This document summarizes a study that compares Belgian and Dutch e-commerce websites to investigate if cultural differences between the two countries are reflected online. The study analyzed 40 websites from each country across various sectors. Results found that Belgian websites reflected higher levels of power distance and masculinity compared to Dutch websites, as indicated by providing more company hierarchy information, depicting CEOs more frequently, and using superlatives and explicit comparisons more often. Contrary to expectations, Belgian websites did not reflect higher uncertainty avoidance. No significant differences were found in levels of collectivism reflected on the websites.

1. Cultural differences reflected on the internet:
a comparison between Belgian and Dutch e-commerce websites
Malaika Brengman
Malaika Brengman
Department of Business Economics and Strategic Management
Faculty of Economic, Social and Political Sciences, and Solvay Business School
Vrije Universiteit Brussel
Pleinlaan 2
1050 Brussel
Tel: +32 (0)2 629 20 65
Fax: +32 (0)2 629 20 60
E-mail: malaika.brengman@vub.ac.be

2. Cultural differences reflected on the internet:
a comparison between Belgian and Dutch e-commerce websites
Abstract
The current research investigates whether cultural differences between Belgium and the
Netherlands are actually reflected in their respective commercial websites. With this purpose
e-commerce websites from both countries have been subjected to an elaborate content
analysis. Results indicate that Belgian transaction-oriented websites reflect a higher degree of
‘Power Distance’ (i.e. appreciation for social inequality and hierarchy) in comparison to their
Dutch counterparts. This is manifested in the exceeding amount of information they provide
with regard to company hierarchy, the more frequent depiction of CEO’s and the more
frequent use of proper titles. In comparison with Dutch websites, Belgian websites also appear
to be more ‘Masculine’ (i.e. appreciation of more masculine values, such as the need for
achievement and competition). This is reflected in the fact that they use superlatives more
regularly, distinguish more often between the sexes and use explicit comparisons more often.
Contrary to expectations, Belgian web shops do not seem to reflect a higher degree of
‘Uncertainty Avoidance’ (i.e. the degree to which individuals tend to avoid risks) in
comparison with their Dutch counterparts. Finally, as expected, no difference could be
revealed in the degree of ‘Collectivism’ (i.e. importance attached to group ties) reflected in
Belgian and Dutch websites.
Keywords
Internet communications, cultural differences, e-commerce, website design & localization

3. 1 – Introduction
The growth of the internet as an international communication medium raises the question
whether to standardize or to adapt international marketing communications via the World
Wide Web. On the one hand, the internet is a mass-communication medium with worldwide
accessibility, which may speak in favor of standardization. On the other hand, it is a very
interactive medium, providing the opportunity to gather information on internet user
segments, and making it practically possible to implement a high degree of audience
adaptation.
The current study investigates whether cultural differences between Belgium and the
Netherlands are actually reflected in their respective commercial websites.
2 – Culture and cultural sensitivity of websites
According to a socio-scientific approach, culture can be conceived as a mental predisposition
in attitudes and behaviour, acquired and preserved by education and social relations. It is a
collective phenomenon, with at its core a number of positive and negative values, which can,
according to research by Hofstede (1980, 2001) and Trompenaers (1994), be summarized in 5
to 7 cultural dimensions.
Having studied the convergence and divergence of consumer behaviour across countries for a
long time, Marieke de Mooij (1998, 2000, 2004) argues that cultural differences are becoming
even more pronounced with growing welfare and emphasizes that they should be taken into
account to ensure the efficiency of global marketing strategies.
Some recent academic research investigated more specifically the cultural sensitivity of
websites and the need for localization or standardization.

4. On the one hand, some researchers are convinced that cultural factors have no influence on
website perceptions and recommend standardization (Hermans and Shanahan, 2002;
Sackmary and Scalia, 1999; Yang and Kang, 2002). Based on content analysis of non-
commercial websites, De Troyer et al. (2006) even assume that the internet has promoted “the
emergence of a cosmopolitan online culture, a hybrid culture overriding traditional cultural
differences”.
On the other hand, do studies by Fink and Laupase (2000), Luna et al. (2002), Fock (2000),
Simon (2001), Kanso and Nelson (2002), Singh and Baack (2004) and Singh et al. (2004)
demonstrate that the internet is not a culturally neutral medium. They confirm that there are
intercultural differences in perception of website content and stress that values, image, themes
and symbols should be adapted to local cultures.
While the internet fosters globalization, the necessity of localized websites seems to have
become more and more obvious (Plumley, 2000; Boston Consulting Group, 2000; Fletcher et
al., 2004). According to Forrester Research, the more a website is transaction-oriented, the
more it should be localized (Torris, 1998). Therefore, especially ‘e-retailers’, eager to enter
foreign markets, should focus on the local customers. A locally adapted language, content and
interface design may be needed to attract the attention of the local user and to win his
confidence. According to Forrester Research localized websites can draw more attention and
lead to more ‘stickyness’ and sales. Therefore they recommend profoundly localized websites
(Fletcher et al., 2004).

5. 3 – Cultural differences between Belgium and the Netherlands
Local (Dutch and Belgian) companies assume that Belgium and the Netherlands (as
neighbours with a common language) are the ideal countries to make their first steps towards
international expansion. Often however in this case cultural differences tend to be ignored
(Kotler et al., 2006). In their studies investigating cross-national cultural differences, Hofstede
(1980, 2001) and Trompenaers (1994) have, nevertheless, discovered large differences in
value-orientations between Belgium and the Netherlands (see table 1).
“In fact, no two countries (…) with a common border and a common language are so
culturally apart (…) as (Dutch) Belgium and the Netherlands”
Geert Hofstede, 1980, p228
The
Netherlands Belgium France
Flanders Wallonia
Power Distance
Appreciation of social inequality and hierarchy 38 65 61 67 68
Masculinity
The extent to which masculine values as
assertiveness, competition, urge for achievement
and success prevail in comparison to more 14 54 43 60 43
feminine values such as life quality, nurturing,
helpfulness and solidarity
Uncertainty Avoidance
The degree to which individuals tend to avoid
ambiguous situations and to take risks when 53 94 97 93 86
making decisions
Individualism
The degree to which ties between members of a
community are rather loose (i.e. individualistic) 80 75 78 72 71
or tight (i.e. collectivistic)
Table 1: Scores for The Netherlands, Belgium (Flanders & Wallonia) and France
with respect to Hofstede’s four cultural dimensions (Hofstede, 1980, 2001)

6. Belgium scores, for instance, much higher than the Netherlands on the dimension ‘Power
Distance’, concerning the relative appreciation of social inequality and hierarchy (B=65
versus Nl=38). Belgium also appears to score considerably higher on the dimension
‘Masculinity’, which reflects the urge for achievement, competition and assertive and
aggressive behaviour, in comparison with the appreciation for modest and obliging behaviour
and solidarity (B=54 versus Nl=14). Finally, Belgium also seems to score significantly higher
on the dimension ‘Uncertainty Avoidance’, which is reflected in a higher number of rules,
formal procedures and rituals (B=94 versus Nl=53).
As a matter of fact, Hofstede (1980, p228) even claims that there are no two neighbouring
countries with the same language that are so culturally different as (Dutch) Belgium and the
Netherlands. With regard to the Belgian sub-regions of (Dutch-speaking) Flanders and
(French-speaking) Wallonia, Hofstede (1980) argues that there are almost no cultural
differences between them and that their cultures resemble in fact the French culture.
Thus, although Belgium and the Netherlands share the same language, they obviously don’t
share the same culture. The remarkable cultural differences between Flanders and the
Netherlands have been confirmed in more recent studies (Claes and Gerritsen, 2006; see table
2 for an overview).
Findings with regard to the cultural differences between Belgium and the Netherlands are also
supported by several other researchers (Schwartz and Ross, 1995; Inglehart, 1997;
Matthyssens and Wursten, 2003).

7. Hofstede Hofstede Orriëns Claes & Gerritsen Gerritsen
(1980) (2001) (1998) (2004) (2001)
IBM Managers Banking-sector Students ICT-sector
’60 -‘70 1990 1998 1998 2001
Power Distance
+23 +16 +25 +18 +20
Masculinity
+29 +21 +13 +18 +12
Uncertainty Avoidance
+44 +53 +47 +47 +43
Individualism
-2 -4 -26 -4 no data
Table 2: Differences between Flanders and the Netherlands with respect to Hofstede’s
four cultural dimensions as reported in several more recent studies
(based on Gerritsen, 2001 and Claes & Gerritsen, 2004).
These cultural dimensions seem, amongst others, to have an impact on internet adoption and
use. Park (2000), for instance, found strong support for the hypothesis that internet-use is
higher in ‘feminine’ cultures than in ‘masculine’ cultures. Comparing the internet penetration
between Belgium and the Netherlands, our findings reveal that indeed already 65,9% of the
‘more Feminine’ Dutch population uses the internet, in comparison with only 48,7% of the
‘more Masculine’ Belgian population, which has an internet penetration rate which lies close
to the European average of 49,8% (Internet World Stats, 2006).

8. 4 – Research
4.1 – Research question and hypotheses
Are cultural differences in mentality between Belgium and the Netherlands
reflected in their respective commercial websites?
The current study investigates whether the cultural differences in mentality between Belgium
and the Netherlands are being reflected in their respective commercial websites or not. The
aim is thus to reveal whether the websites of online retailers of these respective neighbouring
countries, also reflect the specific cultural values characteristic of these countries.
Based on the review of the literature, we formulate more specifically the following
hypotheses:
 H1 – We propose that Belgian commercial websites will reflect a higher level of
‘Power Distance’ in comparison to their Dutch counterparts.
 H2 – We assume that Belgian online retailers in comparison to Dutch ones will
display a higher level of ‘Masculinity’.
 H3 – We expect Belgian commercial websites to reflect a higher level of ‘Uncertainty
Avoidance’ in comparison to their Dutch counterparts.
 H4 – We do not expect a significant difference in the level of ‘Collectivism’ reflected
in Dutch or Belgian transaction-oriented websites, because both countries have
a rather ‘individualistic’ orientation, in contrast to Eastern countries, for
example, where more importance is attached to strong group and family ties.

9. 4.2 – Method
To verify these hypotheses, an elaborate content analysis of commercial websites from both
countries was performed (cf. Singh and Baack, 2004). For this purpose, coding schemes
provided by Singh and Matuso (2002) have been used. These schemes make it possible to
register in a quantitative way to what degree Hofstede’s cultural dimensions are being
displayed in the website.
To assess, for example, the level of ‘Masculinity’ reflected in the website, we verified
whether the site contains quizzes or games, whether ‘hard’ sales techniques are being used
(e.g. discounts, coupons,…), whether explicit comparisons are being made, whether the
‘effectiveness’ is emphasized of the products offered for sale, etc… (see tables 4-7).
In the present study, 40 Dutch and 40 Belgian commercial websites have been analysed in a
systematic way. For the Belgian websites, 20 Flemish and 20 Walloon sites were selected.
We focused more specifically on five sectors, namely online sellers of clothing, books, music,
computers and travel. For each of these sectors, 8 websites per country have been analysed
(for Belgium evenly divided between Flemish and Walloon sites). Thus, we tried to overcome
a shortcoming of the study by Singh and Baack (2004), who compared US and Mexican
websites of U.S. Fortune 500 companies, without taking into account the specific sectors
represented in both samples. In the current study the online retailers were identified through
search engines (like Google, Alta Vista and Yahoo).

10. 4.3 - Results
All online retailers studied, are assigned 4 summated scores that indicate to what extent their
website reflects Hofstede’s cultural dimensions (respectively ‘Power Distance’,
‘Masculinity’, ‘Uncertainty Avoidance’ and ‘Individualism’).
Subsequently, we can calculate per country to what extent these cultural dimensions are
reflected in the respective websites of that country. That way, we can evaluate the differences
between the countries in the degree to which their websites reflect the respective cultural
dimensions.
The Netherlands Belgium Flanders Wallonia
5
4
3
2
1
0
e ity e m
anc l in nc vis
ist cu oida cti
rD as Av lle
e M y Co
Pow int
rta
ce
Un
Figure 1: Scores with regard to Hofstede’s cultural dimensions reflected in Dutch and
Belgian (Flemish & Walloon) commercial websites (cfr. Singh & Baack, 2004)
The
Belgium t-test
Netherlands Flanders Wallonia t-test
Power Distance (7 items)
1.50 2.40 1.90 2.90 n.s. p = .036
Masculinity (7 items)
2.80 3.53 2.90 4.15 p = .009 p = .014
Uncertainty Avoidance (9 items)
3.35 3.73 3.10 4.35 p = .002 n.s.
Collectivism (8 items)
2.13 2.53 2.10 2.95 p = .050 n.s.
Table 3: Scores with regard to Hofstede’s cultural dimensions reflected in Dutch and
Belgian (Flemish & Walloon) commercial websites (cfr. Singh & Baack, 2004)

11. 4.3.1 – Power Distance
We assumed that Belgian websites would reflect a higher level of ‘Power Distance’ in
comparison to their Dutch counterparts. Our findings (illustrated in figure 1) seem to confirm
this hypothesis. The summated score over all websites on the 7 items reflecting ‘Power
Distance’ (see table 3) amounts to 2.40 for Belgium in comparison with 1.50 for the
Netherlands, a significant difference according to the t-test (p=.036).
The Belgium χ 2-test
2
Netherlands Flanders Wallonia χ -test
Power Distance (%) (%) (%) (%)
Company Hierarchy Information 7.5 32.5 25 40 n.s. p = .005
Pictures of CEO’s 2.5 20 25 15 n.s. p = .014
Quality Information and Awards 20 27.5 25 30 n.s. n.s.
Vision Statement 25 40 20 60 p = .011 n.s.
Rank or Prestige of the Company 22.5 30 5 55 p = .001 n.s.
Pride of Ownership appeal 65 47.5 45 50 n.s. n.s.
Proper Titles 7.5 42.5 45 40 n.s. p < .000
Table 4: Scores with regard to Hofstede’s cultural dimension “Power Distance”,
reflected in Dutch and Belgian (Flemish & Walloon) commercial websites
(cfr. Singh & Baack, 2004)
When we take a look at the individual items (see table 4), we notice that significantly more
Belgian than Dutch online retailers give information about their company hierarchy
(respectively 32,5% versus 7,5%; χ2-test, p=.005). Moreover, whereas in 20% of the Belgian
websites CEO’s are depicted, this appears to be the case in only 2,5% of the Dutch websites
(χ2-test, p=.014). Finally, in considerably more Belgian than Dutch websites appropriate
personal titles are being used (42,5% versus 7,5%; χ2-test, p<.000). These findings

12. demonstrate clearly that a higher level of ‘Power Distance’ is reflected in the Belgian
commercial websites, compared to their Dutch counterparts.
Whereas, within Belgium, the level of ‘Power Distance’ reflected in Flemish commercial
websites seems to be considerably lower than the level reflected in Walloon sites, this
difference between both sub-regions appears in general not to be significant (see table 3).
From the results, conveyed in table 4, we can, however, clearly establish that in more Walloon
than Flemish websites, a company vision statement is provided (respectively 60% compared
to 20%; χ2-test, p=.011) and that in more Walloon than Flemish websites the ranking and
prestige of the company is emphasized (55% versus 5%; χ2-test, p=.001), thus unexpectedly
revealing some higher level of ‘Power Distance’ reflected in Walloon websites.
4.3.2 – Masculinity
We assumed that Belgian commercial websites would be more likely to reflect ‘Masculinity’,
while Dutch sites would appear more ‘Feminine’. Our findings (illustrated in figure 1) seem
to support this hypothesis. The summated score over all websites on the 7 items indicative for
‘Masculinity’ (see table 3), amounts to 3,53 for Belgium, compared to 2,80 for the
Netherlands. A t-test reveals that this difference is in fact significant (p=.014).
When we examine the individual items more carefully (see table 5), we can establish that
significantly more Belgian than Dutch online retailers are using superlatives in their websites
(respectively 65% versus 35%; χ2-test: p=.007). More Belgian websites, in comparison with
Dutch ones, distinguish clearly between the sexes (42,5% versus 20%; χ2-test, p=.026).
Furthermore, it becomes apparent that only Belgian online retailers are using explicit
comparisons in their websites (12,5% versus 0%; χ2-test, p=.027). These results illustrate
clearly that Belgian websites reflect a higher level of ‘Masculinity’ than their Dutch

13. counterparts. When we examine the individual items that reflect ‘Masculinity’, however, we
notice one exception. More Dutch sites appear to emphasize the effectiveness of their
products than Belgian sites (respectively 85% versus 65%; χ2-test, p=.035).
The Belgium χ 2-test
2
Netherlands Flanders Wallonia χ -test
Masculinity (%) (%) (%) (%)
Quizzes and games 10 22.5 20 25 n.s. n.s.
Hard Sell Approach 57.5 72.5 65 80 n.s. n.s.
Explicit Comparisons 0 12.5 0 25 p = .024 p = .027
Realism Theme 72.5 72.5 75 70 n.s. n.s.
Product Effectiveness 85 65 65 65 n.s. p = .035
Use of Superlatives 35 65 40 90 p = .001 p = .007
Clear Gender Roles 20 42.5 25 60 p = .027 p = .026
Table 5: Scores with regard to Hofstede’s cultural dimension “Masculinity”,
reflected in Dutch and Belgian (Flemish & Walloon) commercial websites
(cfr. Singh & Baack, 2004)
When we take a look at the differences within Belgium between Flemish and Walloon sites,
we notice that the earlier reported distinction in reflected ‘Masculinity’ between Belgian and
Dutch websites is almost solely a reflection of the higher level of ‘Masculinity’ displayed in
Walloon sites. In comparison to Flemish e-commerce sites, Walloon e-retailers use
superlatives considerably more often in their websites (90% versus 40%; χ2-test, p=.001).
They also seem to make explicit comparisons more often (25% versus 0%; χ2-test, p=.024)
and they make more often clear distinctions between the sexes (60% versus 25%; χ2-test,
p=.027). Table 3 shows clearly that the summated score, over all the websites of the 7 items
that reflect ‘Masculinity’, amounts to 2,90 for Flanders and differs in this respect hardly from
the Dutch summated score of 2,80. Wallony, on the other hand, attains a significantly higher
score on reflected ‘Masculinity’, namely 4,15 (t-test, p=.009).

14. 4.3.3 – Uncertainty Avoidance
We hypothesized that Belgian transaction-oriented websites would reflect a higher level of
‘Uncertainty Avoidance’ than their Dutch counterparts. Our findings (illustrated in figure 1),
however, do not seem to support this hypothesis. The summated score over all the sites of the
9 items that reflect ‘Uncertainty Avoidance’ does not prove to be significantly different
between Belgium and the Netherlands (see table 3). Within Belgium, however, there appears
to be a considerable difference between Flemish and Walloon sites. Walloon sites seem to
reflect significantly more ‘Uncertainty Avoidance’ than Flemish ones (respective scores of
4,35 and 3,10; t-test, p=.002).
The Belgium χ 2-test
Netherlands Flanders Wallonia χ2-test
Uncertainty Avoidance (%) (%) (%) (%)
Customer Service 90 95 95 95 n.s. n.s.
Secure Payment 70 70 50 90 p = .007 n.s.
Guided Navigation 82.5 87.5 75 100 p = .024 n.s.
Tradition Theme 20 25 20 30 n.s. n.s.
Local Stores 52.5 57.5 50 65 n.s. n.s.
Local Terminology 2.5 5 0 10 n.s. n.s.
Free Trials and Downloads 2.5 27.5 15 40 n.s. p = .002
Customer Testimonials 12.5 5 5 5 n.s. n.s.
Toll Free Numbers 2.5 0 0 0 n.s. n.s.
Table 6: Scores with regard to Hofstede’s cultural dimension “Uncertainty Avoidance”,
reflected in Dutch and Belgian (Flemish & Walloon) commercial websites
(cfr. Singh & Baack, 2004)
When we take a look at the individual items (see table 6), we notice that more Belgian sites
offer free downloads and trials than Dutch ones (27,5% versus 2,5%; χ2-test, p=.002). Within
Belgium, especially Walloon sites seem to offer this possibility (40% compared to 15%

15. Flemish sites), however this difference appears not to be significant. Still, more Walloon than
Flemish online retailers appear to emphasize the security of payments on their sites (90%
versus 50%; χ2-test, p=.007) and the possibility of guided navigation (100% versus 75%; χ2-
test, p=.024), confirming the higher level of reflected ‘Uncertainty Avoidance’.
4.3.4 – Collectivism
We assumed that there would be no significant difference in the level of ‘Collectivism’
reflected in Belgian and Dutch e-commerce websites. Our findings (illustrated in figure 1)
seem to support this hypothesis. The summated score over all websites of the 8 items that
reflect ‘Collectivism’ does not appear to be significantly different between Belgium and the
Netherlands (see table 3). When we consult the individual items (see table 7), we do notice
however that more Belgian sites appear to offer loyalty programs than Dutch sites (40%
versus 20%; χ2-test, p=.043).
The Belgium χ 2-test
2
Netherlands Flanders Wallonia χ -test
Collectivism (%) (%) (%) (%)
Community Relations 7.5 2.5 0 5 n.s. n.s.
Clubs or Chat room 15 27.5 30 25 n.s. n.s.
Newsletter 57.5 57.5 60 55 n.s. n.s.
Family Theme 27.5 45 25 65 p = 0.012 n.s.
Country Specific Information 22.5 12.5 10 15 n.s. n.s.
Symbols & Pictures of Nation 10 17.5 5 30 p = .046 n.s.
Loyalty Programs 20 40 45 35 n.s. p = 0.043
Links to Local Web sites 52.5 50 35 65 n.s. n.s.
Table 7: Scores with regard to Hofstede’s cultural dimension “Collectivism”,
reflected in Dutch and Belgian (Flemish & Walloon) commercial websites
(cfr. Singh & Baack, 2004)

16. Within Belgium, we notice that Walloon sites seem to reflect more ‘Collectivism’ than
Flemish ones (respective scores of 2,95 versus 2,10; t-test, p=.050). More Walloon than
Flemish commercial websites appear to make use of family themes (65% versus 25%; χ2-test,
p=.012), and symbols and images of national identity (30% versus 5%; χ2-test, p=.046),
pointing to a higher level of ‘Collectivism’ reflected.
5 – Conclusion
According to the literature, there are major cultural differences between Belgium and the
Netherlands, which should be taken into consideration with respect to marketing
communications (e.g. FEM, 1998; Gerritsen, 2002; Claes & Gerritsen, 2006). The current
study demonstrates that these cultural differences in mentality between Belgium and the
Netherlands are also reflected in their respective commercial websites.
The websites of Belgian online retailers seem, as could be expected, to reflect a higher level
of ‘Power Distance’ in comparison to their Dutch counterparts. This is manifested by the
exceeding frequency to which they provide information with regard to company hierarchy, the
more frequent depiction of CEO’s and the more frequent use of proper titles of address.
Although the level of reflected ‘Power Distance’ does not seem to differ significantly between
Flemish and Walloon sites, more Walloon than Flemish sites appear to provide a company
vision statement and emphasize the ranking and prestige of the company, revealing
unexpectedly some higher level of ‘Power Distance’ reflected in Walloon commercial
websites.
As expected, Belgian e-commerce websites also appear to be more ‘Masculine’ than their
Dutch counterparts, which is reflected in the fact that they use superlatives more regularly,
that they distinguish more often between the sexes and that they use explicit comparisons

17. more often. Walloon sites, however, seem to be almost exclusively responsible for these
detected differences, as they do also significantly differ from Flemish sites in this regard. On
the other hand, Dutch websites do appear to emphasize the effectiveness of their products
more often than Belgian sites, possibly indicating that the Netherlands are getting more
‘Masculine’ (cfr. Gerritsen, 2001).
Contrary to our expectations, Belgian web shops do not seem to reflect a higher degree of
‘Uncertainty Avoidance’ in comparison to their Dutch counterparts. We notice, nevertheless,
that more Belgian sites offer free downloads and trials than Dutch ones. This is especially
apparent for Walloon sites, which seem to reflect a higher degree of ‘Uncertainty Avoidance’
than the Flemish ones, which is also manifested in the fact that they emphasize the security of
payments on their sites and the possibility of guided navigation more often.
Although, as expected, no difference in ‘Collectivism’ between Belgian and Dutch e-
commerce sites could be revealed, we do notice that more Belgian sites offer loyalty programs
than Dutch ones. Within Belgium, Walloon sites appear to reflect more ‘Collectivism’ than
Flemish websites, which is apparent from the fact that they seem to make more use of family
themes and symbols and images of national identity.
6– Discussion
The present study did not investigate the effectiveness of locally adapted commercial
websites. In a subsequent phase of this research project, an experimental study will be carried
out to investigate this crucial question. At this point, however, we did establish that there are
important cultural differences between Belgium and the Netherlands, but also between
Flanders and Wallonia, which appear to be reflected in their respective e-commerce websites.

18. If online retailers wish to exploit the possibilities of the internet to attract consumers on the
other side of the border, they may want to take this into consideration.
References
Boston Consulting Group, 2000. The Race for online Riches: e-retailing in Europe, February,
http://www.dad.be/library/pdf/BCG1.pdf
Claes M-T. & Gerritsen M., 2004. “Nederland en Nederlandstalig België: buren met
verschillende culturen” (The Netherlands and Dutch speaking Belgium: Neighbours
with Different Cultures) in Claes & Gerritsen: “Culturele waarden en communicatie in
internationaal perspectief”(Cultural Values and Communication from an International
Perspective), Bussum: Uitgeverij Coutinho, chapter 4.
Claes M-T. & Gerritsen M., 2006. “Waarom Vlamingen van Venus komen en Nederlanders van
Mars” (Why the Flemish come from Venus and the Dutch from Mars), Uitgeverij
Meulenhoff (in press).
de Mooij M., 1998. “Global marketing and advertising”, Thousand Oaks, CA, Sage.
de Mooij M., 2000. The future is predictable for international marketers. International
Marketing Review, 17 (2), 103-113.
de Mooij M., 2004. "Consumer Behavior and Culture. Consequences for Global Marketing and
Advertising ", Sage Publications, Inc. USA and UK. (360 p).
De Troyer O., Mushtaha A.N., Stengers H., Baetens M., Boers F., Casteleyn S. & Plessers P.,
2006. “On Cultural Differences in Local Web Interfaces”, Journal of Web
Engineering, Vol. 5., No.3., p246-264.
Financiëel Economisch Magazine FEM, 1998. “Cultuurclash tussen Nederland en België”
(Culture Clash between the Netherlands and Belgium), July 11th.
Fink D. & Laupase R., 2000. “Perceptions of Web Site Design Characteristics”: A
Malaysian/Australian Comparison”, Internet Research, 10, 1, p44-55.
Fletcher R., Bell J. and R. McNaughton, 2004. International e-Business Marketing, Thomson
Learning, London.

19. Fock, H., 2000. Cultural influences on marketing communication on the World Wide Web.
Paper presented at the Multicultural Marketing Conference, Hong Kong, September.
Gerritsen M., 2001. Cultuur als spelbreker. De communicatieve gevolgen van cultuurverschillen
tussen Vlaanderen en Nederland (Culture as a Spoilsport. The Communicative
Consequences of Cultural Differences Between Flanders and the Netherlands),
publication of Speech at the Katholieke Universiteit Nijmegen, Friday September 28th
2001, Nijmegen.
Gerritsen M., 2002. Cultuur als spelbreker. De communicatieve gevolgen van cultuurverschillen
tussen Vlaanderen en Nederland. (Culture as a Spoilsport. The Communicative
Consequences of Cultural Differences Between Flanders and the Netherlands)
Tijdschrift voor Taalbeheersing (Journal of Applied Linguistics), 24 (1), 50-62.
Hermans M. Ch. & K.J. Shanahan, 2002. “The Reification of Levitt: Advertising preferences
for Mexican and American online consumers”, Developments in Marketing Science,
25, p147.
Hofstede G., 1980. “Culture’s consequences. International differences in work related values”,
Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
Hofstede G., 2001. "Culture's consequences. Comparing values, behaviours, institutions and
organizations across nations", 2nd edition, Thousand Oaks, CA, Sage.
Internet World Stats, 2006. “Internet Usage in European Union”, Miniwatts Marketing Group,
available at http://www.internetworldstats.com/stats9.htm.
Inglehart R., 1997. “Modernization and Postmodernization. Cultural, economic and political
change in 43 societies”, Princeton University Press, Princeton.
Kanso A. & R. Nelson, 2002. “Advertising localization overshadows standardization”, Journal
of Advertising Research, Jan/Feb, p79-89.
Kotler P., Armstrong G., Saunders J., Wong V., Broere F., 2006. “België en Nederland, dat is
toch zo’n beetje hetzelfde?” (Belgium and the Netherlands, they appear to be very
similar, don’t they?), in Principes van Marketing, (Dutch adaptation of Principles of
Marketing), 4th edition, Pearson Education Benelux, Amsterdam, p189-190.
Luna, D., Peracchio, L. A., & de Juan, M. D., 2002. Cross-cultural and cognitive aspects of
Web site navigation. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 30 (4), 397-410.

20. Matthyssens P. & Wursten H., 2003. “Internal Marketing”, in "Cross-cultural Marketing",
Rugimbana R., Nwankwo S. eds., Thomson Learning, p243-256.
Orriëns D., 1998. “Nederland en Vlaanderen: een wereld van verschil! Een onderzoek naar de
culturele verschuivingen tussen Nederland en Vlaanderen tussen het einde van de jaren
’60 en 1998” (The Netherlands and Flanders, Worlds Apart! Research with regard to
the Cultural Shifts between the Netherlands and Flanders between the end of the
Sixties and 1998), Master’s thesis International Business Communication, Katholieke
Universiteit Nijmegen.
Park H., 2000. “A cross-cultural analysis of internet connectivity”, Journal of Current Research
in Global Business, fall, p 97-107.
Plumley D.J., 2000. “Global eCommerce: The market, challenges and opportunities”, Bowne
Global Solutions, January.
Sackmary B. & L. Scalia, 1999. “Cultural patterns of World Wide Web business sites: a
comparison of Mexican and US companies”, paper presented at the Seventh Cross-
Cultural Consumer and Business Studies Research Conference, Cancun, Mexico.
Schwartz S.H. & Ros M., 1995. “Values in the West: A theoretical and empirical challenge to
the Individualism-Collectivism cultural dimension”, World Psychology, 1, 91-122.
Simon, S. J., 2001. The impact of culture and gender on Web sites: An empirical study.
Database for Advances in Information Systems, 32(1), 18-37.
Singh N., 2002 “Analysing Cultural Sensitivity of Websites. A Normative Framework.”,
Journal of Practical Global Business, April,
http://www.expandglobal.com/journal/Jour_2/journalv1_p32.pdf
Singh N. and Hisako Matsuo, 2002. “A Framework to Measure Cultural Values on the Web.”
E-Business Review, Vol. 2, March.
Singh N. & D. W. Baack, 2004. “Website adaptation: a cross-cultural comparison of US and
Mexican websites”, Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 9 (4), July.
Singh, N., Furrerr O., Ostinelli M., 2004. “To Localize or to Standardize on the Web:
Empirical Evidence from Italy, India, Netherlands, Spain, and Switzerland.”
Multinational Business Review
Torris Th., 1998. “JIT Web Localization”, Forrester Research, July.

21. Trompenaers F., 1994. “Riding the waves of culture. Understanding diversity in global
business”, New York: Professional Publishing.
Yang C.C.K. & Y. Kang, 2002. “The influence of cultural factors on consumers’ reaction to
Internet advertisements”, Developments in Marketing Science, Sanibel Island, 25,
p148-151.