You have now explored in a practical way a number of different aspects of language and learning, including the difference between implicit and explicit knowledge of rules, rule discovery, the grammar of spoken and written English, phonology, and linguistic and communicative competence. I now want to turn to the significance of grammatical and communicative contexts for understanding words and grammatical structures. For example, in this unit you will study not only the grammar of the passive, but also the contexts in which it is used.
The unit begins with a look at what we can find out about a word in a dictionary and includes an activity to test your knowledge of grammar terminology. It finishes with a look at some of the reasons why words and patterns change over time and the question of what we consider to be 'correct' modern English.
Dictionaries can give teachers and learners an overall view of a word, with information about its many different aspects. So it's a good idea to get to enjoy using dictionaries. I'm therefore starting this unit with an activity to test your knowledge of what a dictionary can tell you about a word.
1. What information might a dictionary give about a word you look up (for example, its pronunciation)? Make a note of your ideas.
2. Now look up the word kneel in a dictionary and see what information is given. Summarize what you found.
Comment
1. Dictionaries can tell you about a word's:
pronunciation (including where the stress lies)
meaning(s)
word class(es)
different forms (for example past tense, plural)
usage
origin.
2. You could have found the following information about kneel:
how it is pronounced
that it is a verb
that it is intransitive (see below)
that it has alternative past tense forms: knelt or kneeled
that kneeled is used particularly in the United States
that kneel down is a phrasal verb
that it means fall or rest on the knees or a knee
that it comes from an old English word, cneowlian.
In a dictionary like Cobuild or The Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English, you will also find examples showing you how the word can be used: for example, He kneels beside the girl or Lottie knelt down to pray. We are also given the -ing form of the verb and an example: The kneeling figure was Mary Darling.
Transitive and intransitive verbs
A dictionary always tells you whether a verb is transitive or intransitive, that is, whether it can be followed by an object or not.
The verb 'lost' is transitive because we can put a noun after it. The verb yawned is intransitive because we can't put a noun after it.
Active and passive sentences
Sentences in English are either active or passive. Teachers of English need to understand the grammar of each of them and to be clear under what circumstances it is appropriate to use either the passive or the active. Let's start with the grammar.
Source: https://ebookschoice.com/words-and-their-context/
1. Gerunds and Infinitives
Introduction
Here is a brief review of the differences between gerunds and infinitives.
Gerunds are formed with ING: walking, talking, thinking,
listening
Infinitives are formed with to walk, to talk, to think, to
TO: listen
Gerunds and infinitives can do several jobs:
Both gerunds and infinitives can be the subject of a
sentence::
Writing in English is difficult.
To write in English is difficult.
Both gerunds and infinitives can be the object of a verb::
I like writing in English.
I like to write in English.
But...
Only gerunds can be the object of a preposition::
We are talking about writing in English.
It is often difficult to know when to use a gerund and when to use an infinitive. These
guidelines may help you:
2. Gerunds are often used when actions are real, concrete or
completed::
I stopped smoking.
(The smoking was real and happened until I stopped.)
Infinitives are often used when actions are unreal, abstract, or
future::
I stopped to smoke.
(I was doing something else, and I stopped; the smoking
had not happened yet.)
When you are ready, you can go on to the exercises.
UVic English Language Centre, 1998
http://web2.uvcs.uvic.ca/elc/studyzone/410/grammar/gerinf.htm
Cloze Exercise: Gerunds and Infinitives
Yuri was in his first year at university, studying History. He was rather a lazy student,
and he tended to avoid (work) whenever he could. In the middle of the semester, his
history professor gave out an assignment, due in two weeks. Yuri intended (do)_______
the assignment, but he postponed (write)_____________ it for a week. The following
week, he forgot (do)____________ it. The night before the assignment was due, he
suddenly remembered it, and rushed to the library. He tried (read)____________ as much
as possible on the topic, but there wasn't enough time. Yuri considered (ask)_________
for more time to do his paper, but the History professor was known to be very tough on
students, so finally he decided (cheat)____________ and copy his paper from somewhere
else. He found an old article on the same topic, and quickly typed it out. The next day, he
submitted the paper.
The following week, he was alarmed (see)___________ the professor approaching him,
looking angry.
"Is this your own work, or did you copy it?" asked the professor. Yuri denied
(copy)_______ the paper.
"If you expect me (believe)____________ that, you must be very stupid," said the
professor. "Every word is taken from an article I wrote myself five years ago. Did you
really think I would forget (write) __________it?"
Answer Key
3. Yuri was in his first year at university, studying History. He was rather a lazy student,
and he tended to avoid (workinf ) whenever he could. In the middle of the semester, his
history professor gave out an assignment, due in two weeks. Yuri intended ( todo) the
assignment, but he postponed (writing) it for a week. The following week, he forgot (to
do) it. The night before the assignment was due, he suddenly remembered it, and rushed
to the library. He tried (to read) as much as possible on the topic, but there wasn't enough
time. Yuri considered (asking) for more time to do his paper, but the History professor
was known to be very tough on students, so finally he decided to cheat) and copy his
paper from somewhere else. He found an old article on the same topic, and quickly typed
it out. The next day, he submitted the paper.
The following week, he was alarmed (to see) the professor approaching him, looking
angry.
"Is this your own work, or did you copy it?" asked the professor. Yuri denied (copying)
the paper.
"If you expect me (to believe) that, you must be very stupid," said the professor. "Every
word is taken from an article I wrote myself five years ago. Did you really think I would
forget (writing) it?"
Use the cues to make simple past tense sentences, using the correct form of the
second verb (gerund or infinitive). For example,
"Mary / stop / smoke" becomes "Mary stopped smoking."
1. Yoko / want / go / abroad
Yoko wanted to go abroad.
2. Her mother / suggest / go / to Canada
3. She / decide / visit / BC
4. She / consider / study / in Vancouver
5. However, she / hate / live / in big cities
