The document explains learning theories that focus on the impact of the environment on behavior, emphasizing that humans are shaped by experiences rather than genetics. It discusses classical conditioning, illustrated through Pavlov's experiments with dogs and Watson's study with Little Albert, demonstrating how emotional responses can be conditioned. Additionally, the document outlines systematic desensitization as a therapeutic approach to phobias, supported by evidence from contemporary studies.

1. Learning Theories

2. Defining learning theories
Learning theorists examine the effects of the environment in the
shaping of behaviour and believe that, as scientific psychologists, we
should only study observable behaviour. The learning approach views
the mind as a ‘black box’ which we cannot access. Therefore, it only
studies overt behaviours and the stimuli which cause them. The most
important influence on learning and behaviour is our environment. We
are born as a tabula rasa (blank slate) and learning or experience makes
us the people we become. Learning theories focus on how nurture
shapes individuals in terms of behaviour through, for example, family,
peers, social and cultural situations. This is viewed as far more
important than the influence of genetics.

3. Classical conditioning
This type of learning was discovered by Ivan Pavlov in 1927.
While studying digestion in dogs, Pavlov noticed that the dogs salivated
(a reflex response) as soon as they saw a certain laboratory assistant (a
stimulus). The dogs had learned to associate this person with food and
were expecting their dinner! Pavlov conducted a series of famous
experiments where he repeatedly paired the ticking of a metronome (a
neutral stimulus) with food (an unconditioned stimulus). Eventually, the
dogs began to salivate as soon as they heard the metronome, which
had become a conditioned stimulus.

5. First, the dogs were presented with the food, and they salivated. The
food was the unconditioned stimulus and salivation was an
unconditioned (innate) response. (i.e., a stimulus-response
connection that required no learning).
In his experiment, Pavlov used a metronome as his neutral stimulus.
By itself, the metronome did not elicit a response from the dogs.
Next, Pavlov began the conditioning procedure, whereby the clicking
metronome was introduced just before he gave food to his dogs.
After a number of repeats (trials) of this procedure, he presented
the metronome on its own.
The sound of the clicking metronome on its own now caused an
increase in salivation. So the dog had learned an association
between the metronome and the food and a new behavior had
been learned.
Because this response was learned (or conditioned), it is called a
conditioned response (and also known as a Pavlovian response).
The neutral stimulus has become a conditioned stimulus.

6. Dogs learn to salivate when they hear the sound of a bell alone, after
hearing the bell rung at the same time as they have received food,
which does make them salivate. Thus, the salivation of the dog to the
sound of a bell is conditional upon the bell having been associated with
food. Pavlov found that the conditioning technique was most effective
when the conditional stimulus was presented very slightly before the
unconditional stimulus.

7. Other features of classical conditioning
Extinction
If a dog hears a buzzer on several trials when no food is presented, then
the association between buzzer and food weakens, so that eventually
the dog
will not salivate upon hearing the buzzer. This is called ‘extinction’
because the learned response appears to have been extinguished.
Extinction occurs when the UCS (the stimulus that naturally elicits the
response) appears a few times without the CS and then the association
is lost.

8. Other features of classical conditioning
Spontaneous recovery
However, when the dog is removed from the experiment for a few
hours and is then returned, it will salivate (show the CR) when it hears
the buzzer. This is called ‘spontaneous recovery’ and shows the
association between the buzzer and salivation has not been completely
extinguished.
Stimulus generalisation
Pavlov also found that the dog salivated to a buzzer, which had a similar
tone to the original one (the CS). The more similar the tone, the greater
the quantity of saliva produced by the dog.

9. Other features of classical conditioning
Discrimination
However, when buzzers are sounded which are more and more different
from the original tone (the CS), the dog will no longer salivate.
One-trial learning
Sometimes learning occurs when the unconditional and the conditional
stimulus are paired together only once. If you see a bad traffic accident (the
UCS), this might trigger a fear response (the UCR). Subsequently, you might
experience the fear response whenever you pass the scene of the accident
again. Because the scene has become associated with the accident (the UCS),
the scene has become the CS and the fear response has become the CR.

10. Classical conditioning
In 1920, John Watson and Rosalie Rayner classically conditioned an 11-
month-old baby known as Little Albert to be scared of a pet rat. They
paired the rat with the sound of a metal bar being struck with a
hammer. After seven pairings, the boy began to cry and tried to crawl
away from the rat as soon as he saw it. The researchers concluded that
fear can be conditioned, leading other researchers to explore the idea
that if phobias can be learned then it may be possible to unlearn them
in therapy.

12. Little Albert
Classic study: Watson and Rayner (1920)
Aims
The researchers aimed to demonstrate that classical conditioning could
be used to create a fear response in a child to an innocuous stimulus
(one that we would not normally expect to frighten children). By doing
this, Watson and Rayner hoped to show that human behaviour could
be accounted for by the process of classical conditioning.

13. Little Albert
Procedures
A laboratory experiment was carried out using a single participant: a
male infant aged nine months at the start of the study. Albert Little, or
‘Little Albert’ as he has become known, was judged to be particularly
emotionally stable. Albert was assessed on his responses to a number
of objects, such as a white rabbit, various masks and cotton wool
including a white rat, and he displayed no fear. In fact, he wanted to
play with the rat.

14. Little Albert
Procedures
In classical conditioning terms, the rat was a neutral stimulus because it
did not produce a fear response. Two months later, Little Albert was
again presented with the white rat. This time, when he reached for it,
the researchers struck a 4-ft (1.2 m) metal bar just behind his ear,
making a loud noise and frightening Albert. The sound of the bar being
banged was an unconditioned stimulus because it elicited a fear
response from the start. This was done seven times over the next seven
weeks and each time Little Albert burst into tears.

15. Little Albert
Procedures
By now, Little Albert only had to see the rat and he immediately
showed every sign of fear. He would cry (whether or not the hammer
was hit against the steel bar) and he would attempt to crawl away.
Albert’s responses to the rat plus the loud noise, to the rat alone and to
other white fluffy objects were noted.

16. Little Albert
Results
In the first trial when the metal bar was struck, Albert displayed some
distress, jumping violently and sticking his face into a mattress. In the
second trial, Albert was suspicious of the rat, and by the next session
he leaned away from the rat as soon as it was presented. When a rabbit
was placed next to him, Albert cried. Seven weeks later Albert cried in
response to a variety of white furry objects including a fur coat and a
Father Christmas beard. This response to objects that reminded Albert
of the conditioned stimulus is called ‘stimulus generalisation’.

17. Little Albert
Conclusions
This study clearly showed that it is possible to create an emotional
response in humans after only a few pairings of the stimuli. Little Albert
should have been deconditioned. After the study he was adopted and
his adoptive mother stopped any more experiments. Conditioned
responses tend to decline with time and can become extinct.
Little Albert eventually stopped crying and started playing with a rabbit
although his fear response could be spontaneously recovered by
repeating the original classical conditioning procedure a few times after
extinction.

18. Evaluation
Validity
The study has careful controls. For example, Watson hid behind a curtain when striking the
iron bar so that Albert would associate the noise with the rat, not with him or the bar or
the hammer.
He also tested Albert’s reactions before the conditioning, to make sure Albert didn’t have
any pre-existing fear of white, furry things.
The setting for the experiment lacks ecological validity because Albert was away from his
playroom and familiar nurses. This may have made him nervous. However, he didn’t seem
nervous and he was with his mother the whole time.

19. Evaluation
Reliability
This is a reliable study because it has standardised procedures and it
was carefully documented (right down to the numbers of days and the
time of day) and it was filmed. For ethical reasons, the study hasn’t
been replicated, but it could be replicated quite easily.

20. Evaluation
Application
The main application of this study has been for other Learning Psychologists, who
have built on Watson & Rayner’s research and investigated phobias in greater
depth. This has led to techniques like Flooding and Systematic Desensitisation.
Flooding involves exposing someone to the feared stimuli, letting them
experience panic, but then letting the panic reaction wear off. They learn from
this experience that the stimulus is not really harmful.
Systematic Desensitisation is a more careful approach, in which the patient gets
used to pictures of the feared thing, then photographs, then seeing it at a
distance, then close up, before handling it.

21. Evaluation
Ethics
The study is clearly unethical. Watson & Rayner deliberately caused
distress to an infant and continued even though he was upset. They
didn’t extinguish his fear reaction, possibly leaving Albert with long
term phobias. This is ignoring the principle of reducing harm.
Generalisability
The experiment was done on a single child - Albert. Usually a sample of
one would be considered very unrepresentative, because the baby
might be unusual in all sorts of ways.

23. Systematic Desensitisation
There are two behaviourist therapies used to treat phobias, systematic
desensitisation and flooding. Both therapies use the principles of classical
conditioning to replace a person’s phobia with a new response – relaxation.
Systematic desensitisation uses reverse counter-conditioning to unlearn the
maladaptive response to a situation or object, by eliciting another response
(relaxation).
There are three critical components to systematic desensitisation:
• Fear hierarchy
• Relaxation training
• Reciprocal inhibition

24. Systematic Desensitisation
Firstly, the client and therapist work together to develop a fear
hierarchy, where they rank the phobic situation from least to most
terrifying.

25. Systematic Desensitisation
An individual is taught relaxation techniques, for example breathing techniques, muscle
relaxation strategies, or mental imagery techniques.
The final component of systematic desensitisation involves exposing the patient to their
phobic situation, while relaxed. According to systematic desensitisation, two emotional states
cannot exist at the same time, a theory known as reciprocal inhibition.
Therefore, a person is unable to be anxious and relaxed at the same time and the relaxation
should overtake the fear. The patient starts at the bottom of the fear hierarchy and when the
patient can remain relaxed in the presence of the stimulus, they gradually progress onto the
next level. The patient gradually moves their way up the hierarchy until they are completely
relaxed in the most feared situation; at this point systematic desensitisation is successful.

26. Systematic Desensitisation
Evaluation
+ Supporting evidence = Gilroy et al. followed up 42 patients treated in three sessions of systematic
desensitisation for a spider phobia. Their progress was compared to a control group of 50 patients who
learnt only relaxation techniques. The extent of such phobias was measured using the Spider
Questionnaire and through observation. At 3 and 33 months, the systematic desensitisation group showed
a reduction in their symptoms as compared to the control group, and so has been used as evidence
supporting the effectiveness of flooding.
+ Systematic desensitisation is suitable for many patients, including those with learning difficulties =
Anxiety disorders are often accompanied with learning disabilities meaning that such patients may not be
able to make the full cognitive commitment associated with cognitive behavioural therapy, or have the
ability to evaluate their own thoughts. Therefore, systematic desensitization would be a particularly
suitable alternative for them.
+ More acceptable to patients, as shown by low refusal and attrition rates. = This idea also has economical
implications because it increases the likelihood that the patient will agree to start and continue with the
therapy, as opposed to getting ‘cold feet’ and wasting the time and effort of the therapist!

27. Systematic desensitization in the
treatment of fear of flying (1998)
Contemporary study - Capafons,J, Sosa, C and Avero, P
Aim: To test whether systematic desensitisation if effective as a
therapeutic technique for treating fear of flying (aerophobia).
Method: The study used 41 people with fear of flying. 20 were randomly
assigned to the treatment group and 21 were assigned to the waiting
control group. The two groups were balanced in terms of age, sex, self-
reported fear level and some psychophysiological measures. They were
recruited as a result of a media campaign advertising free intervention
programmes to treat fear of flying.
The treatment group consisted of 8 males and 12 females (mean age =
29.65); the waiting control group consisted of 9 males and 12 females
(mean age = 34.05)

28. Dependent variables
The following dependent variables were measured pre and post
treatment:
1. Answers to questions used to diagnose fear of flying.
a. How afraid of flying would you say you were?(answers: not at all, a little, very,
extremely).
b. Do you travel by plane when there is no alternative way to travel? (answers: not
afraid always fly;, but I get a little afraid; Yes, but I get quite afraid; Yes, but I’m
terrified; No, never).
c. Whilst flying, have you ever had any of the following symptoms or feelings?
This question contains a list of 21 disagreeable effects (sweating, tachycardia,
muscular tension, feelings of loss of control, etc.). (Answers No; sometimes;
Many times; Always)

29. Dependent variables
2. Two questionnaires measuring fear of flying:
a. Fear of Flying scale (scales measuring fear during flight, fear of flight
preliminaries, fear without involvement (e.g. seeing a plane on TV))
b. Scale measuring their expectations of danger and anxiety
( catastrophic thoughts and physiological anxiety).
3. Heart rate, palm temperature and muscular tension whilst
participants watched a video of a plane trip

30. Procedure
Participants were interviewed individually to complete the self –report
measures (measures 1 and 2 above). They later returned to the
university and were shown a video showing a traveller taking a plane
journey beginning with them packing their case and ending with them
touching down at their destination (flight simulation). Participants were
tested individually in the same room for all participants, with
temperature of room and distance from screen standardised for all
participants. They were given time to habituate to the environment and
then shown the video

31. Procedure
The participants were tested using the post-treatment measures after
approximately 8 weeks. During this time period the treatment group
were given 2 one hour sessions per week as part of a systematic
desensitization programme (they received a minimum of 12 and a
maximum of 15 sessions). The programme ws made up of three
phases: thefirst consisted of four sessions in relaxation and imagination
training, the second phase had three sessions focusing on the
elaboration of the phobic stimulus hierarchy (travelling by plane); the
third, with a minimum of five and maximum of eightsessions,
dealstwith the application of the systematic desensitization, together
with stopthinking.The waiting control group did not undergo treatment.

32. Procedure
Post-treatment measures were taken after the patient had taken two
flights (outward and return journeys of the same trip). The first flight
was to take place in the 7 daysfollowing the treatment.
Psychophysiological recording of heart rate, palm temperature and
muscular tension during take-off in the simulation, however, was
madebefore the flight, in order to balance the two groups in terms of
the presentation conditions for this test

33. Results
1. There were no significant differences between the control group
and treatment group prior to treatment.
2. Comparisons were made between before and after treatment
measures: There were no significant differences in scores between
the two times for the control group. There were several significant
reductions in fear in the treatment groups – some examples are
given:

35. Results
3. The treatment group scored significantly differently than the control
group after treatment on all but two measures (Palm temperature and
fear without involvement)

36. Conclusion
Overall the intervention program successfully reduced fear of flying in
the treatment group (although 10% (2 participants) did not show a
significant reduction). Overall therewas no corresponding reduction in
fear in the control group (only one participant showed a change) ,
showing that mere passage of time was not enough to reduce fear.

37. Evaluation
The study is high in reliability
Several aspects were standardised (e.g. same videos, procedure used to
treat phobia). Makes experiment the same for all participants =
consistent = able to be replicated.
The validity of the experiment was high (participants)
Waiting control group and treatment group were matched on several
measures so we can be sure that improvements in the treatment group
didn't result from participant variables. Stats test showed no sinificant
difference between the 2 groups prior to treatment (plus they were
randomly allocated) = treatment easy to replicate.

38. Evaluation
Internal validity is high
Potential extraneous variables like temp of room, distance from screen
etc. were controlled.
SD is considered as the more ethical method of treating phobias
(e.g. compared to flooding), as the participant has more control over
the process and moves through the hierarchy at their own pace.

39. Evaluation
Generalisability to to other samples may be low
Participants were recruited from a media campaign (volunteer sample) so may not
be representative of all people with a fear of flying.
Ecological validity is low
The experiment also took place in a room at a university, not a natural environment
for p's. Also, exposure to the phobic object consisted of a video of a plane journey,
meaning that it lacks validity compared to the real experience of flying (task
validity?)
SD many not be an effective treatment for everyone.
Small number of the control group (2) didnt show a reduction of fear, so perhaps an
alternative treatment may be more effective for some people (e.g. flooding)

40. Operant conditioning vs. Classical
conditioning
In classical conditioning, the person doing the teaching does something
which triggers some reflex in the animal. In operant conditioning, the
animal must do something first, for which it will then be rewarded. To
obtain another reward it will have to do the same thing again. Classical
conditioning uses involuntary reflexes, while operant conditioning uses
voluntary reflexes.

41. The key feature of operant conditioning is that the subject behaves in a certain
way, which is followed by a ‘reward’. The subject may associate its behaviour
with the reward, and so learn to repeat it. The behaviour the animal learns is
called an ‘operation’ or an operant.
If your dog fetches the stick you have thrown, you reward the dog in some way.
Its operant behaviour (fetching the stick) comes first and your behaviour (giving
a reward) is a response to it. It may also be a reinforcer for the animal. In
classical conditioning the experimenter’s stimulus comes before the animal’s
response (Pavlov’s bell rang before the dog salivated). Also, in classical
conditioning, only behaviour which is mainly automatic (like reflexes) is
conditioned. In operant conditioning, just about any behaviour can be
conditioned.

42. Operant conditioning
Operant conditioning was discovered by Burrhus Frederic Skinner (1938), an
American psychologist who mainly worked with rats and pigeons. He observed that
when organisms (including humans) perform a certain behaviour, it is what happens
immediately afterwards that determines whether that behaviour becomes more or
less likely to occur again in the future.
If the behaviour is rewarded/positively reinforced, it will become more likely, and if it
is punished it will become less likely. He also discovered that negative reinforcement
(the removal of an aversive or unpleasant stimulus) can also act as a reward, making
behaviour more likely. The term 'primary reinforcer' is used for rewards that meet a
basic human need (e.g. food), whereas a secondary reinforcer is something that does
not meet a need in itself but is associated with something that does - for example,
money does not meet a basic need but it can be exchanged for things that do.

43. Skinner Box
To study operant conditioning in as scientific a way as possible, Skinner created an
experimental tool called the Skinner box that allowed complete control of the organism’s
environment, the behaviours that were available to it and the reinforcement or punishment it
would receive. Skinner investigated how the type of reinforcement or punishment given and
the rate of reinforcement or punishment affected the rate of learning.
In a typical experiment, a rat or pigeon would be put into the Skinner box in which
temperature, light and noise could be kept constant. On one wall of the box, there would be a
lever and a hopper that could deliver a food pellet to the animal when the lever was pressed.
Initially, the rat is likely to wander around the box aimlessly until it accidentally presses the
lever and receives a food pellet. Skinner would leave the animal in the box and measure how
frequently the animal pressed the lever over time. The frequency should indicate the strength
of the conditioning of the behaviour. This would then be repeated with other animals.

44. Skinner Box

45. Operant Conditioning
Reinforcement
A consequence that makes a behaviour more likely to occur
Punishment
A consequence that makes a behaviour less likely to occur
It is also important to be aware of the difference between positive and negative
consequences. Positive consequences involve giving something and negative involve
taking something away.

48. Schedules of reinforcement
Skinner experimented with reinforcers and stopped reinforcing the
animals every time they gave correct responses. Instead they were
given reinforcement every other time, or every third time. He
reinforced some every few minutes rather than every few times they
have a correct response. Skinner taught a pigeon to peck a coloured
disk when a particular light came on, when it only received
reinforcement once in a thousand pecks. The animal seems to know
that it will receive reinforcement sometimes and continues to give the
correct response until the reinforcer occurs. There are five possible
ways of reinforcing. They are called ‘schedules of reinforcement’.

49. Continuous Reinforcement
• In continuous schedules, reinforcement is provided every single time after the desired
behavior.
• Due to the behavior being reinforced every time, the association is easy to make, and learning
occurs quickly. However, this also means that extinction occurs quickly after reinforcement is
no longer provided.
For Example
• Candy machines are examples of continuous reinforcement because every time we put money
in (behavior), we receive candy in return (positive reinforcement).
• However, if a candy machine were to fail to provide candy twice in a row, we would likely stop
trying to put money in (Myers, 2011).
• We have come to expect our behavior to be reinforced every time it is performed and quickly
grow discouraged if it is not.

50. Partial (Intermittent) Reinforcement
Schedules
• Partial (Intermittent) Reinforcement Schedules
• Unlike continuous schedules, partial schedules only reinforce the desired behavior
occasionally rather than all the time. This leads to slower learning since it is initially more
difficult to make the association between behavior and reinforcement.
• However, partial schedules also produce behavior that is more resistant to extinction.
Organisms are tempted to persist in their behavior in hopes that they will eventually be
rewarded.
• For instance, slot machines at casinos operate on partial schedules. They provide money
(positive reinforcement) after an unpredictable number of plays (behavior). Hence, slot
players are likely to continuously play slots in the hopes that they will gain money in the
next round (Myers, 2011).
• Four kinds of partial reinforcement schedules: fixed-ratio, fixed-interval, variable-ratio and
variable-interval.

51. Fixed refers to the number of responses between reinforcements, or
the amount of time between reinforcements, which is set and
unchanging.
Variable refers to the number of responses or amount of time between
reinforcements, which varies or changes.
Interval means the schedule is based on the time between
reinforcements, and ratio means the schedule is based on the number
of responses between reinforcements.

53. Fixed-ratio
• In operant conditioning, a fixed-ratio schedule reinforces behavior after a
specified number of correct responses.
• This kind of schedule results in high, steady rates of response. Organisms are
persistent in responding because of the hope that the next response might be
one needed to receive reinforcement. This schedule is utilized in lottery games.
For Example
• An example of a fixed-ratio schedule would be a dressmaker is being paid $500
after every 10 dresses that they make. After sending off a shipment of 10
dresses, they are reinforced with $500. They are likely to take a short break
immediately after this reinforcement before they begin producing dresses again.

54. Variable-ratio
• A variable ratio schedule is a schedule of reinforcement where a behavior is reinforced after a random
number of responses.
• This kind of schedule results in high, steady rates of response. Organisms are persistent in responding
because of the hope that the next response might be one needed to receive reinforcement. This schedule is
utilized in lottery games.
• For Example
• An example of a fixed-ratio schedule would be a child being given candy for every 3-10 pages of a book they
read. For example, they are given candy after reading 5 pages, then 3 pages, then 7 pages, then 8 pages, etc.
• The unpredictable reinforcement motivates them to keep reading, even if they are not immediately
reinforced after reading one page.
• This is among the longest-lasting schedule of reinforcement… why?
• Extinction depends on the learner losing hope… depending on the reinforcer, that doesn’t happen easily.

55. Fixed-interval
• In operant conditioning, a fixed interval schedule is when reinforcement is given to a desired response after
specific (predictable) amount of time has passed.
• Such a schedule results in a tendency for organisms to increase the frequency of responses closer to the
anticipated time of reinforcement. However, immediately after being reinforced, the frequency of responses
decreases.
• The fluctuation in response rates means that a fixed-interval schedule will produce a scalloped pattern
rather than steady rates of responding.
• For Example
• An example of a fixed-interval schedule would be a teacher giving students a weekly quiz every Monday.
Over the weekend, there is suddenly a flurry of studying for the quiz. On Monday, the students take the quiz
and are reinforced for studying (positive reinforcement: receive a good grade; negative reinforcement: do
not fail the quiz). For the next few days, they are likely to relax after finishing the stressful experience until
the next quiz date draws too near for them to ignore.

56. Variable-interval
• Variable Interval Schedule
• In operant conditioning, a variable interval schedule is when the reinforcement is
provided after a random (unpredictable) amount of time has passes and following a
specific behavior being performed.
• This schedule produces a low, steady response rate since organisms are unaware of the
next time they will receive reinforcers.
For Example
• A pigeon in Skinner’s box has to peck a bar to receive a food pellet. It is given a food
pellet after varying time intervals ranging from 2-5 minutes.
• It is given a pellet after 3 minutes, then 5 minutes, then 2 minutes, etc. It will respond
steadily since it does not know when its behavior will be reinforced.

57. Response Rates Of Different Reinforcement Schedules
Ratio schedules – those linked to
a number of responses –
produce higher response rates
compared to interval schedules.
Variable schedules produce more
consistent behavior than fixed
schedules; the unpredictability of
reinforcement results in more
consistent responses than
predictable reinforcement
(Myers, 2011).

58. Evaluation
+ Scientific Rigour =
In an attempt to objectively and systematically collect reliable data, the behaviourist approach makes
use of highly scientific research methods, particularly the laboratory experiment. Strictly-controlled
conditions reduce and control for the effects of confounding and extraneous variables, increasing the
reliability and internal validity of the findings (as these are more likely to be replicated when research
is conducted under the same conditions). By focusing on behaviour which is observable and can be
measured, the behaviourist approach increases the scientific credibility of psychology.
+ Real-Life Applications =
An increased understanding of classical and operant conditioning has led to the development of
treatments and therapies for serious mental disorders. For example, token economies have been
used as a way of dealing with offending behaviour: inmates who carry out socially-desirable
behaviour (such as tidying their cell and avoiding conflicts) receive tokens (secondary reinforcers)
which can be traded for privileges (primary reinforcers), such as extra TV-time. Therefore,
behaviourist principles have had positive impacts on the lives of many.

59. Evaluation
— Environmental Determinism =
The behaviourist approach sees all behaviour as the product of past reinforcement contingencies, leaving no room for
free will or conscious choices. This hard deterministic stance may be a more appropriate explanation for animal
behaviour, whereas explanations of human behaviour should also account for emotions, motivations and reasoning
skills (e.g. as social learning theory does). Hence, the behaviourist approach may be a limited explanation for human
behaviour.
— Cost-benefit analyses with the use of animals in experimental research =
Skinner’s box caused considerable physical harm to the rats, breaching the BPS ethical guideline of protection from
harm. Watson and Rayner’s classical conditioning experiments on Little Albert failed to protect him from psychological
harm, as well as not offering him the opportunity to withdraw. Therefore, much behaviourist research, at least by
modern standards, would be viewed as unethical. However, a cost-benefit analysis may show that the benefit of
increased understanding of the different types of learning (classical and operant conditioning) outweigh the ethical
costs.

60. Social Learning Theory

61. Key features of Social Learning Theory are:
Human learning is explained through observational learning or
modelling, which involves identification, imitation and reinforcement.
Mediating cognitive factors play an important role in observational
learning. These include attention, retention, reproduction and
motivation.
In vicarious reinforcement, reproduction of behaviour can be motivated
when learners observe role models receiving reinforcement.
The majority of Social Learning Theory research involves laboratory
experiments in which quantifiable behaviour is observed.

62. Social learning theory
Social learning theory (SLT) suggests that learning occurs both directly, through classical and
operant conditioning, and indirectly, through vicarious reinforcement.
Assumes that learning occurs through the following stages:
An observer identifies themselves with a desirable role model. This role model displays or models a
specific behaviour, which is imitated by the observer. The likelihood that the observed behaviour
will be imitated is increased if the role model is seen to be ‘vicariously reinforced’ or rewarded.
Therefore, the consequences of the observed behaviour are more important than observing the
behaviour alone.
Role Model = A person with whom the observer identifies with. The role model is usually attractive,
has high social status, is of a similar age and the same gender to the observer. This model can exert
influence indirectly by not being physically present in the environment but, for example, seen in the
media.

63. Modelling
A form of learning where individuals learn a particular behaviour
through observing another individual performing that behaviour.The
individual performing the role is known as a model.(live
models/symbolic model).Models provide examples of behaviour that
can be observed then reproduced through imitation.

64. Imitation
The action of using someone or something as a model and copying
their behaviour. They key determinants of whether a behaviour is
imitated are:
-the characteristics of the model
-the observer’s perceived ability to perform that behaviour
-the observed consequences of the behaviour

65. Identification
Is a form of influence where an individual adopts an attitude/behaviour
in order to be associated with a particular person/group(models).It
refers to the extent to which the individual relates to the model and
feels similar to the model.The more similar they see themselves to the
model,they would expect to experience the same outcomes in
situations.

66. Vicarious reinforcement
Learning that is not a result of direct reinforcement of behaviour,but
through observing someone else being reinforced for that
behaviour.Reinforcement which is not directly experienced but occurs
through observing someone else being reinforced for a behaviour.
Individuals can observe the consequences experienced by a model and
then make judgements as to the likelihood of experiencing that
outcome themselves.

67. Modelling occurs without reinforcement. However, reinforcement
increases the likelihood of the learned behaviour actually being shown
(or imitated) by the learner. Vicarious reinforcement can be either
positive or negative and has the same effects as in operant
conditioning.
Bandura claims that there are four cognitive processes in observational
learning, i.e. attention, retention, reproduction and motivation (ARRM).

68. Mediational Processes
The cognitive element of SLT can be summed up via the mediational processes
involved, the constituent parts being Attention-Retention-Reproduction-
Motivation (ARRM):
Attention = noticing the behaviour, being aware of it
Retention = remembering the behaviour and the mechanisms involved in it
Reproduction = imitating the behaviour, reproducing key features of it
Motivation = the desire to repeat the behaviour, the need to be rewarded for the
behaviour
Attention and retention refer to the learning of the behaviour
Reproduction and motivation refer to the performance/enacting of that behaviour

71. Bobo Doll Study (Bandura, 1961)
Research which supports SLT is Bandura's (1961) controversial 'Bobo doll' study
• Children from Stanford University nursery aged 3-6 years old were used as participants
• A controlled observation was used to observe the children's behaviour
• The children had observed either a male or a female aggressive or non-aggressive model
• The aggressive-model condition involved an adult behaving aggressively towards a large, inflatable
clown toy (the Bobo doll)
• The aggressive models used predetermined standardised aggressive behaviours e.g. hitting Bobo
with a toy hammer
• Children who observed an aggressive model imitated the aggression they saw (plus adding
additional 'freestyle' aggressive behaviours), particularly when they had observed a same-sex model
• Children who had not observed an aggressive model were not aggressive towards Bobo
• Gergely et al. (2002) found that even very young infants have the abiltity to observe a model's
behaviour and make inferences about that behaviour

72. Social Learning Theory Evaluation
— Bandura’s Bobo Doll experiment ignores the biological differences between boys and girls = Social learning
theory suggests that we learn from experience, and so ignores other biological or psychological factors, thus
adopting environmental determinism. However, Bandura ignored the finding that “boys, in relation to girls,
exhibited significantly more imitative aggression, more 2 aggressive gun play, and more nonimitative aggressive
behaviour”. This may be explained due to boys having higher levels of the hormone testosterone, which has been
linked to increased aggressiveness. Therefore, this suggests that SLT may not be a complete explanation for gender
differences in behaviour, due to not accounting for the biological and hormonal differences between the sexes.
— Demand characteristics in Bandura’s Bobo Doll experiment = Bandura’s study may lack internal validity, due to
not entirely investigating the effect of aggressive role models because the Bobo doll is specifically designed to be
hit. The study may also lack mundane realism because it may not represent or measure how children would be
aggressive in day-to-day situations, perhaps towards objects or people that are not meant to be struck. Therefore,
participants may have deliberately acted more aggressively towards the doll in order to please the experimenter
(the ‘Please-U effect’). This reduces the generalisability of the findings.
+ Acknowledges the role of human cognition = Human cognitive and decision-making processes may be considered
as more complex than that of animals. SLT has the advantage, over behaviourism, that it recognises the role of
mediational processes as the conscious and cognitive insight that humans have into their behaviour. Therefore, SLT
may be a better explanation of human behaviour, compared to behaviourism.

73. Freud’s
Psychosexual
Stages
73

74. Personality Theory According to
Freud
• Personality is defined as follows:
• Our characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting.
Freud’s psychoanalytic perspective proposed that childhood sexuality and unconscious
motivations influence personality.
Freud called his theory and associated techniques psychoanalysis.
Unconscious-large below the surface area which contains thoughts, wishes, feelings and
memories, of which we are unaware.
Free association-the patient is asked to relax and say whatever comes to mind, no matter how
embarrassing or trivial.

75. Personality Structure according to Freud
ID-a reservoir of unconscious psychic energy constantly striving to satisfy basic drives to survive,
reproduce, and aggress.
The id operates on the pleasure principle: If not constrained but reality, it seeks immediate
gratification.
Ego-the largely conscious, “executive” part of personality that, according to Freud, mediates the
demands of the id, superego, and reality.
The ego operates on the reality principle, satisfying the id’s desires in ways that will
realistically bring pleasure rather than pain.
Superego-represents internalized ideals and provides standards for judgment (the conscious) and for
future aspirations.

76. Id Ego and Superego
76

77. Another way of looking
77

78. The Interaction of the Id, Ego, and Superego
When talking about the id, the ego, and the superego, it is important to
remember that these are not three separate entities with clearly
defined boundaries. These aspects are dynamic and always interacting
to influence an individual's overall personality and behavior.
With many competing forces, it is easy to see how conflict might arise
between the id, ego, and superego. "A central theme of Freud’s work is
that id, ego, and superego are always in conflict and the specific nature
of these discrepancies determines one’s thoughts, feelings, and
behaviors (or personality)," says Sauer-Zavala.

79. Ego Defence Mechanisms
The ego balances potential conflict between the ID and superego, and tries to reduce
anxiety. In areas of significant conflict, the ego can redirect psychic energy using
'defense mechanisms'. Three key mechanisms Freud proposed are:
Repression – burying an unpleasant thought or desire in the unconscious (e.g.
traumatic childhood experiences may be repressed and so forgotten).
Displacement – emotions are directed away from their source or target, towards other
things (e.g. wringing a dishcloth in anger, which would have otherwise been directed
at the cat scratching the furniture).
Denial – a threatening thought is ignored or treated as if it were not true (e.g. a wife
might find evidence that her husband is cheating on her, but explain it away using
other reasons).

81. Psychosexual Theory
Sigmund Freud proposed that personality development in childhood takes place
during five psychosexual stages, which are the oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital
stages.
During each stage, sexual energy (libido) is expressed in different ways and through
different body parts.
These are called psychosexual stages because each stage represents the fixation of
libido (roughly translated as sexual drives or instincts) on a different area of the body.
As a person grows physically certain areas of their body become important as
sources of potential frustration (erogenous zones), pleasure or both.

82. Psychoanalytic theory suggested that personality is mostly established by the age of five.
Early experiences play a large role in personality development and continue to influence
behavior later in life.
Each stage of development is marked by conflicts that can help build growth or stifle
development, depending upon how they are resolved. If these psychosexual stages are
completed successfully, a healthy personality is the result.
If certain issues are not resolved at the appropriate stage, fixations can occur. A fixation is a
persistent focus on an earlier psychosexual stage. Until this conflict is resolved, the individual
will remain "stuck" in this stage. A person who is fixated at the oral stage, for example, may
be over-dependent on others and may seek oral stimulation through smoking, drinking, or
eating.

84. The Oral Stage
Age Range: Birth to 1 Year
Erogenous Zone: Mouth
During the oral stage, the infant's primary source of interaction occurs through the mouth, so the
rooting and sucking reflex is especially important. The mouth is vital for eating, and the infant
derives pleasure from oral stimulation through gratifying activities such as tasting and sucking.
Because the infant is entirely dependent upon caretakers (who are responsible for feeding the
child), the child also develops a sense of trust and comfort through this oral stimulation.
The primary conflict at this stage is the weaning process--the child must become less dependent
upon caretakers. If fixation occurs at this stage, Freud believed the individual would have issues
with dependency or aggression. Oral fixation can result in problems with drinking, eating,
smoking, or nail-biting.

85. The Anal Stage
Age Range: 1 to 3 years
Erogenous Zone: Bowel and Bladder Control
During the anal stage, Freud believed that the primary focus of the libido was on
controlling bladder and bowel movements. The major conflict at this stage is
toilet training—the child has to learn to control their bodily needs. Developing
this control leads to a sense of accomplishment and independence.
According to Freud, success at this stage is dependent upon the way in which
parents ​
approach toilet training. Parents who utilize praise and rewards for using
the toilet at the appropriate time encourage positive outcomes and help
children feel capable and productive.

86. The Anal Stage
Freud believed that positive experiences during the toilet training stage serve as the basis for
people to become competent, productive, and creative adults.
However, not all parents provide the support and encouragement that children need during
this stage. Some parents punish, ridicule, or shame a child for accidents.
According to Freud, inappropriate parental responses can result in negative outcomes. If
parents take an approach that is too lenient, Freud suggested that an anal-expulsive personality
could develop in which the individual has a messy, wasteful, or destructive personality.
If parents are too strict or begin toilet training too early, Freud believed that an anal-retentive
personality develops in which the individual is stringent, orderly, rigid, and obsessive.

87. The Phallic Stage
Erogenous Zone: Genitals
Freud suggested that during the phallic stage, the primary focus of the libido is on the genitals.
At this age, children also begin to discover the differences between males and females.​
Freud also believed that boys begin to view their fathers as a rival for the mother’s affection.
The Oedipus complex describes these feelings of wanting to possess the mother and the
desire to replace the father. However, the child also fears that he will be punished by the
father for these feelings, a fear Freud termed castration anxiety.
The term Electra complex has been used to describe a similar set of feelings experienced by
young girls. Freud, however, believed that girls instead experience penis envy (female children
realize they lack a penis, they feel “castrated” in comparison to males).

88. The Phallic Stage
Eventually, the child begins to identify with the same-sex parent as a
means of vicariously possessing the other parent. For girls, however,
Freud believed that penis envy was never fully resolved and that all
women remain somewhat fixated on this stage.
Psychologists such as Karen Horney disputed this theory, calling it both
inaccurate and demeaning to women. Instead, Horney proposed that
men experience feelings of inferiority because they cannot give birth to
children, a concept she referred to as womb envy.

89. The Latent Period
Erogenous Zone: Sexual Feelings Are Inactive
During this stage, the superego continues to develop while the id's energies are suppressed. Children develop
social skills, values, and relationships with peers and adults outside of the family.
The development of the ego and superego contributes to this period of calm. The stage begins around the time
that children enter school and become more concerned with peer relationships, hobbies, and other interests.
The latent period is a time of exploration in which the sexual energy is repressed or dormant. This energy is still
present, but it is sublimated into other areas such as intellectual pursuits and social interactions. This stage is
important in the development of social and communication skills and self-confidence.
As with the other psychosexual stages, Freud believed that it was possible for children to become fixated or
"stuck" in this phase. Fixation at this stage can result in immaturity and an inability to form fulfilling
relationships as an adult

90. The Genital Stage
Age Range: Puberty to Death
Erogenous Zone: Maturing Sexual Interests
The onset of puberty causes the libido to become active once again.
During the final stage of psychosexual development, the individual
develops a strong sexual interest in the opposite sex. This stage begins
during puberty but last throughout the rest of a person's life.
Where in earlier stages the focus was solely on individual needs, interest
in the welfare of others grows during this stage. The goal of this stage is
to establish a balance between the various life areas.

91. The Genital Stage
If the other stages have been completed successfully, the individual should
now be well-balanced, warm, and caring.
Unlike many of the earlier stages of development, Freud believed that the ego
and superego were fully formed and functioning at this point. Younger
children are ruled by the id, which demands immediate satisfaction of the
most basic needs and wants.
Teens in the genital stage of development are able to balance their most basic
urges against the need to conform to the demands of reality and social norms.

92. Evaluation
Criticisms of the Psychosexual Stages of Development
The theory is focused almost entirely on male development with little mention of
female psychosexual development.
His theories are difficult to test scientifically. Concepts such as the libido are impossible
to measure, and therefore cannot be tested. The research that has been conducted
tends to discredit Freud's theory.
Future predictions are too vague. How can we know that a current behavior was caused
specifically by a childhood experience? The length of time between the cause and the
effect is too long to assume that there is a relationship between the two variables.
Freud's theory is based on case studies and not empirical research. Also, Freud based his
theory on the recollections of his adult patients, not on actual observation and study of
children.