ELT 222- Children Literature_THEORIES OF human growth & development.pptx

INFANCY
AND
PRE-
SCHOOL
YEARS
(BIRTH-6
YEARS

INFANCY
AND PRE-
SCHOOL
YEARS
(BIRTH-6
YEARS)
COGNITIVE
PSYCHOSOCIAL
PSYCHOSEXUAL
/EMOTIONAL
MORAL

COGNITIVE (JEAN PIAGET)
The Sensorimotor Stage (Ages: Birth-2 Years)
Major Characteristics and Developmental
Changes:
The infant knows the world through their
movements and sensations.
Children learn about the world through basic
actions such as sucking, grasping, looking, and
listening.

The Sensorimotor Stage (Ages: Birth-2 Years)
Changes:
Infants learn that things continue to exist even
though they cannot be seen (object permanence).
They realize that their actions can cause things
to happen in the world around them.

The Preoperational Stage (Ages: 2 to 7 Years)
Changes:
Children begin to think symbolically and learn to
use words and pictures to represent objects.
Children at this stage tend to be egocentric and
struggle to see things from the perspective of
others.

The Preoperational Stage (Ages: 2 to 6 Years)
Changes:
While they are getting better with language and
thinking, they still tend to think about things in
very concrete terms.

PSYCHOSOCIAL (ERIK
ERIKSON)
Trust vs. Mistrust (Birth-12 Months)
Infants must learn that adults can be trusted.
 Infants are dependent upon their caregivers,
so caregivers who are responsive and sensitive
to their infant’s needs help their baby to develop
a sense of trust; their baby will see the world as
a safe, predictable place.
Unresponsive caregivers who do not meet their
baby’s needs can engender feelings of anxiety,
fear, and mistrust.

PSYCHOSOCIAL (ERIK
ERIKSON)
Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt (1-3 Years old)

As toddlers begin to explore their world, they
learn that they can control their actions and act
on their environment to get results.
A toddler’s main task is to resolve the issue
of autonomy vs. shame and doubt by working to
establish independence.

PSYCHOSOCIAL (ERIK
ERIKSON)
Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt (1-3 Years old)
This is the “me do it” stage. For example, we might
observe a budding sense of autonomy in a 2-year-old
child who wants to choose her clothes and dress
herself.
If denied the opportunity to act on her environment,
she may begin to doubt her abilities, which could lead
to low self-esteem and feelings of shame.

PSYCHOSOCIAL (ERIK
ERIKSON)
 Initiative vs. Guilt (Ages 3-6 years)
Once children reach the preschool stage they are capable
of initiating activities and asserting control over their
world through social interactions and play.
Initiative, a sense of ambition and responsibility, occurs
when parents allow a child to explore within limits and
then support the child’s choice. These children will develop
self-confidence and feel a sense of purpose.

PSYCHOSOCIAL (ERIK
ERIKSON)
Initiative vs. Guilt (Ages 3-6
years)
Those who are
unsuccessful at this stage—
with their initiative misfiring
or stifled by over-controlling
parents—may develop
feelings of guilt.

PSYCHOSEXUAL (SIGMUND
FREUD)
The Oral Stage (Birth to 1 Year)
Erogenous Zone: Mouth
During the oral stage, the infant's primary
source of interaction occurs through the mouth,
so the rooting and sucking reflex is especially
important.
The mouth is vital for eating, and the infant
derives pleasure from oral stimulation through
gratifying activities such as tasting and sucking.

FREUD)
The Oral Stage (Birth to 1 Year)
Erogenous Zone: Mouth
If fixation occurs at this stage, Freud
believed the individual would have issues
with dependency or aggression.
Oral fixation can result in problems with
drinking, eating, smoking, or nail-biting.

FREUD)
The Anal Stage (Age Range: 1 to 3 years)
Erogenous Zone: Bowel and Bladder Control
During the anal stage, Freud believed that the
primary focus of the libido was on controlling
bladder and bowel movements.
The major conflict at this stage is toilet training--
the child has to learn to control his or her bodily
needs

FREUD)
The Anal Stage (Age Range: 1 to 3 years)
Erogenous Zone: Bowel and Bladder Control
 Developing this control leads to a sense of
accomplishment and independence.
Freud believed that positive experiences during
this stage served as the basis for people to
become competent, productive, and creative
adults.

FREUD)
 The Anal Stage (Age Range: 1 to 3 years)
 Erogenous Zone: Bowel and Bladder Control
According to Freud, inappropriate parental responses can
result in negative outcomes. If parents take an approach
that is too lenient, Freud suggested that an anal-expulsive
personality could develop in which the individual has a
messy, wasteful, or destructive personality.
 If parents are too strict or begin toilet training too early,
Freud believed that an anal-retentive personality develops
in which the individual is stringent, orderly, rigid, and
obsessive.

FREUD)
 The Phallic Stage (Age Range: 3 to 6 Years)
 Erogenous Zone: Genitals
the primary focus of the libido is on the genitals. At this
age, children also begin to discover the differences
between males and females.
boys begin to view their fathers as a rival for the mother’s
affections. The Oedipus complex describes these feelings of
wanting to possess the mother and the desire to replace
the father.
However, the child also fears that he will be punished by
the father for these feelings, a fear Freud termed
castration anxiety.

FREUD)
The Phallic Stage (Age Range: 3 to 6 Years)
Erogenous Zone: Genitals
The term Electra complex has been used to
described a similar set of feelings experienced by
young girls. Freud, however, believed that girls
instead experience penis envy.
Eventually, the child begins to identify with the
same-sex parent as a means of vicariously
possessing the other parent.


MORAL (LAWRENCE
KOHLBERG)
PRECONVENTIONAL MORALITY
Stage 1: Obedience-and-Punishment Orientation
focuses on the child’s desire to obey rules and
avoid being punished.
For example, an action is perceived as morally
wrong because the perpetrator is punished; the
worse the punishment for the act is, the more
“bad” the act is perceived to be.

MORAL (LAWRENCE
KOHLBERG)
Stage 2: Instrumental Orientation
Stage two reasoning shows a limited interest in
the needs of others, only to the point where it
might further the individual’s own interests.
As a result, concern for others is not based on
loyalty or intrinsic respect, but rather a “you
scratch my back, and I’ll scratch yours” mentality.

MORAL (LAWRENCE
KOHLBERG)
Stage 2: Instrumental Orientation
An example would be when a child is asked
by his parents to do a chore. The child asks “what’s
in it for me?” and the parents offer the child
an incentive by giving him an allowance.

How does language
expression emerge in
children?

PRE-LINGUISTIC
Pre-linguistic language development is when
a child is learning to control the sounds he can
produce and to string these sounds together in
vocal play. In this stage, the child is not yet able
to manipulate these sounds into proper words.

PRE-LINGUISTIC
Four Categories of Pre-Linguistic Development
1. Vegetative sounds occur at 0-2 months of age and
include the natural sounds that babies make, such as
burping or crying.
2. Cooing and laughter occur at 2-5 months of age.
These are vocalizations that the baby makes when
it's happy or content and can be made up of vowel or
consonant sounds.

Four Categories of Pre-Linguistic Development
3. Vocal play begins around the ages of 4-8 months. During vocal
play, the baby begins to string together longer vowel or
consonant sounds.
4. Finally, babbling occurs around the ages of 6-13 months. At
this time, the child begins to produce a series of consonant-
vowel syllables and may develop utterances, such as ma-ma and
da-da.

SYMBOLIC/LINGUISTIC
Linguistic language development is the stage of
language development signaled by the emergence of
words and symbolic communication.
Prior to this stage, most of the sounds a child
produces are no more than the practice of sound
manipulation and sound sequencing in order to gain
the motor skills necessary to create words.

SIX PERIODS OF
LINGUISTIC
LANGUAGE
DEVELOPMENT

SYMBOLIC/LINGUISTIC
One word Period (12-19 months)
Before a child masters the ability to form words, they
will first begin to use specific sound combinations
consistently with specific meaning.
An example of this would be a child saying 'baba'
every time he wants a bottle of milk. Even though this is
not the exact same as the word bottle, the child is using
'baba' in the same manner as you would use the word
'bottle.'

SYMBOLIC/LINGUISTIC
One word Period (14-24 months)
2nd Stage
In this stage, the words used by the child are
readily identifiable, and he begins to name and label
people and objects in his environment.
A child's typical vocabulary during this period
will consist of words like 'dog,' 'go,' 'daddy' and 'bye-
bye.'

SYMBOLIC/LINGUISTIC
Two word Period (20-30 months)
As the name implies, this is when he will
begin to combine two words together to make
simple phrases, such as 'mommy go' or 'shoe
on.'

SYMBOLIC/LINGUISTIC
Three word Period (28-42 months)
During this period, a child adds at least
one more word to their phrases and begins to
use pronouns.
They may also begin to use articles and
simple prepositions. Examples would be 'me
go daddy,' 'you on chair' or 'he kick a ball.'

SYMBOLIC/LINGUISTIC
Four word Period (28-42 months)
 At this time, the child will begin to use
combinations of four to six words.
 They will use more prepositions, and
adjectives begin to appear in speech.
Examples would be 'Suzy has a little dog' or 'I
sleep on the top bunk.'

SYMBOLIC/LINGUISTIC
Complex Utterance Period (48-60 months)
 At this time, a child regularly produces phrases longer than six
words in length, and they begin to express concepts of past and future
time.
Examples are 'Daddy comes home from the trip tomorrow' and 'I saw a
dog at the park yesterday.' They may also begin to use contractions, such
as 'can't' or 'don't.’
Researchers do not agree on when this period is completed and adult
sentence structure is achieved. Opinions range from 5 years of age to 12
years of age.

EARLY-
SCHOOL
YEARS
(7-
12YEARS
OLD)

EARLY-
SCHOOL
YEARS
COGNITIVE
PSYCHOSOCIAL
PSYCHOSEXUAL
/EMOTIONAL
MORAL

The Concrete Operational Stage (Ages: 7 to 11 Years)
Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes
During this stage, children begin to thinking logically
about concrete events.
They begin to understand the concept of conservation;
that the amount of liquid in a short, wide cup is equal
to that in a tall, skinny glass, for example.

The Concrete Operational Stage (Ages: 7 to 11
Years)
Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes
Their thinking becomes more logical and
organized, but still very concrete.
Children begin using inductive logic, or reasoning
from specific information to a general principle.

PSYCHOSOCIAL (ERIK
ERIKSON)
Industry vs. Inferiority (Ages: 6-12)
During the elementary school stage, children begin
to compare themselves with their peers to see how
they measure up.
 They either develop a sense of pride and
accomplishment in their schoolwork, sports, social
activities, and family life, or they feel inferior and
inadequate because they feel that they don’t
measure up.

PSYCHOSOCIAL (ERIK
ERIKSON)
Industry vs. Inferiority (Ages: 6-12)
During this stage, children also become less
egocentric and begin to think about how other
people might think and feel. Kids in the concrete
operational stage also begin to understand that
their thoughts are unique to them and that not
everyone else necessarily shares their thoughts,
feelings, and opinions.

PSYCHOSOCIAL (ERIK
ERIKSON)
Industry vs. Inferiority (Ages:
6-12)
If children do not learn to get
along with others or have
negative experiences at home
or with peers, an inferiority
complex might develop
into adolescence and adulthood.

FREUD)
The Latent Period (Age Range: 6 to Puberty)
Erogenous Zone: Sexual Feelings Are Inactive
During this stage, the superego continues to develop while
the id's energies are suppressed. Children develop social
skills, values and relationships with peers and adults
outside of the family.
The development of the ego and superego contribute to
this period of calm. The stage begins around the time that
children enter into school and become more concerned
with peer relationships, hobbies, and other interests.

FREUD)
The latent period is a time of exploration in
which the sexual energy repressed or dormant.
 This stage is important in the development of
social and communication skills and self-
confidence.

FREUD)

As with the other psychosexual stages, Freud
believed that it was possible for children to become
fixated or "stuck" in this phase. Fixation at this stage
can result in immaturity and an inability to form
fulfilling relationships as an adult.

MORAL (LAWRENCE
KOHLBERG)
CONVENTIONAL MORALITY
Throughout the conventional level, a
child’s sense of morality is tied to personal and
societal relationships. Children continue to
accept the rules of authority figures, but this
is now due to their belief that this is necessary
to ensure positive relationships and societal
order.

MORAL (LAWRENCE
KOHLBERG)
CONVENTIONAL MORALITY
Stage 3: Good Boy, Nice Girl Orientation
In stage 3, children want the approval of
others and act in ways to avoid disapproval.
Emphasis is placed on good behavior and
people being “nice” to others.

YOUNG
ADULTH
OOD
(12-25
YEARS
OLD)

YOUNG
ADULT
HOOD
COGNITIVE
PSYCHOSOCIAL
PSYCHOSEXUAL
/EMOTIONAL
MORAL

The Formal Operational Stage (Ages: 12 and Up)
Changes:
At this stage, the adolescent or young adult begins
to think abstractly and reason about hypothetical
problems
Abstract thought emerges

Changes:
Teens begin to think more about moral,
philosophical, ethical, social, and political issues
that require theoretical and abstract reasoning
Begin to use deductive logic, or reasoning from a
general principle to specific information

PSYCHOSOCIAL (ERIK
ERIKSON)
Identity vs. Role Confusion (ages 12–18)
According to Erikson, an adolescent’s main task is
developing a sense of self. Adolescents struggle
with questions such as “Who am I?” and “What do I
want to do with my life?”
Along the way, most adolescents try on many
different selves to see which ones fit; they explore
various roles and ideas, set goals, and attempt to
discover their “adult” selves.

PSYCHOSOCIAL (ERIK
ERIKSON)
Identity vs. Role Confusion (ages 12–18)
Adolescents who are successful at this stage have a
strong sense of identity and are able to remain true to
their beliefs and values in the face of problemsand
other people’s perspectives.
 When adolescents are apathetic, do not make a
conscious search for identity, or are pressured to
conform to their parents’ ideas for the future, they
may develop a weak sense of self and experience role
confusion. They will be unsure of their identity and
confused about the future.

PSYCHOSOCIAL (ERIK
ERIKSON)
Intimacy vs. Isolation (20s through early 40s)
After we have developed a sense of self in
adolescence, we are ready to share our life with
others.
However, if other stages have not been
successfully resolved, young adults may have
trouble developing and maintaining successful
relationships with others.

PSYCHOSOCIAL (ERIK
ERIKSON)
Intimacy vs. Isolation (20s through early
40s)
Erikson said that we must have a strong
sense of self before we can develop successful
intimate relationships. Adults who do not develop
a positive self-concept in adolescence may
experience feelings of loneliness and emotional
isolation.

FREUD)
The Genital Stage (Age Range: Puberty to Death)
Erogenous Zone: Maturing Sexual Interests
The onset of puberty causes the libido to become
active once again.
During the final stage of psychosexual development,
the individual develops a strong sexual interest in
the opposite sex.
This stage begins during puberty but last
throughout the rest of a person's life.

FREUD)
Younger children are ruled by the id, which
demands immediate satisfaction of the most basic
needs and wants.
Teens in the genital stage of development are able to
balance their most basic urges against the need to
conform to the demands of reality and social norms.

FREUD)
If the other stages have been completed successfully,
the individual should now be well-balanced, warm,
and caring.
Unlike the many of the earlier stages of
development, Freud believed that the ego and
superego were fully formed and functioning at this
point.

MORAL (LAWRENCE
KOHLBERG)
CONVENTIONAL STAGE
 Stage 4: Law-and-Order Orientation
In stage 4, the child blindly accepts rules and
convention because of their importance in
maintaining a functioning society.
Rules are seen as being the same for everyone,
and obeying rules by doing what one is
“supposed” to do is seen as valuable and
important.

MORAL (LAWRENCE
KOHLBERG)
CONVENTIONAL STAGE
 Stage 4: Law-and-Order Orientation
Moral reasoning in stage four is beyond the need for
individual approval exhibited in stage three. If one
person violates a law, perhaps everyone would—thus
there is an obligation and a duty to uphold laws and
rules.
 Most active members of society remain at stage four,
where morality is still predominantly dictated by an
outside force.

MIDDLE
& LATE
ADULTHO
OD
COGNITIVE
PSYCHOSOCIAL
PSYCHOSEXUAL
/EMOTIONAL
MORAL

Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:
At this stage, the adolescent or young adult begins to
think abstractly and reason about hypothetical
problems
Abstract thought emerges

Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:
Teens begin to think more about moral, philosophical,
ethical, social, and political issues that require
theoretical and abstract reasoning.
Begin to use deductive logic, or reasoning from a
general principle to specific information.

PSYCHOSOCIAL (ERIK
ERIKSON)
Generativity vs. Stagnation (40-60 years old)
 Generativity involves finding your life’s work and
contributing to the development of others through
activities such as volunteering, mentoring, and raising
children.
During this stage, middle-aged adults begin
contributing to the next generation, often through
childbirth and caring for others; they also engage in
meaningful and productive work which contributes
positively to society.

PSYCHOSOCIAL (ERIK
ERIKSON)
Generativity vs. Stagnation (40-60 years old)
Those who do not master this task may
experience stagnation and feel as though they are
not leaving a mark on the world in a meaningful
way; they may have little connection with others
and little interest in productivity and self-
improvement

PSYCHOSOCIAL (ERIK
ERIKSON)
Integrity vs. Despair (60s until death)
He said that people in late adulthood reflect on
their lives and feel either a sense of satisfaction or
a sense of failure.
 People who feel proud of their accomplishments
feel a sense of integrity, and they can look back on
their lives with few regrets.

PSYCHOSOCIAL (ERIK
ERIKSON)
Integrity vs. Despair (60s until death)
However, people who are not successful at this
stage may feel as if their life has been wasted.
They focus on what “would have,” “should have,”
and “could have” been. They face the end of their
lives with feelings of bitterness, depression, and
despair.

MORAL (LAWRENCE
KOHLBERG)
POSTCONVENTIONAL
Throughout the postconventional level, a
person’s sense of morality is defined in terms of
more abstract principles and values. People now
believe that some laws are unjust and should be
changed or eliminated.
This level is marked by a growing realization
that individuals are separate entities from society
and that individuals may disobey rules
inconsistent with their own principles.

MORAL (LAWRENCE
KOHLBERG)
POSTCONVENTIONAL
 Stage 5: Social-Contract Orientation
In stage 5, the world is viewed as holding different
opinions, rights, and values.
Such perspectives should be mutually respected as
unique to each person or community.
Laws are regarded as social contracts rather than
rigid edicts.


MORAL (LAWRENCE
KOHLBERG)
POSTCONVENTIONAL
 Stage 5: Social-Contract Orientation
Those that do not promote the general welfare
should be changed when necessary to meet the
greatest good for the greatest number of people.
This is achieved through majority decision and
inevitable compromise.
Democratic government is theoretically based on
stage five reasoning.

MORAL (LAWRENCE
KOHLBERG)
POSTCONVENTIONAL
 Stage 6: Universal-Ethical-Principal
Orientation
In stage 6, moral reasoning is based on abstract
reasoning using universal ethical principles.
Generally, the chosen principles are abstract
rather than concrete and focus on ideas such as
equality, dignity, or respect.

MORAL (LAWRENCE
KOHLBERG)
POSTCONVENTIONAL
 Stage 6: Universal-Ethical-Principal
Orientation
Laws are valid only insofar as they are grounded
in justice, and a commitment to justice carries
with it an obligation to disobey unjust laws.
People choose the ethical principles they want to
follow, and if they violate those principles, they
feel guilty.

MORAL (LAWRENCE
KOHLBERG)
POSTCONVENTIONAL
 Stage 6: Universal-Ethical-Principal Orientation
In this way, the individual acts because it is morally
right to do so (and not because he or she wants to
avoid punishment), it is in their best interest, it is
expected, it is legal, or it is previously agreed upon.
Although Kohlberg insisted that stage six exists, he
found it difficult to identify individuals who
consistently operated at that level.

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