for extended periods.
3) Future experiments will examine the impacts of prolonged microplastic exposure on fish physiology and determine if microplastics can pass through the gut lining into tissues.
Presentation at the ESPP stakeholder meeting concerning the use on farmland of sewage biosolids (04/12/2018) organised by the European Sustainable Phosphorus Platform (ESPP, www.phosphorusplatform.eu)
All outcomes of the meeting can be found here https://www.phosphorusplatform.eu/activities/conference/meeting-archive/1788-espp-meeting-sludge-2018
This document provides an overview of microplastic pollution and its potential threat to marine organisms and food webs. It discusses that microplastics originate from the breakdown of larger plastics and certain manufactured plastics. These microplastics have been found globally in marine habitats from surface waters to sediments. Due to their small size, microplastics can be ingested by various marine organisms, including filter feeders, and have the potential to biomagnify up food chains. Specifically, this document examines the potential for trophic transfer of microplastics between the blue mussel, common starfish, and edible crab in intertidal food webs.
Slides from the Deschutes Land Trust's Nature Night presentation by Dr. Susanne Brander, researcher at Oregon State University considering the impacts of microplastic pollution on our environment.
Microplastics, small pieces of plastic, less than 5 mm (0.2 inches) in length, that occur in the environment as a consequence of plastic pollution. Microplastics are present in a variety of products, from cosmetics to synthetic clothing to plastic bags and bottles. Many of these products readily enter the environment in wastes.
This document provides an overview of a student's research project on microplastics on beaches in North Devon, England. The student aims to study the relationship between microplastic concentrations and particle size along beach profiles. Background information discusses sources and pathways of microplastics. The methodology describes field work sampling microplastics from different areas of beaches and laboratory analysis of microplastic fibers and sediment particle sizes. Results show fiber types and average particle sizes from two beaches but no clear correlation. Discussion notes limitations and ideas for future work, and the summary concludes no significant correlation was found and more research is needed.
Microplastic uptake and retention in Perna perna (L.); Tripneustes gratilla (...MACE Lab
Gemma Gerber, Thembani Mkhize, Robertson-Andersson, Gan Moodley. Presented at the ninth Scientific Symposium of the Western Indian Ocean Marine Science Association (WIOMSA) 2015.
A Novel Methodology for the Separation of Known Suspended Microplastics (<...MACE Lab
This document presents a novel methodology for separating microplastics (<500μm) from particulate organic matter (POM) in water samples. Current separation methods are inefficient at separating suspended microplastics and POM due to similarities in size and density. The developed method uses a two-phase separation where a non-polar solvent is added to draw microplastics into a separate immiscible layer, allowing removal without POM. Testing recovered over 90% of fluorescent polyethylene terephthalate and polypropylene microplastics added but only 1% of denser polyethylene terephthalate microbeads. This accurate separation method can be applied to experimental studies examining microplastic ingestion and effects in marine organisms.
1) The study aims to determine the effects of microplastic consumption and retention in marine fish by examining microplastic settlement times, gut retention times in various fish species, and the physiological impacts of prolonged microplastic consumption.
2) Preliminary results found that smaller microplastics remain bioavailable and are retained in fish guts longer than larger ones, and that microplastics can serve as a delivery mechanism for pollutants by remaining in fish guts for extended periods.
3) Future experiments will examine the impacts of prolonged microplastic exposure on fish physiology and determine if microplastics can pass through the gut lining into tissues.
Presentation at the ESPP stakeholder meeting concerning the use on farmland of sewage biosolids (04/12/2018) organised by the European Sustainable Phosphorus Platform (ESPP, www.phosphorusplatform.eu)
All outcomes of the meeting can be found here https://www.phosphorusplatform.eu/activities/conference/meeting-archive/1788-espp-meeting-sludge-2018
Ppt of microplastic in soil of maharishi dayanand university andkiran yadav
This document summarizes a presentation on microplastics in soil. It introduces microplastics and their classification as primary or secondary. Sources of microplastics include cosmetics, clothing, and plastic waste. Microplastics enter soil through pathways like sewage sludge application, controlled-release fertilizers, and plastic mulching. Effects on earthworms, plants, and soil structure are described. A methodology for isolating and quantifying microplastics from soil samples is presented. Results show the highest microplastic levels in a university dumping site soil sample. Discussion analyzes the results and conclusion calls for attention and mitigation of microplastics in soil.
This document discusses ways to reduce the ecological footprint of fish feed used in aquaculture. Currently, fish meal is a major protein source in fish feed due to its balanced nutrients. However, overfishing to meet demand for fish meal puts pressure on small pelagic fish populations. The document explores alternatives to fish meal such as terrestrial plant proteins, insects, terrestrial animal byproducts, and algae. These alternatives can help reduce the environmental impacts of aquaculture while still providing balanced nutrition to farmed fish. In conclusion, promoting omnivorous and herbivorous fish species that can eat plant-based diets, along with sustainable production of plant proteins, can help aquaculture be produced with less ecological impact.
Microplastics in marine organisms in KZN: A new conservation threat?MACE Lab
Refilwe Mofokeng, Gemma Gerber, Mathew Coote, Sipho Mkhize, Thembani Mkhize, Deborah Robertson-Andersson, Gan Moodley. Presented at the Symposium of Contemporary Conservation Practice 2015.
This document discusses microplastic pollution and its potential threat to marine invertebrates and the food web. It defines microplastics and explains how they enter the marine environment. Studies found microplastics present in sediment samples from beaches around the world. Microplastics can be ingested by small organisms and transferred up the food chain, as demonstrated by studies showing zooplankton ingesting microplastics that were then found in mysid shrimp that ate the zooplankton. The document also discusses how microplastics can be taken up by blue mussels and transferred to shore crabs that eat the mussels, entering the intertidal food web.
This document summarizes a study on microplastics found in fish caught in the Agulhas current large marine ecosystem off the coast of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. The study aimed to quantify microplastic particles in fish from different regions, including an eddy in the Kwazulu-Natal Bight, and determine if there were differences between fish from epipelagic and mesopelagic zones. Microplastics were found in 34% of fish studied. The most common shapes of microplastics found were broken pieces of larger plastic items (56%) and thread-like pieces resembling fishing line (29%). Some fish contained up to 6 microplastic particles. The study acknowledges contributions from fund
This document discusses the use of engineered nanomaterials (ENMs) for water remediation and nanoremediation. While nanoremediation shows promising benefits like lower costs and greater effectiveness compared to conventional methods, there are also environmental risks associated with ENMs that require consideration. The document analyzes these risks, such as increased mobility of ENMs leading to unintended exposure, and transformation of ENMs in natural environments altering their properties. It advocates for an eco-design approach to develop sustainable ENMs from renewable resources for water treatment to improve safety.
This document summarizes a study that used fluorescence spectroscopy to detect microplastics in water and wastewater streams. The researchers found that polyethylene and polystyrene microplastics could be detected in wastewater based on their unique fluorescence peaks. Testing showed that polyethylene and polystyrene leached the most organic matter into ultrapure water, whereas polypropylene and PVC leached very little. The results indicate fluorescence spectroscopy is a potential method for tracking microplastics in various aquatic environments.
This literature review examines microplastics found in Hilsa fish from the Northern Bay of Bengal. It defines microplastics as plastic particles less than 5mm in size that originate from various sources like plastic waste, clothing fibers, and cosmetic products. Microplastics are hazardous as they can accumulate in marine organisms and food webs, causing physiological harm. Studies have found microplastics in many fish species worldwide, including mesopelagic fish that ingest plastic fibers and films. Once consumed, microplastics may block feeding appendages or the digestive system of fish.
Review on Biodegradation of Plastic Waste by Micro Organismsijtsrd
Plastics are light weighted, durable, corrosion resistant materials, strong, and inexpensive. Scientists have reported many adverse effects of the plastic in the environment and human health. The plastics at room temperatures are not considered as toxic. The toxic properties are found in plastics, when heat is released from the food material in which they are covered and then they produce serious human health problems. This review article covers the list of plastics, plastic degrading efficiency by microbes and their involvement to degrade the plastic waste. Christian Venisha V | Saraf Meenu S | Thakkar Aarti V "Review on Biodegradation of Plastic Waste by Micro-Organisms" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-5 | Issue-1 , December 2020, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd38160.pdf Paper URL : https://www.ijtsrd.com/biological-science/microbiology/38160/review-on-biodegradation-of-plastic-waste-by-microorganisms/christian-venisha-v
Microplastic Ingestion in Grunt (Orthopristis chrysoptera) Along the Texas Gu...Savannah Tarpey
This study examined the ingestion of microplastics by grunt fish along the Texas Gulf Coast. A total of 122 grunt were collected from four locations and examined. The key findings were:
- 29% of grunt contained microplastics in their stomachs, with the highest rates at locations near the mouth of the Brazos River.
- Ingested microplastics were primarily blue threads.
- The presence of microplastics in grunt was not correlated with fish size.
- The study confirms microplastic ingestion by coastal fish and suggests sources may include runoff from the Brazos River.
Introduced alien species can become invasive when they escape into local ecosystems, outcompeting and reducing numbers of endemic species by competitive exclusion in the absence of predators. Pollutants become more concentrated at higher trophic levels through biomagnification. Large macroplastic and small microplastic debris have accumulated in marine environments and are ingested by many species, entering the food chain. Case studies show how introduced cane toads in Australia and marine plastic affect Laysan albatrosses through stomach blockage and starvation.
This document is a student thesis submitted by Noelle Dunne that examines microplastic ingestion by dab fish (Limanda limanda) off the west coast of Ireland. The study found that 41% of the 87 fish examined contained microplastics in their gastrointestinal tracts, with an average of 2.2 pieces of plastic per fish. Fibres made up 95% of the plastics found. Larger fish and females contained more plastics. The study contributes to understanding of microplastic ingestion in fish and its potential long-term impacts.
This document discusses various types of pollution caused by human activities, including point source pollution which comes from identifiable sources like factories, and non-point source pollution which comes from dispersed sources like vehicle emissions. It describes primary and secondary pollutants, as well as persistent organic pollutants. The document also covers topics like acute vs chronic pollution, methods of pollution detection and monitoring, and some actions that can be taken to address pollution problems.
Plastic in the Food Chain and the Expected Pandemic of Cancer?_Crimson Publis...CrimsonpublishersCancer
The world has a persistent plastic pollution problem and despite tremendously societal awareness we state the efforts of the International Scientific Community (ISC) are heavily lagging behind politics and other organizations, which we will substantiate further. On October 12, 2018, President Trump called out other nations, including China and Japan, for “making our oceans into their landfills” when he signed a legislation to improve efforts to clean up plastic trash from the world’s oceans [1]. Also, The European Parliament voted positively October 26, 2018 to approve a measure to ban single-use plastic across the continent which assignment hopefully could be enforced as early as 2021 [1]. This may be the first time in human history concerning ecological problems that politics and social media are at the forefront and the ISC is lagging behind.
Mobility and Distribution of Some Selected Trace Metals in Soil from Dumpsite...ijtsrd
Mobility and distribution of some selected trace metal was carried out using Tessier et al 1979sequential extraction method and the results obtained shows from dumpsite A, samples taken from 0 - 5cm the result ranges from 0.56 - 21.56 , 0.34 - 40.66 , 1.34 - 29.18 , 0.06 to 45.91 and 0.37 - 12.95 for the exchangeable, Fe - Mn oxide, organic carbonate and residual fractions respectively. For the samples taken from 10 - 15cm at dumpsite A, the results of the fractions are 0.42 - 13.63 , 0.03 - 18.48 , 1.01 - 25.34 , 0.03 - 35.19 and 0.27 - 9.31 for exchangeable, Fe - Mn oxide, organic, carbonate and residual fractions. The results of dumpsite Bare 0.48-27.36 , 0.28-40.07 , 2.93-31.15 , 3.87-42.50 and 0.84-30.67 for exchangeable, Fe-Mn oxide, Organic, carbonate and residual fractions for sample taken from 0-5cm while for samples taken from 10 - 15cm the results show 0.32 - 36.38 , 0.23 - 16.49 , 0.53 - 15.83 , 1.53 - 34.88 and 0.04 - 5.27 for exchangeable Fe - Mn oxide, carbonate and residual fractions respectively. The dumpsite C has the concentration of the various fractions ranging from 0.25 - 18.34 , 2.73 to 15.58, 4.02 - 23.28 , 0.07 - 45.25 and 1.57 - 37.43 for exchangeable, Fe - Mn oxide, organic, carbonate and residual for samples taken from 0 - 5cm while for samples taken between 10 - 15cm the concentrations are 0.42 - 12 .62 0.80 - 11.59 , 2.16 - 17.33 , 9.86 - 34.48 and 0.99 - 32.99 respectively. Gube-Ibrahim Mercy Ayinya | Ibrahim Ezekiel Gube "Mobility and Distribution of Some Selected Trace Metals in Soil from Dumpsite in Lafia, Nasarawa State" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-3 | Issue-1 , December 2018, URL: http://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd19106.pdf
http://www.ijtsrd.com/chemistry/analytical-chemistry/19106/mobility-and-distribution-of-some-selected-trace-metals-in-soil-from-dumpsite-in-lafia-nasarawa-state/gube-ibrahim-mercy-ayinya
The Vertical Distribution of Bouyant Plastics at SeaKimberly Noble
The document summarizes a study that used a new multi-level trawl to sample microplastics from the air-sea interface to a depth of 5 meters in the North Atlantic Gyre. The study found that plastic concentrations decreased exponentially with depth and that decay rates were lower when sea conditions were rougher. Smaller plastic pieces had lower rise velocities and were more susceptible to vertical transport, resulting in greater depth decays for plastic mass concentration than numerical concentration. The study provides new data on the vertical distribution and transport of microplastics in the upper water column.
Crabs, heavy metals and near future ocean acidification - what do we know?MACE Lab
This study examines the combined effects of ocean acidification and varying heavy metal concentrations on the sand bubbler crab (Dotilla fenestrata) in estuaries in South Africa. The study aims to understand how heavy metal uptake and bioaccumulation in crabs is affected by increasing ocean acidity. Crabs, water, and sediment samples were collected from three estuary sites and are being analyzed for heavy metal content and crab tissue is being tested for toxicity when exposed to ocean acidification and heavy metals. The results of this study could help monitor pollution in the estuaries using crabs as bioindicators and inform environmental policy.
Detection and Identification of Microplastic Particles in Cosmetic Formulatio...PerkinElmer, Inc.
It is estimated that there is in excess of 150 million tons of plastic materials in the world’s oceans. Much of this pollution consists of large items such as discarded drink bottles and plastic bags. However, there is increasing research into the amount of much smaller materials, termed microplastics, in the river and ocean systems which present a different type of
problem for marine life.
Many cosmetic products, such as facial scrubs, toothpastes, and shower gels, currently contain microplastic beads as abrasive materials. These microplastics, which are typically submillimetre
in size, get washed down the sink and are too small to be filtered by sewage treatment plants consequently ending up in the river systems and ultimately in the oceans. These microplastics can be ingested by marine organisms and fish and end up in the human
food chain.
In 2014 a number of U.S. states banned the use of microplastics in cosmetic formulations and most cosmetic companies are voluntarily phasing out their use.
Infrared (IR) spectroscopy is the established technique for identifying polymer materials and has been used extensively for identifying large (over 100 micrometer) polymer materials. The Spectrum Two™ is a portable FT-IR spectrometer that can operate from a battery pack and has been used on boats for immediate identification of these polymers.1 For microplastics, down to a few micrometers in size, an IR microscope can be used for the detection and identification of these materials.
Plastic pollution in the marine environment and the marine food webKarl Jaeger
This document discusses plastic pollution in the marine environment and its effects on the marine food web. It outlines that plastic pollution has become a major threat as plastic waste has accumulated in oceans worldwide. The document reviews the types and amounts of plastic debris, including microplastics, found in oceans. It examines how plastics become available to the marine ecosystem and their physical impacts. The document also explores how plastics move through the trophic levels of the marine food web as organisms ingest microplastics and the potential effects on apex predators.
Microplastics as an emerging threat to terrestrial ecosystemsJoão Soares
This document discusses microplastics as an emerging threat to terrestrial ecosystems. It notes that most plastics produced end up on land, where microplastics can interact with terrestrial biota and ecosystems. It highlights several potential sources of microplastic pollution to terrestrial environments, including industry, sewage, agriculture, cities and roads. It also discusses ways that microplastics may impact soil chemistry, microbiomes, and the physical environment of terrestrial systems. The document argues that more research is needed to understand the fate and effects of microplastics in continental environments, as microplastic pollution may represent a global change threat to terrestrial biodiversity.
Ppt of microplastic in soil of maharishi dayanand university andkiran yadav
This document summarizes a presentation on microplastics in soil. It introduces microplastics and their classification as primary or secondary. Sources of microplastics include cosmetics, clothing, and plastic waste. Microplastics enter soil through pathways like sewage sludge application, controlled-release fertilizers, and plastic mulching. Effects on earthworms, plants, and soil structure are described. A methodology for isolating and quantifying microplastics from soil samples is presented. Results show the highest microplastic levels in a university dumping site soil sample. Discussion analyzes the results and conclusion calls for attention and mitigation of microplastics in soil.
This document discusses ways to reduce the ecological footprint of fish feed used in aquaculture. Currently, fish meal is a major protein source in fish feed due to its balanced nutrients. However, overfishing to meet demand for fish meal puts pressure on small pelagic fish populations. The document explores alternatives to fish meal such as terrestrial plant proteins, insects, terrestrial animal byproducts, and algae. These alternatives can help reduce the environmental impacts of aquaculture while still providing balanced nutrition to farmed fish. In conclusion, promoting omnivorous and herbivorous fish species that can eat plant-based diets, along with sustainable production of plant proteins, can help aquaculture be produced with less ecological impact.
Microplastics in marine organisms in KZN: A new conservation threat?MACE Lab
Refilwe Mofokeng, Gemma Gerber, Mathew Coote, Sipho Mkhize, Thembani Mkhize, Deborah Robertson-Andersson, Gan Moodley. Presented at the Symposium of Contemporary Conservation Practice 2015.
This document discusses microplastic pollution and its potential threat to marine invertebrates and the food web. It defines microplastics and explains how they enter the marine environment. Studies found microplastics present in sediment samples from beaches around the world. Microplastics can be ingested by small organisms and transferred up the food chain, as demonstrated by studies showing zooplankton ingesting microplastics that were then found in mysid shrimp that ate the zooplankton. The document also discusses how microplastics can be taken up by blue mussels and transferred to shore crabs that eat the mussels, entering the intertidal food web.
This document summarizes a study on microplastics found in fish caught in the Agulhas current large marine ecosystem off the coast of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. The study aimed to quantify microplastic particles in fish from different regions, including an eddy in the Kwazulu-Natal Bight, and determine if there were differences between fish from epipelagic and mesopelagic zones. Microplastics were found in 34% of fish studied. The most common shapes of microplastics found were broken pieces of larger plastic items (56%) and thread-like pieces resembling fishing line (29%). Some fish contained up to 6 microplastic particles. The study acknowledges contributions from fund
This document discusses the use of engineered nanomaterials (ENMs) for water remediation and nanoremediation. While nanoremediation shows promising benefits like lower costs and greater effectiveness compared to conventional methods, there are also environmental risks associated with ENMs that require consideration. The document analyzes these risks, such as increased mobility of ENMs leading to unintended exposure, and transformation of ENMs in natural environments altering their properties. It advocates for an eco-design approach to develop sustainable ENMs from renewable resources for water treatment to improve safety.
This document summarizes a study that used fluorescence spectroscopy to detect microplastics in water and wastewater streams. The researchers found that polyethylene and polystyrene microplastics could be detected in wastewater based on their unique fluorescence peaks. Testing showed that polyethylene and polystyrene leached the most organic matter into ultrapure water, whereas polypropylene and PVC leached very little. The results indicate fluorescence spectroscopy is a potential method for tracking microplastics in various aquatic environments.
This literature review examines microplastics found in Hilsa fish from the Northern Bay of Bengal. It defines microplastics as plastic particles less than 5mm in size that originate from various sources like plastic waste, clothing fibers, and cosmetic products. Microplastics are hazardous as they can accumulate in marine organisms and food webs, causing physiological harm. Studies have found microplastics in many fish species worldwide, including mesopelagic fish that ingest plastic fibers and films. Once consumed, microplastics may block feeding appendages or the digestive system of fish.
Review on Biodegradation of Plastic Waste by Micro Organismsijtsrd
Plastics are light weighted, durable, corrosion resistant materials, strong, and inexpensive. Scientists have reported many adverse effects of the plastic in the environment and human health. The plastics at room temperatures are not considered as toxic. The toxic properties are found in plastics, when heat is released from the food material in which they are covered and then they produce serious human health problems. This review article covers the list of plastics, plastic degrading efficiency by microbes and their involvement to degrade the plastic waste. Christian Venisha V | Saraf Meenu S | Thakkar Aarti V "Review on Biodegradation of Plastic Waste by Micro-Organisms" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-5 | Issue-1 , December 2020, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd38160.pdf Paper URL : https://www.ijtsrd.com/biological-science/microbiology/38160/review-on-biodegradation-of-plastic-waste-by-microorganisms/christian-venisha-v
Microplastic Ingestion in Grunt (Orthopristis chrysoptera) Along the Texas Gu...Savannah Tarpey
This study examined the ingestion of microplastics by grunt fish along the Texas Gulf Coast. A total of 122 grunt were collected from four locations and examined. The key findings were:
- 29% of grunt contained microplastics in their stomachs, with the highest rates at locations near the mouth of the Brazos River.
- Ingested microplastics were primarily blue threads.
- The presence of microplastics in grunt was not correlated with fish size.
- The study confirms microplastic ingestion by coastal fish and suggests sources may include runoff from the Brazos River.
Introduced alien species can become invasive when they escape into local ecosystems, outcompeting and reducing numbers of endemic species by competitive exclusion in the absence of predators. Pollutants become more concentrated at higher trophic levels through biomagnification. Large macroplastic and small microplastic debris have accumulated in marine environments and are ingested by many species, entering the food chain. Case studies show how introduced cane toads in Australia and marine plastic affect Laysan albatrosses through stomach blockage and starvation.
This document is a student thesis submitted by Noelle Dunne that examines microplastic ingestion by dab fish (Limanda limanda) off the west coast of Ireland. The study found that 41% of the 87 fish examined contained microplastics in their gastrointestinal tracts, with an average of 2.2 pieces of plastic per fish. Fibres made up 95% of the plastics found. Larger fish and females contained more plastics. The study contributes to understanding of microplastic ingestion in fish and its potential long-term impacts.
This document discusses various types of pollution caused by human activities, including point source pollution which comes from identifiable sources like factories, and non-point source pollution which comes from dispersed sources like vehicle emissions. It describes primary and secondary pollutants, as well as persistent organic pollutants. The document also covers topics like acute vs chronic pollution, methods of pollution detection and monitoring, and some actions that can be taken to address pollution problems.
Plastic in the Food Chain and the Expected Pandemic of Cancer?_Crimson Publis...CrimsonpublishersCancer
The world has a persistent plastic pollution problem and despite tremendously societal awareness we state the efforts of the International Scientific Community (ISC) are heavily lagging behind politics and other organizations, which we will substantiate further. On October 12, 2018, President Trump called out other nations, including China and Japan, for “making our oceans into their landfills” when he signed a legislation to improve efforts to clean up plastic trash from the world’s oceans [1]. Also, The European Parliament voted positively October 26, 2018 to approve a measure to ban single-use plastic across the continent which assignment hopefully could be enforced as early as 2021 [1]. This may be the first time in human history concerning ecological problems that politics and social media are at the forefront and the ISC is lagging behind.
Mobility and Distribution of Some Selected Trace Metals in Soil from Dumpsite...ijtsrd
Mobility and distribution of some selected trace metal was carried out using Tessier et al 1979sequential extraction method and the results obtained shows from dumpsite A, samples taken from 0 - 5cm the result ranges from 0.56 - 21.56 , 0.34 - 40.66 , 1.34 - 29.18 , 0.06 to 45.91 and 0.37 - 12.95 for the exchangeable, Fe - Mn oxide, organic carbonate and residual fractions respectively. For the samples taken from 10 - 15cm at dumpsite A, the results of the fractions are 0.42 - 13.63 , 0.03 - 18.48 , 1.01 - 25.34 , 0.03 - 35.19 and 0.27 - 9.31 for exchangeable, Fe - Mn oxide, organic, carbonate and residual fractions. The results of dumpsite Bare 0.48-27.36 , 0.28-40.07 , 2.93-31.15 , 3.87-42.50 and 0.84-30.67 for exchangeable, Fe-Mn oxide, Organic, carbonate and residual fractions for sample taken from 0-5cm while for samples taken from 10 - 15cm the results show 0.32 - 36.38 , 0.23 - 16.49 , 0.53 - 15.83 , 1.53 - 34.88 and 0.04 - 5.27 for exchangeable Fe - Mn oxide, carbonate and residual fractions respectively. The dumpsite C has the concentration of the various fractions ranging from 0.25 - 18.34 , 2.73 to 15.58, 4.02 - 23.28 , 0.07 - 45.25 and 1.57 - 37.43 for exchangeable, Fe - Mn oxide, organic, carbonate and residual for samples taken from 0 - 5cm while for samples taken between 10 - 15cm the concentrations are 0.42 - 12 .62 0.80 - 11.59 , 2.16 - 17.33 , 9.86 - 34.48 and 0.99 - 32.99 respectively. Gube-Ibrahim Mercy Ayinya | Ibrahim Ezekiel Gube "Mobility and Distribution of Some Selected Trace Metals in Soil from Dumpsite in Lafia, Nasarawa State" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-3 | Issue-1 , December 2018, URL: http://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd19106.pdf
http://www.ijtsrd.com/chemistry/analytical-chemistry/19106/mobility-and-distribution-of-some-selected-trace-metals-in-soil-from-dumpsite-in-lafia-nasarawa-state/gube-ibrahim-mercy-ayinya
The Vertical Distribution of Bouyant Plastics at SeaKimberly Noble
The document summarizes a study that used a new multi-level trawl to sample microplastics from the air-sea interface to a depth of 5 meters in the North Atlantic Gyre. The study found that plastic concentrations decreased exponentially with depth and that decay rates were lower when sea conditions were rougher. Smaller plastic pieces had lower rise velocities and were more susceptible to vertical transport, resulting in greater depth decays for plastic mass concentration than numerical concentration. The study provides new data on the vertical distribution and transport of microplastics in the upper water column.
Crabs, heavy metals and near future ocean acidification - what do we know?MACE Lab
This study examines the combined effects of ocean acidification and varying heavy metal concentrations on the sand bubbler crab (Dotilla fenestrata) in estuaries in South Africa. The study aims to understand how heavy metal uptake and bioaccumulation in crabs is affected by increasing ocean acidity. Crabs, water, and sediment samples were collected from three estuary sites and are being analyzed for heavy metal content and crab tissue is being tested for toxicity when exposed to ocean acidification and heavy metals. The results of this study could help monitor pollution in the estuaries using crabs as bioindicators and inform environmental policy.
Detection and Identification of Microplastic Particles in Cosmetic Formulatio...PerkinElmer, Inc.
It is estimated that there is in excess of 150 million tons of plastic materials in the world’s oceans. Much of this pollution consists of large items such as discarded drink bottles and plastic bags. However, there is increasing research into the amount of much smaller materials, termed microplastics, in the river and ocean systems which present a different type of
problem for marine life.
Many cosmetic products, such as facial scrubs, toothpastes, and shower gels, currently contain microplastic beads as abrasive materials. These microplastics, which are typically submillimetre
in size, get washed down the sink and are too small to be filtered by sewage treatment plants consequently ending up in the river systems and ultimately in the oceans. These microplastics can be ingested by marine organisms and fish and end up in the human
food chain.
In 2014 a number of U.S. states banned the use of microplastics in cosmetic formulations and most cosmetic companies are voluntarily phasing out their use.
Infrared (IR) spectroscopy is the established technique for identifying polymer materials and has been used extensively for identifying large (over 100 micrometer) polymer materials. The Spectrum Two™ is a portable FT-IR spectrometer that can operate from a battery pack and has been used on boats for immediate identification of these polymers.1 For microplastics, down to a few micrometers in size, an IR microscope can be used for the detection and identification of these materials.
Plastic pollution in the marine environment and the marine food webKarl Jaeger
This document discusses plastic pollution in the marine environment and its effects on the marine food web. It outlines that plastic pollution has become a major threat as plastic waste has accumulated in oceans worldwide. The document reviews the types and amounts of plastic debris, including microplastics, found in oceans. It examines how plastics become available to the marine ecosystem and their physical impacts. The document also explores how plastics move through the trophic levels of the marine food web as organisms ingest microplastics and the potential effects on apex predators.
Microplastics as an emerging threat to terrestrial ecosystemsJoão Soares
This document discusses microplastics as an emerging threat to terrestrial ecosystems. It notes that most plastics produced end up on land, where microplastics can interact with terrestrial biota and ecosystems. It highlights several potential sources of microplastic pollution to terrestrial environments, including industry, sewage, agriculture, cities and roads. It also discusses ways that microplastics may impact soil chemistry, microbiomes, and the physical environment of terrestrial systems. The document argues that more research is needed to understand the fate and effects of microplastics in continental environments, as microplastic pollution may represent a global change threat to terrestrial biodiversity.
This document summarizes the issue of plastic pollution in Indonesian marine environments. It discusses how plastics enter the environment as both primary and secondary microplastics. Microplastics are then ingested by marine animals and can accumulate toxins in tissue, posing risks to animal and human health. The document also reviews several studies that found microplastics in various Indonesian coastal and marine areas, demonstrating it is a widespread problem. Effective solutions are needed to address plastic pollution for the health of Indonesia's marine ecosystems and communities.
This document presents a novel methodology for separating microplastics (<500μm) from particulate organic matter (POM) in water samples. Current separation methods are inefficient at separating suspended microplastics and POM due to similarities in size and density. The developed method uses a two-phase separation where a non-polar solvent is added to draw microplastics into a separate immiscible layer that can be removed and analyzed. Testing recovered over 90% of fluorescent polyethylene terephthalate and polypropylene microplastics added but only 1% of denser polyethylene terephthalate microbeads. This accurate separation method allows for investigation of microplastic ingestion and effects in marine organisms and ecosystems.
The global production of plastics is increasing, and that increase is accompanied by an increase in plastic waste.
Part of this waste makes its way into the marine environment in the form of micro-plastics, small particles of plastic that can either be produced as plastic pellets, or result from the degradation of plastic objects such as bags, clothes, household items as well as building materials and fishing and aquaculture gear that has been discarded or lost.
What do we know about the extent of this problem?
STUDY ON MICROPLASTIC CHALLENGE – INDIAN STATUS AND SOLUTIONS Srinjoy Chatterjee
1. Microplastic (MPs) now has emerged as an alarming environmental pollutant and its prevalence is now widely observed in various ecosystems.
2. The term “microplastic” coined by Thompson et al in the year 2004 basically represents heterogeneous mixture of smaller plastic fragments in the size range of 0.001-5 mm.
3. They may originate either directly (primary sources) through engineered particles such as microbeads/microfibers widely used in Personal Care Products or through fragmentation of larger plastic particles as a result of various anthropogenic activities (secondary sources).
Examples - Fragments of fishing gear, packages and drink bottles, synthetic textiles, car tyres, paints, and cosmetics. Natural breakdown through UV rays of sunlight, microbial processes, or through thermal oxidative processes also account for fragmentation of large plastic particles into MPs.
4. MPs basically consists of six major types of plastic products namely, Polyethylene (PE), Polypropylene (PP), Polyamide (PA), Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC), Polystyrene (PS), Polyurethane (PUR), and Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET).
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WHAT ARE THE SOLUTIONS TO THIS MENACE?
1. SOLUTIONS BY REGULATORS, SCIENTISTS, GOVERNMENT AND MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES.
Microplastics are tiny and may not be easily noticed as a treat to both sea and human life, therefore there is an urgent need to combat it. The potential risk to food security, and thereby human health, has led:
• regulators to call for better understanding education and public awareness of the fate and effects of microplastic debris on marine life.
• to the call for urgent actions by scientists (researching more) government (putting right policies in place) and the manufacturing industries on the need for the reduction of the production and activities resulting in the availability and spread of microplastic into the marine environment.
• To the need to strengthen international and regional cooperation in this area among: decision-makers researchers and academias to raise awareness in addressing water-related issues.
2. PUTTING IN PLACE APPRORIATE PROHIBITIONS, LAWS AND BANS.
The following should be done:
• For Countries: Prohibiting or disincentivizing land-based materials causing marine litter such as the use of microbead plastics for toothpaste.
• For Manufacturing: National law and sub-national law should be put in place.
• At Retail Level: National Law and sub-national law should be put in place.
3. MEASURES TO DO AS AN INDIVIDUAL.
• Report plastics pollutions e.g by using hashtag #plasticspollution with the photo, date and location.
• Cut down on plastics by staying clear of plastic products. Look for natural alternatives or reuseable containers. Don’t buy cleansers and cosmetics with microbeads.
• Clean-up plastic pollution. When possible use a pool or aquarium skimmer to remove plastics debris from the water and throw the debris in the garbage.
This document summarizes the current state of knowledge around microplastics and their trophic transfer in aquatic ecosystems. It outlines background information on microplastics and their sources. It then reviews several case studies that demonstrate trophic transfer of microplastics between invertebrates, fish, and top predators like seals. The studies found microplastics accumulate at higher trophic levels. The document concludes by identifying key knowledge gaps and recommending future research focus on effects of microplastics on human health and standardizing detection methods, while promoting efforts to reduce plastic use.
This study examined how microplastics contaminated with persistent organic pollutants (POPs) like polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are taken up by marine snow aggregates. Microplastic beads were exposed to PAHs and introduced to seawater in rolling bottles to generate marine snow aggregates. Aggregates containing contaminated microplastics formed chain-like structures with high plastic content, unlike aggregates with uncontaminated plastics which contained more algae. The composition and structure of aggregates were analyzed using imaging software and flow cytometry. The results suggest POPs cause microplastics to incorporate differently into marine snow aggregates than uncontaminated plastics.
This document defines marine litter as any waste created by humans that has entered the ocean environment. Plastics make up 60-90% of marine litter. Plastic pollution is a major problem because plastics do not biodegrade and can persist in oceans for centuries, accumulating in habitats and entering food chains. Marine litter comes in all sizes, from large objects like fishing gear to microplastics smaller than 5mm that are difficult to monitor due to their small size. More research is needed to understand microplastics' impacts on ecosystems and human health.
• About 8.3 billion tonnes of plastic has been produced since the 1950s – the weight of roughly a billion elephants or 47 million blue whales.
• Only about 9% of this plastic has been recycled, 12% has been burned and the remaining 79% has ended up in landfills or the environment.
• Up to 12.7 million tonnes of plastic enters the oceans every year
This document summarizes research on microplastics in the aquatic environment and their impacts. It defines microplastics as plastic particles less than 5mm in size that originate from both commercial products and breakdown of larger plastics. Microplastics are persistent pollutants that can be ingested by marine organisms and enter the human food chain. Common sources include textiles, wastewater treatment plants, and plastic products. Microplastics exposure poses health risks to organisms like oxidative stress, reduced feeding, and transporting chemical contaminants up the food chain. While global action is needed, individual choices around plastic use can help address this growing environmental problem.
Plastic pollution poses serious threats to both the environment and human health. Plastic waste accumulates in land and water bodies around the world, harming wildlife through entanglement and ingestion. Animals often mistake plastic for food due to its small size, which can cause starvation. Chemicals used in plastics' production and additives that leach out are linked to health issues like cancers and developmental problems in humans. Urgent action is needed to promote safer plastic alternatives and responsible waste disposal to mitigate these potential hazards.
The document discusses plastic pollution and recycling. It notes that plastic production has greatly increased globally but plastic is very slow to decompose, with some plastics taking over 1000 years. This causes plastic pollution in oceans, where it kills and endangers wildlife through entanglement and ingestion. The document advocates for more sustainable plastic recycling approaches to address this growing environmental problem.
This presentation delves into the emerging issue of microplastics and their potential health impacts. It explores sources, pathways, and prevalence of microplastic contamination in the environment, including water, air, and food. Key topics include ingestion, absorption, and accumulation of microplastics in biological systems, along with associated health concerns such as inflammation, organ damage, and potential transfer of toxic chemicals. The presentation also discusses current research gaps and challenges in assessing long-term health effects. By raising awareness and promoting further study, we aim to inform policies and behaviors that mitigate exposure and safeguard public health in the face of this growing environmental concern.
ANALYSIS OF THE CONCENTRATION AND CHARACTERISTICS OF MICROPLASTIC POLLUTION A...Asramid Yasin
Abstrac: Microplastics represent one of the most current global concern issues for environmental and human health. The main concern is for aquatic ecosystems, a very large increase in the number of microplastics has recently transformed these compounds and their degradation products into one of the most common marine debris. To decompose plastic waste requires 50-100 years to be completely degraded so that it becomes a threat to aquatic ecosystems. This research aims to determine the concentration and characteristics of microplastics pollution at estuaries at Kendari Bay. The data of this research were sourced from water and sediment samples from 3 estuaries at Kendari Bay including the Punggaloba estuary, Lahundape estuary, and Wanggu estuary. The analytical methods used in this research include National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR), Origin Software and SPSS Software. The results showed that the Kendari Bay was contaminated by microplastics. The highest concentration of microplastic pollution is found at the Lahundape estuary, which is 10.07 particles/liter of water and Punggaloba estuary, which is 96 particles/kg of sediment. Microplastic characteristics are based on morphological analysis and particle size. It can be seen that the shape of microplastic particles from water and sediments includes fragments, fibers, and pellets. The range of microplastic sizes in water samples ranges from 0.24-20.34 μm while the size range in sediment samples ranges from 0.12-16.53 μm. The most dominant source of microplastic polymers found at Kendari bay is polystyrene type.
Plastisphere is a man-made ecosystem based on Plastic debris in the ecosystem. This PPT describes the formation and importance of Plastisphere in an aquatic ecosystem.
This document discusses plastic pollution, its various forms, and its effects. It notes that plastic pollution accumulates in the environment and harms wildlife and habitats. Types of plastic pollution include littering, marine debris, microplastics in water, and abandoned fishing gear. Plastics constitute over 12% of municipal solid waste. Plastic pollution on land can release chemicals and methane gas from degrading plastics. Ocean plastic pollution includes nurdles and other debris that release toxic chemicals and entangle or poison animals. Over 260 species have been affected. Plastic pollution also poses risks to human health from the chemicals used in plastics. Some efforts have been made to reduce plastic use and promote recycling.
Plastic pollution is a major concern in India. Studies show that trillions of plastic particles cover the Earth and plastic waste entering oceans will increase 20% by 2025. Solutions proposed include source reduction and global cleanup, but cleanup should focus on coasts and industries rather than ocean garbage patches according to a study. The documents discuss the impacts of plastic pollution, including chemical effects on hormones, ingestion by marine life, and proposed solutions like bans and alternatives. Research objectives include awareness of laws and reducing individual contributions to pollution.
Microplastics pollution has become a major issue in the Ganges River, with the highest concentrations found in Varanasi. Untreated sewage and industrial waste released into the river break down into microplastic particles that enter the food chain and are consumed by both marine life and humans. Government programs aimed at cleaning the Ganges such as Namami Gange and Swachh Bharat Abhiyan have had little success in addressing microplastics pollution or proper waste management. While bans on single-use plastics are a step in the right direction, innovation is also needed to develop substitutes and reduce humankind's dependence on plastics.
This document discusses microplastics as an emerging problem for marine life. It begins by defining microplastics as small plastic particles less than 5mm in size. There are two main sources of microplastics: primary sources from products like cosmetics, and secondary sources from degradation of larger plastics. Microplastics are ingested by many marine organisms who cannot digest them, causing tissue damage and physiological stress. This can negatively impact individuals and entire ecosystems by disrupting nutrient cycling. The document examines the effects of microplastic ingestion on invertebrates like mussels and worms, as well as fish and larger marine animals. Without action to reduce plastic pollution, microplastics will continue threatening marine life and entering the
Microplastic is an Emerging Problem for Marine Life
Final project 2015 MP
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Microplastic Ingestion by Mytilus edulis
Cultivated for Human Consumption
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Contents Page
Title Page Number
Figures, Images and Tables 3
1. Abstract 4
2. Introduction 5
3. Method 10
4. Results 13
4.1. S.E.M Findings 13
4.2. Plastic Abundance 14
4.3. Table of Abundance results 14
5. Statistical Analysis 15
5.1. Homogeneity of Variance 15
5.2. Normal Distributed Residual Values 16
5.3. Is There a Higher Amount of MP in a Sample Based on
the Location? 18
5.4. Plastic Particles Found 19
5.5. Size of Particles 20
5.6. Controlled Blanks 22
5.7. Results Summary 23
6. Discussion 24
6.1. Initial Problems 24
6.2. Identification 26
6.3. Chemical Properties 26
6.4. Size 28
6.5. Depuration 30
6.6. Combined Sewage Overflow 32
6.7. Mussel Health 36
6.8. Human Health 38
6.9. Conclusion 40
7. Acknowledgements 41
8. References 42
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Figures, Images and Tables
Figure Page Number
1. Particles Per Gram Equation 14
2. Test of Homogeneity of Variance 15
3. Histogram of Residual Data 16
4. Histogram of Residual Data 16
5. Normality Plot 16
6. Normality Plot 16
7. ANOVA 18
8. Graph of Particles 19
9. Histogram of Particles 20
10. Statistical Read Out for Size 20
11. Particles in Size Groups 20
12. Size in Groups Report
Image Page Number
1. Spectrum From S.E.M 2015 13
2. Plastic Particle From S.E.M 2015 13
3. Spectrum From S.E.M 2015 27
4. Mass of Particles From S.E.M 2015 29
5. CSO Map of Brixham Area 2015 33
6. CSO Map of Stirling Area 2015 34
Table Page Number
1. Plastic Abundance 14
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1. Abstract
Plastic is now ubiquitously present in the world’s oceans, seas and rivers with pieces
of plastic becoming smaller before finally becoming microplastics (MP). The aim of
this project was to find out if there was MP present in the mussel species Mytilus
edulis and if there was a possibility that this was entering the human food chain. It
would also look to establish if there this would be damaging mussel or human health.
The presence of MP in the marine environment is of particular concern because of
this interaction with and ingestion by marine biota. Mussels that had been grown for
human consumption were purchased from supermarkets and restaurants that had be
cultivated in four different UK locations. The mussel flesh was removed from the
shell, weighed and recorded before being cut into small pieces and digested in nitric
acid. After digestion, the mixture was filtered so the remaining particles could be
examined via scanning electron microscope. All four sample groups showed strong
evidence of plastic particles based on visual and chemical analysis. The smallest
recorded particle was 54.40 µm and the largest was 2140 µm. The mean particle
size was 439.81 µm ± 383.99 µm, falling into the expected limits of what is widely
recognised as MP. The evidence from this report has confirmed the findings of other
studies showing ubiquitously present MP within all of the sample groups. This report
has proven with confidence that the MP is presenting degree of risk on some level,
although further investigation would be beneficial. Increasing the size of the sample
group and using some more in-depth analytical tools would strengthen the work
shown but in no way takes away from what has been achieved as a starting point.
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2. Introduction
Plastics are synthetic organic polymers, and though they have only been produced
for just over a century (Derraik, 2002), their versatility has led to a dramatic increase
in usage throughout the world since the development of the first modern plastic
‘Bakelite’ in 1907 (Cole et al. 2011). The second half of the 20th
century has seen
plastic become one of the most universally used, multipurpose materials in the global
economy (Plastics Europe, 2013). Since its introduction, the plastics industry has
experienced continual growth through the last 50 years. Year on year industry
growth of 8.7% (Plastics Europe, 2013) has cemented plastic in the lives of
consumers with plastic in one form or another being present in most products. First
reports in the 1970’s of plastic marine debris drew minimal attention from the
scientific community (Andrady, 2011), however, It has been estimated that 10% of
plastic produced globally now enters the oceans (Cole et al. 2013) while recovery of
material remains low at around 5% (Moore, 2008); this could have drastic
consequences to the variety of marine organisms that inhabit them. Global plastic
production reached 288 million tonnes in 2012, which was a 2.8% increase on 2011
(Plastics Europe, 2013). Based on the 2012 figure from Plastics Europe and the
estimation from Mathew Coles et al. (2013), there could be 28 million 800 thousand
tonnes of plastic debris entering the ocean each year. The five highest production
plastics, which account for approximately 90% of the total demand, are polyethylene
(PE), polypropylene (PP), polyvinylchloride (PVC), polystyrene (PS) and
polyethylene terephthalate (PET) (Zarfl and Matthies, 2010) suggesting that these
varieties will make up the majority of plastic entering the water cycle.
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Plastic is now ubiquitously present in the world’s oceans (Cauwenberghe and
Janssen, 2014), seas and rivers. The impact of large plastic debris, known as
‘macroplastic’, has long been studied due to their aesthetic and economic
repercussions in the tourist industry and the injury, death or ingestion by marine
birds and mammals (Cole et al. 2011). The physical characteristics of plastics show
a high resistance to ageing and minimal biodegradation (Moore, 2008). In fact,
plastic can take decades if not centuries to fully degrade (Cole et al. 2014); meaning
the plastic that is affecting marine biota now could be some of the very first plastic
ever produced. When macroplastics are exposed to UVB radiation in sunlight, the
oxidative properties of the atmosphere and the hydrolytic properties of seawater
(Moore, 2008), plastic polymers become brittle and start to fracture or break apart.
This mechanism of degradation continues until the pieces of plastic become smaller
and smaller (Moore, 2008), finally becoming microplastics (MP). This breakdown
over time defines these particles as secondary microplastics (Cole et al. 2011).
Primary microplastics are made to be of small size and are present in facial-
cleansers and cosmetics (Cole et al. 2011). The impact of MP on marine organisms
will depend on where they are located in the water column (Cauwenberghe and
Janssen, 2014). Typically, high density MP, such as the primary MP in cleansers, will
sink (Cauwenberghe and Janssen, 2014) and lower density particles, such as
secondary MP from degradation, will float (Cauwenberghe and Janssen, 2014) or be
suspended in seawater.
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For the purpose of this paper, the term microplastics (MP) will used to describe
plastic particles that have been subject to degradation by exposure to UVB radiation,
the atmosphere and seawater. The term microplastic (MP) is defined differently by
various researchers (Andrady, 2011). Generally particles that are <5mm are
categorised as MP (Moos, Burkhardt-Holm and Köhler, 2012); as particles of plastics
ranging in dimensions from a few µm to 500 µm (5mm) are commonly present
(Andrady, 2011). MP are barely visible to the naked eye, passing through a 500 µm
sieve but retained by a 67 µm sieve (0.06– 0.5mm) (Andrady, 2011) although plastic
particles smaller than this can be found. Due to their small dimensions, MP have a
similar size to planktonic organisms and other suspended particles (Cauwenberghe
and Janssen, 2014) that can be mistaken for food sources by filter feeding
organisms of a higher trophic level. This makes MP available to an array of marine
invertebrates that would otherwise not be affected from not feeding on larger pieces
of marine debris (Cauwenberghe and Janssen, 2014).
Seawater already contains numerous natural micro- and nano- particles, most of
them <100 nm in size (Andrady, 2011) that have no ill effect. However, MP particles
have the potential to do damage as they differ in nature to other natural particles of
the same or similar dimensions. Flow or run off from land can contain both biogenic
organic matter such as high molecular weight aliphatic hydrocarbons and
anthropogenic pollutants including polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). (Kanzari et al.
2014) which are persistent organic pollutants (POP) that can be absorbed by MP.
Ingestion of MP debris has been demonstrated for a range of marine organisms,
including Mytilus edulis (Bakir, Rowland and Thompson, 2012) in laboratory settings.
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Similarly, other studies have been conducted to understand what the effect of this
ingestion may have on the feeding organism.
Studies have shown the MP adsorb PCBs from surrounding seawater, bound to the
plastic matrix POPs escape rapid degradation and are subject to long range
transportation (Zarlf and Matthies, 2010). There is evidence that some POPs show a
preference to sorption on plastic polymers, showing different affinity according to
polymer type (Bakir, Rowland and Thompson, 2012). When ingested by organisms
there is a possibility that this becomes a biomagnification route for organic chemicals
adsorbed to or contained within the plastics (Zarfl and Matthies, 2010). The
presence of MP in the marine environment is of particular concern because of this
interaction with and ingestion by marine biota (Hidalgo-Ruz et al. 2012). In a
population of Great Shearwaters (Puffinus gravis) the concentration of PCBs was
show to be directly correlated to the amount of plastic that had been consumed (Zarfl
and Matthies, 2010). While MP has been reported in a variety of marine organism,
including M. edulis, the extent of the toxicological hazard to these organisms are not
well known (Hidalgo-Ruz et al. 2012).
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M. edulis is commonly grown in the United Kingdom and Europe for human
consumption meaning that there is a possibility for the transportation of MPs and
POPs to the human food chain. The concentration of POPs may only be a small
amount for a large organism but could be more problematic for M. edulis. The aim of
this study is to discover if mussels cultivated for human consumption contain MP and
how these have come to be ingested. It will look at what environmental,
topographical and biological factors that have attributed to the amount of MP within
the samples and aim to investigate possible damage.
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3. Method
Mussels that had been grown for human consumption were purchased from
supermarkets and restaurants to give a broad range of locations in the United
Kingdom. The four UK locations were the South West coast (Brixham), Ireland,
Stirling and the Shetland isles. Due to the mussels being ready to enter the food
chain, they had likely already been subjected to a depuration period that cleared
their guts of any effluent or possible plastic particles. 5 replicates would be made for
each site; this included 1 blank to ensure what was being found was from inside the
mussel flesh and not outside contamination. The mussel flesh was removed from the
shell, weighed and recorded before being cut into small pieces. A previous batch
test, carried out by myself, had given an ideal mussel weight of between 9 and 12
grams for 20ml of acid. To eliminate the risk of contamination each instrument was
cleaned with deionised water before moving on to the next sample. The resulting
mussel flesh was transferred to warming tubes and capped with loose fitting foil. The
foil would aid the reflux when acid was added by causing condensation of the fumes.
To this, 20ml of 69% nitric acid (HNO3) was added and left for 24 hours to steep in
the fume cupboard. The acid flesh mixture was then slowly heated up to 80˚C and
left for three hours. An adapted version of Classons (2013) method was used to yield
similar digested results. To be sure to achieve the predicted 80% digestion
efficiency, the two hours began after refluxing. Once this was completed the contents
of the warming tube was diluted with 250ml of deionised water heated to 80˚C in a
500ml conical flask. The warming tube was then flushed with deionised water to
remove any residual material (this waste water was added to the beaker). After a
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short cooling period the weakened acid mix was filtered. Filtration was carried out
using a 300ml vaccuum flask, Buchner funnel and 0.65 µm cellulose nitrate
membrane filters (47mm with a capture diameter of 37mm) before flushing the 500ml
beaker. The filters were left to air dry and stored in petriei dishes before be examined
under a Scanning Electron Microscope.
For the S.E.M a Phillips XL30 ESEM was used. The height of the detector was
adjusted to give an acquisition rate of 2 KCPS. The chamber pressure was 0.5 Torr
with an accelerator voltage of 20,000 KV working with the back scatter electron
detector and a spot size of six. Five pencil spots at points relating to 12, 3, 6, and 9,
and in the centre were made on the filter to be used as a rough guide to the centre;
this would show in the S.E.M how close the machine was to centre from the
prediction eliminating any problem of being placed too far off centre in the S.E.M.
From the centre, at 100x magnification each frame was counted out towards the
edge equalling eighteen frames (frame size 133mm x 0.91 mm). On every third
frame, any fibrous material was recorded. This was decided as a fair and unbiased
method against a random frame selection approach. Each suspected plastic fibre
was measured and had a picture taken for reference later (Fig.1). From prior
research there was a good indication of what MP would look like in various forms
allowing assumptions to be made before measurements were taken. This was
carried out for each of the twenty samples, including their blanks, and lab coats were
worn all times to protect the samples from contamination of clothing fibres. Once the
samples had all been finished they were analysed using statistical software.
Differences between location were analysed using a one-way ANOVA, the number
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of particles were log+1
transformed to ensure that assumptions of homogeneity of
variance and normally-distributed residual were met.
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4. Results
4.1. Scanning Electron Microscope (S.E.M) Findings
When looking at the particles under the S.E.M, fibrous strands were discovered that
varied in length. Each of the particles had a very strong peak of carbon (C), with a
smaller peak of Oxygen (O), this suggested it was of organic origin and suggested
that we were looking at a hydrocarbon that was plastic (Image 1). There we also
other peaks within the spectrum, namely Silica (Si) and Chlorine (Cl). The silica was
most likely from the back ground of the filter. In the picture the pieces that glow bright
white are silica and these are organisms that use silica and calcium in their body
construction. The chorine was most likely in the MP particles themselves. This could
suggest that the plastic was polyvinyl chloride (PVC). Image.2 is an example of what
was being found when looking at the S.E.M.
Image 1. Spectrum from S.E.M 2015 Image 2. Picture of Plastic particle from S.E.M 2015
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4.2. Plastic Abundance
To work out the abundance of particles per filter and per gram of mussel weight, the
following equation was applied;
𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟2
𝐷𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑟 37𝑚𝑚 (3.7𝑐𝑚)
𝜋 × 18.5² = 1075 𝑚𝑚²
1075
0.91
= 1181.31 ( 𝐹𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝐹𝑖𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑟)
1181.32 × 𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑁𝑜. 𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠 = 𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝐹𝑖𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝐹𝑖𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑀𝑢𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑙
= 𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑚
4.3. Table of Abundance Results
The table clearly highlights Brixham as having the highest proportion of plastic
particles per gram of mussels at 15.68 ppg. Second highest is Shetland with 8.95
ppg, followed by Ireland with 4.64 ppg and Stirling with 3.62 ppg.
Key
PPF: Particles per filter PPAW: Particles per average weight PPG: Particle per gram
ST: Stirling BR: Brixham SH: Shetland IR: Ireland
Table 1. Particle abundance in differing values.
Figure 1. Particles per gram equation.
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5. Statistical Analysis
A one-way ANOVA can be used to discover is there is a significant difference
between the particles found at each site. Before this can be completed, the data
must be tested for homogeneity of variance and normally distributed residual values.
5.1. Homogeneity of Variance
Both the Bartlett’s and Levene’s test in fig.2. show non-significance (p> 0.05),
meaning there is homogeneity of variance. The assumption of homogeneity of
variance is that the variance within each sample is equal. This indicates that the data
has equal variance despite the indication of excess zero data points.
ST
SH
IR
BR
20151050
SITE
95% Bonferroni Confidence Intervals for StDevs
Test Statistic 6.10
P-Value 0.107
Test Statistic 1.09
P-Value 0.380
Bartlett's Test
Levene's Test
Test of Homogeneity (Original Data)
Figure 2. Test of homogeneity of variance.
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5.2. Normally Distributed Residual Values
86420-2-4-6
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
Residual (Original Data)
Frequency
Mean 2.220446E-17
StDev 2.851
N 20
Histogram
(response is PARTICLES)
1.51.00.50.0-0.5-1.0-1.5
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
Residual
Frequency
Mean 6.661338E-17
StDev 0.7453
N 20
Histogram
(response is Log +1)
1050-5
99
95
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
5
1
Residual
Percent
Normal Probability Plot
(response is PARTICLES)
210-1-2
99
95
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
5
1
Residual
Percent
Normal Probability Plot
(response is Log +1)
For an ANOVA to be a true representation of the data, the residual values need to
show normal distribution. Figure 3 shows a left skew with a distinct tail running off to
the right. The residual values of the original data are not normally distributed. This
can also be seen in the normal probability plot (fig.5); the two tails are clearly defined
at each end of the plot. Figure 4 shows distribution around zero with a good degree
of spread either side. To achieve this, using one-way ANOVA, the numbers of
particles were log+1
transformed to ensure that the need for normally distributed
Figure 5 and Figure 6. Normal probability plot comparison (Original and Log+
1
residuals)
Figure 3 and Figure 4. Histogram of Residual Data comparison (Original and Log+
1
residuals)
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residual values were met. In the log+1
normality probably plot (fig.5), the tail from the
top right has been significantly reduced and the values have a good correlation.
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5.3. Is there a higher amount of MP for each sample based on their
location?
Proposed hypothesis:
Н1 : There is a significant difference in particles based on location
Null hypothesis:
Н0 : There is not a significant difference in particles based on location
ANOVA
P_LOG_1
Sum of
Squares
df Mean
Square
F Sig.
Between
Groups
5.145 3 1.715 2.600 .088
Within
Groups
10.554 16 .660
Total 15.699 19
There was not a statistically significant difference between groups as determined by
one-way ANOVA (F (3, 16) = 2.600, 𝜌 = .088).
The 𝜌- value .088, so as 𝜌 = > 0.05 there is not enough evidence to support the
proposed hypothesis. There is a not statistically significant difference between the
particles found based on their location.
Figure 7. ANOVA statistical read out.
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5.4. Plastic particles found
Despite the findings of the One-way ANOVA, visually Brixham shows a higher
concentration of plastic particles. The statistics will test each individual value against
the other, showing that there is no significant difference. This is not to say that the
statistics have been incorrectly managed, it is more likely due to the small sample
size and lack of replicates to confidently shows a statistical difference. Fig 8 shows
all of the particles from one mussel group combined and the higher amount for
Brixham.
9
35
20
9
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
Stirling Brixham Shetland Ireland
Number
of
Particles
Cultivation Site
Figure 8. Graph displaying grouped particles.
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5.5. Size of particles
The data from the size of particles has a distinct skew to the left hand side (fig.9)
suggesting that the majority of the articles were of a smaller size. The smallest
recorded particle was 54.40 µm and the largest was 2140 µm. The mean particle
size was 439.81 µm ± 383.99 µm.
Figure 9. Histogram of particle size in µm.
SPSS Statistics 2015
Figure 10. Statistical read out based on size in µm.
SPSS Statistics 2015
Figure 11. Particles in size groups. Figure 12. Size in groups report.
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By separating the particles into ‘Bins’ it is easier to see the distribution. 30 of the 80
particles recorded were between 51-259 µm, whilst only 15 particles were close to or
larger than 1 mm in size. There was double the amount of smaller range particles
than higher range.
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5.6. Controlled Blanks
To ensure that the plastic that was being discover was not from an outside
contamination source such as clothing, lab coats were worn at all times. However,
on 1 of the blanks a single fiber was found that look very similar to the others; this
sample was part of the Brixham group. There were no other particles viewed on any
of the other blanks during this project
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5.7. Results Summary
The results have proven the existence of plastic particles within the mussels from the
sampled areas, using a combination of statistical and visual analysis. Brixham has
clearly demonstrated a higher amount of plastic in the mussel flesh, but all of the
samples yield large amounts of plastic. The use of SPSS did not show a statistical
difference between all the samples, but this is likely due to the small data set. If this
were to be carried out again more replicates of similar values would probably show a
statistical significance but that would have to be proven. All of the methods of
analysis are viable ways of counting plastic abundance, size and particles per gram.
This indicates that the results can be viewed with a strong degree of confidence to
their accuracy. The fact that 1 particle was viewed on a blank does not disrupt this
confidence in the results. Each filter viewed multiple particles outside the sampling
method that were not counted. This one particle was the only one viewed on the
filter, out of all the blanks, whether it was in the samples frame or not. This 1 particle
may have contaminated the filter during storage although the upmost care was used
throughout to stop this from happening.
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6. Discussion
6.1. Initial problems
It took approximately one hour for the reflux mechanism of the digestion to start in
comparison to the predicted two hour overall time scale. This meant during one of
the trail runs the heat was increased to speed up the digestion. However, this was a
mistake as it caused the samples to boil over and the samples were then not
salvageable and discarded. Due to incomplete digestion, some of the samples were
unable to be used for S.E.M analysis. During the initial set up, another method of
filtration was added to the final step. The use of glass wool was trialled to see if it
was able to filter out any of the lager fatty deposits in the less digested samples.
After these had be looked at under the S.E.M it was found to be unsuccessful as it
caused large amounts of glass fibres to be deposited on the filter paper and was in
fact worse the original. Because on some samples fatty deposits hindered the view
of the electron microscope these were left out. This resulted in 5 usable samples
from each site. This was a frustrating outcome as there was a possibility to make the
project more accurate with a larger data set. However, what has been shown is a
true representation of the samples that were used. More than 20 filters that were
used in the final analysis were made but it was decided to leave these out and keep
five per area. The mussels from Stirling and Brixham were the 2 that had the most
trouble in digestion. This is interesting as it would have been beneficial to see more
samples for these areas as they are the highest and lowest values recorder. To
analyse the approximate size of the fibres, all of the 80 that had been found were
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measured. This would give a better understanding of the size of the particles that
were discovered. There are quite a few zero data points, this made statistical
analysis more of a challenge. This is not to say that the sample contained no plastic,
this is because the method of sampling did not allow the plastic to be recorded. This
was deemed a fair way of sampling the filter and gave the best compromise between
usable results within the time available.
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6.2. Identification
6.3. Chemical properties
The characterisation of MP uses morphological descriptions, size, shape or colour,
with the most reliable technique being infrared spectroscopy which reveals the
chemical composition (Eerkes-Medrano, Thompson and Aldridge, 2015). However,
with the knowledge that plastic is not degraded by NHO3 during the digestion
process, it can be said with a good degree of certainty that what is left behind is
plastic. Using the S.E.M, the plastic can be scanned to reveal the chemical
composition. This is not as sensitive as infrared spectroscopy but it still shows what
elements are within that field of view. The basic structure of plastics is constructed
from monomer units by chemical reaction (Klein, 2011). The monomer units are
organic carbon-based molecules. Besides Carbon (C) and Hydrogen (H) atoms as
main components, plastics can also contain elements like Oxygen (O), Sulphur (S)
or Chlorine (Cl) in the monomer unit (Klein, 2011).
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In image 3, it can be seen that there is a very strong C peak with an O peak of
around 1 quarter of the size. There are also peaks within the Cl and S grouping. This
chemically supports what is known to be contained within plastic polymers and
shows with a good degree of certainty that the particles left after digestion were of
plastic origin. Although it can be confidentially confirmed that what was found is
plastic, it is harder to confirm what type of plastic is contained within the samples.
Image 3. Spectrum from S.E.M 2015
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6.4. Size
The term Microplastic (MP) was first used in 2004 and is a classification based on
the size of the particle (Hidalgo-Ruz et al. 2012). Generally particles that are <5mm
are categorised as MP (Moos, Burkhardt-Holm and Köhler, 2012); as particles of
plastics ranging in dimensions from a few µm to 500 µm (5mm) are commonly
present (Andrady, 2011). The smallest particle found was 54.40 µm and the largest
2140 µm. The largest of the particles was 2.14 mm, which is well within the specified
boundary for a MP. From a size point of view it can be confidently confirmed that
what was found is of MP origin. As M. edulis is a selective filter feeder, laboratory
test have been conducted to find a suggested limit for the size of particle retention
(10-30µm) (Cauwenberghe et al. 2015). The recorded sizes found in this research
have found particles that far exceed the size of this suggested limit. To select
particles of appropriate size, large particles elicit secretion of mucus; this mucus
entangles particles so that they can be excreted via pseudofaeces (Riisgard, Egede
and Saavedra, 2011).
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In image 4, a large mass of tangled fibres is shown from a sample of digested M.
edulis. The higher amount of larges particles recorder may be proof of pseudofaeces
in action and show that these tangled particles are unable to be readily excreted
though this normal process. Microplastic especially in fiber form can cause problems
to the organism that ingests them as they cause blockages in the intestinal tract and
undergo accumulation (Mathalon and Hill, 2014).Trapped inside the intestinal tract of
M. edulis, these particles may be able to untangle during the agitation involved with
digestion. This would explain the high amount of large particles outside of the
suggested limit in laboratory research or the higher amount despite depuration.
Image 4. Mass of Particles S.E.M 2015
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6.5. Depuration
Depuration is the process applied to M. edulis that involves them being placed in
clean sterilised sea water and allowed to continue filtration activities for a set period
of time (FAO, 2010). This ensures the risk of illness when eaten is lowered due to
lower concentrations of faecal contaminants contained within the bivalve (FAO,
2010). This process would also allow MP in M. edulis to be excreted. The decision to
depurate mussels is based on water cleanliness clarification carried out by sanitation
surveys centred on E. coli. If waters are of A grade quality (<230 E.coli/100g),
mussels can be directly consumed without the need for depuration (DEFRA, 2013); a
water rating of B or below indicates mussels have to be depurated. Whether or not a
sample in subjected to the depuration process will have an effect on the recorded
amount of MP. The shellfish waters Directive (2006/113/EEC) ensures that member
states designate water that is in need protection of improvement to support shellfish
growth directly intended from human consumption (HMG, 2012). It recognises that
protecting human health cannot be guaranteed by protecting water quality alone. For
this reason faecal coliforms standards are set for mussel flesh (HMG, 2012),
although as mussels are a bio-indicator, this level could be reflection of water quality.
Based on this idea, the lower recorded values for Ireland and Stirling may suggest
that the water quality is below B grade. The need for depuration has lowered the MP
content that is associated with poorer water quality. Similarly, mussels from Shetland
and Brixham showed the highest recorded levels of MP suggesting that the water
quality in this area may be high enough to warrant consumption without depuration
(A grade). After investigation, it was discovered that mussels that are grown in the
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region of Brixham go through a 42 hour depuration process (Brixham Sea Farms,
2014).The fact that mussels need to have this depuration period in Brixham reveals
that the water quality in that area must be of B grade or lower suggesting that the
high amount found may be due to other underlying factors. In Cauwenberghe’s et al
2014 paper, mussels used for lab based test are depurated. This would give a better
representation of the amount that a person may ingest whilst consuming mussels as
it simulates production practice. Although deputation is conducted for other means
(E.coli risk), the method is proven to result in a safer product for consumption,
however, it inadvertently reduces the concentration of MP. Even with depuration, MP
are present, this is due to ingested MP having the potential to be taken by epithelial
cell in the intestinal tract, even translocating into the circulatory system of the
mussels (Cauwenberghe and Janssen, 2014) and as mussels are eaten whole,
consumption will inevitability be linked to MP ingestion. Furthermore, there may be a
possibility that MPs are forming clumps within the intestines and cannot be readily
excreted as discussed in section 6.4.
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6.6. Combined Sewage Overflow
During periods of heavy rainfall, sewers can become overwhelmed by the volume of
water leading to discharge to the ocean via combined sewer overflow (CSO) (Kay,
2008). This water contains human waste (black water) and water from household
use such as a washing machine (grey water). These overflow events can lead to
bivalves such as M. edulis concentrating and retaining human pathogens (Kay,
2008) meaning they need depuration as previously discussed (section 6.5). At
present, the health effects attributed to the ingestion of and translocation of bacteria
via mussels is well documented; this is why the Shellfish Waters Directive
(2006/113/EC) was created. However, a study conducted by Browne, et al. (2011)
has found that there may be other less noticeable contaminants within CSO. It was
found that an important source of MP was found in sediments near sewage water
outlets (Browne et al. 2011). Further test revealed that a single garment of clothing
can produce >1900 fibres per wash (Browne et al. 2011). This water is then drained
into the combined sewer system and has the possibility to make it in to the marine
environment and suggests that a large proportion of fibrous material is a
consequence of washing clothing (Browne et al. 2011). Furthermore, a quarter of all
sewage sludge was dumped at sea, until a ban in 1998; this would have meant any
MP filtered from waste water would have entered the ocean (DEFRA, 2002). These
findings would explain the visual nature of what was viewed under the S.E.M. All of
the MP particles discovered were fibrous and could very well be clothing fibres,
although the exact origin cannot be confidently confirmed at this stage.
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The image above shows a high concentration of CSOs in the Brixham area, a total of
10 (SAS, 2014) when in fact there are around 19. Mussels are allowed to mature for
18-24 months (Seafish, 2011) which gives them a chance of having multiple
interactions with high rainfall events that lead to CSOs being used. Following the
introduction of the EU Bathing Water Regulations in the early 1990’s, schemes were
recommended to improve bathing waters (Torbay, 2010) that would aim to limit the
frequency of polluting events. The consent was set at 3 spills per bathing season
(Torbay, 2010) signalling that mussels grown in the Torbay area could, at the very
least, be subjected to 6 spills for a 24 months growing period. Furthermore, this does
not include the higher possibility of extreme weather events that happen at other
Image 5. CSO Map of Brixham Area. (SAS, 2015)
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times of the year, leading to the belief that this is a very minimal estimation. This is
reflected in the amount of MP found in the samples from Brixham.
The mussels from Brixam had 15.68 ppg, whilst Stirling had only 3.62 ppg, Brixham
showed around 5 times more MP particles per gram. In image 6, it can be seen that
there is a dramatic difference in the amount of CSOs for the Stirling area. Although it
is known that the Brixham image 5 is an underestimation, if used as a visual tool it
can still represent the clear difference. If you took the 4 CSOs from image 6 and
multiplied it by 5 you would have 20 CSOs, which is close to the real amount.
Although this is just a rough estimation, it is highly likely based on this evidence that
the MP values of these 2 extremes are linked to the concentration of CSOs in the
area of mussels sampled.
Image 6. CSO Map of Stirling Area. (SAS, 2015)
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This problem is only exacerbated by the practice of using sewage sludge that has
been treated as a soil improver. Sewage sludge is increasing added to soil as it is
deemed be economically or environmentally advantageous and is set to increase to
13 million tonnes by 2020 (Jones, 2014). There have been accounts of soils that
have had soil sludge spread being inadvertently contaminated with plastic as a result
of this practice (Thompson, 2009). It is perfectly plausible that like nutrient runoff,
sewage sludge used on land may leech MP that would otherwise have been
captured by the filtration process, allowing it to reach water courses and end up in
the sea.
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6.7. Mussel health
M. edulis have been used extensively as an indicator species for monitoring the
uptake and bioaccumulation of hydrophobic contaminants in the marine
environment, including polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), chlor-obiphenyls
(CBs) and polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) (Webster, et al. 2009). PAHs
and organochlorine pesticides (OCs) are present on the marine environment in the
form of complex mixtures. The ecotoxicological nature of contamination interactions
is poorly understood with most scientific studies formed from single contaminate
exposures (Richardson, et al. 2008), unlike real world interactions where organisms
are exposed to many at one time. Mato et al. (2001) found 100,00 - 1 million time
higher concentration of Polychlorinated byphenyls (PCBs) on polypropylene pieces
compared to the surrounding seawater (Mato, et al. 2001) meaning MP could
provide a route from transport into exposed organisms (Mathalon, et al. 2014). One
study has quantified concentrations from MP particles found from beaches showing
reported values of PAH = 39-1200 ng/g, PCB = 27-980 ng/g and DDT = 22-980 ng/g
(Andrady, 2011). As well as exposure to these potentially harmful chemicals, a
study on the effects of nanopolystyrene (30nm) on the feeding of M. edulis showed
significant increase in pseudofaeces production and decreased filter feeding activity,
reducing energy acquisition leading to possible starvation (Cauwenberghe, et al.
2015). In image 4 there is a mass of fibres which seems to show pseudofaeces and
possibly this natural process causing blockages within the intestines. These
blockages would not allow the natural excretion of larger MP particles and may lead
to excessive leaching of POPs or starvation. Either of these outcomes could have
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detrimental effect to the health of M. edulis or their reproductive activity. However, as
it cannot be confidentially confirmed what plastic has been found during this study, it
is hard to speculate as to which chemicals would be being ingested. A study by Bakir
et al. (2012), showed specific absorption behaviours of polymers PE and PVC, with
PE (Phenanthrene) and DDT (Bakir, et al. 2012) whilst Webster, et al. (2009)
showed interactions with PHs, CBs and PBDEs. Although Webster, et al. (2009) was
not showing this based on MP, it provides evidence that these chemicals are being
ingested purely through normal filtration. This means that MP with higher
concentrations of POPs are putting a further strain on these organisms.
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6.8. Human health
From all the evidence of the previous sections it can be said that there is a high
possibility that MPs are entering the human food chain and that there is a high
chance these will contain POPs in one form or another. The degree to which a
person is exposed to these chemicals will have influence the damage that is caused.
The most persistent PCB congeners (PCB 153/158) have a half-life of around a year
in the human blood, whereas lower chlorinated PCBs can be transformed within
days (Vetter, 2009). Despite any difference in residence time within the body,
contaminants may have effect on fetus health as they are more venerable to
chemical exposure than adults (Vizcaino, et al., 2013). Furthermore, POPs have
been linked to cardiovascular disease (CVD) or cancer and individuals with these
diseases had significantly higher concentrations of PCBs than that of healthy
individuals (Ljunggren et al. 2014). It is hard to fully understand the concentration of
POPs entering the food chain and this would ultimately depend on how much a
person would eat. Areas of the world where seafood is a primary food source would
expect to ingest higher concentrations if the main food source was contaminated
with POPs. To further the problems of POPs, there are also know chemicals within
plastic that are harmful to human health and could have potential risks (Thompson et
al. 2009). Chemicals within plastic and some POPs are classified as endocrine
disruptors meaning they interfere with and mimic hormones within the body and can
cause reproductive issues (Thompson et al. 2009). Whilst these chemicals could be
having a small effect on a large organism like a human there could be even more
detrimental effects to a small organism such as M. edulis. It may not have a large
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impact on the mussels that are cultivated but could pose a threat to natural beds that
will reproduce independently.
6.9. Conclusion
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MP are said to be ubiquitous in the marine environment and the fits very well with the
finding of this study. Every sample contained MP in amounts large and small.
Despite the fact that it cannot be confirmed what plastic is being ingested, there is
overwhelming evidence that suggests POPs are entering the food chain and the
probability that this is aided by MP ingestion is high. However, the use of other
analytical tool would give a better understanding and what type of plastic had been
found and therefore be able to see if it was likely to contain POPs. The size of the
particles that were found were in the right region despite some being larger or
smaller. Also the chemical scan of the particles showed the elements you would
expect with plastic particles. The background research and the finding in this report
show excellent similarities to support finding MP. One area that has not been fully
explored by wider literature but argues a strong case is CSOs. The evidence put
forward that shows there is a likely hood of the pieces of plastic may be coming from
CSO events looks to be the strongest explanation for the high amount for in the
sample in a combination with blockages in the intestinal tract. This would explain
how depuration could still yield high amounts of plastic. The efforts expressed during
this study have made an excellent start on a somewhat under studied field example
area of MP problem. This area would certainly benefit from a lengthy study in the
future that would allow other avenues to be explored in more detail.
7. Acknowledgments
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Dr Mark Steer for his continued support throughout the project. Paul Anstey for the
part he played in development of the method, his efforts in digestion and data
gathering.
8. References
Andrady, A.L. (2011) Microplastics in the marine environment. Marine Pollution
Bulletin [Online]. 62, pp. 1596-1605. [Accessed 04 March 2015].
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Association of Plastic Manufacturers, (2013) Plastics the Facts 2013
[Online].Europe: Plastics Europe. Available from:
http://www.plasticseurope.org/Document/plastics-the-facts-2013.aspx [Accessed 04
March 2015].
Bakir, A., Rowland, S.J. and Thompson, R.C. (2012) Competitive sorption of
persistent organic pollutants onto microplastics in the marine environment. Marine
Pollution Bulletin [Online]. 64, pp. 2782-2789. [Accessed 05 March 2015].
Bakir, A., Rowland, S.J., Thompson, R.C. (2012) Competitive sorption of persistent
organic pollutants onto microplastics in the marine environment. Marine Pollution
Bulletin [Online]. 64., pp. 2782-2789. [Accessed 1 April 2015].
Brixham Sea farms LTD (2014) brixhamseafarmsltd.co.uk. Available from:
http://www.brixhamseafarmsltd.co.uk/ [Accessed 19 March 2015].
Browne, M.A., Crump, P., Niven, S.J., Teuten, E., Tonkin, A., Galloway, T. and
Thompson, R. (2011) Accumulation of Microplastic on Shorelines Worldwide:
Sources and Sinks. Environmental Science and Technology [Online]. 45, pp. 9175-
9179. [Accessed 26 March 2015].
Cauwenberghe, L.V. and Janssen, C.R. (2014) Microplastics in bivalves cultured for
human consumption. Environmental Pollution [Online]. 193, pp. 65-70. [Accessed 04
March 2015].
Cauwenberghe, L.V., Claessens, M., Vandegehuchte, M.B. and Janssen, C.R.
(2015) Microplastics are taken up by mussels (Mytilus edulis) and lugworms
(Arenicola marina) living in natural habitats. Environmental Pollution [Online]. 199.,
pp. 10-17. [Accessed 31 March 2015].
Cole, M., Lindeque, P., Fileman, E., Halsband, C., Goodhead, R., Moger, J. and
Galloway, T.S. (2013) Microplastic Ingestion by Zooplankton. Environmental Science
and Technology [Online]. 47, pp. 6646-6655. [Accessed 04 March 2015].
Cole, M., Lindeque, P., Halsband, C. and Galloway, T.S. (2011) Microplastics as
contaminants in the marine environment: A review. Marine Pollution Bulletin [Online].
62, pp. 2588-2597. [Accessed 04 March 2015].
Cole, M., Webb, H., Lindeque, P.K., Fileman, E.S., Halsband, C. and Galloway, T.S.
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