This document summarizes a study that examines the economic and academic consequences of fraternity membership. The study uses survey data from alumni of a small northeastern college spanning over 40 years to analyze how fraternity membership impacts future income and grade point average (GPA). The study finds that fraternity membership lowers a student's GPA by 0.4 points on average but increases future income by 30% compared to non-members. This suggests that fraternity membership provides social capital benefits that outweigh the negative effects on academic performance. The study uses changes over time in the number of fraternities and social housing options on campus as instruments to identify the causal impact of fraternity membership.
This document summarizes an article from the American Journal of Sociology that examines the structural sources of voluntary associations around the world. The authors argue that the expansion of modern states and the structures of world society encourage the formation of associations. They analyze longitudinal cross-national data on voluntary associations using statistical models to test whether institutional features of states and world society are linked to higher levels of association, after controlling for wealth and education. The authors aim to understand global variability in associational life and argue that macro-level factors may differentially impact certain types of associations.
This document discusses gender inequality in the workforce. It summarizes that society structures expectations based on gender, with masculinity expected to be assertive/dominant and femininity expected to be nurturing/caring. This leads to two major barriers - occupational segregation, where men and women cluster into traditional gender-typed careers, and a sex gap in pay, where women typically earn less than men. While changes are occurring, gender stereotypes still influence career choices and perpetuate inequality between men and women in the home and workplace.
New Report Exposes Chinas Malign Influence And Corrosion Of Democracy Worldwi...MYO AUNG Myanmar
https://www.iri.org/resource/new-report-exposes-chinas-malign-influence-and-corrosion-democracy-worldwide IRI (INTERNATIONAL REPUBLICAN INSTITUTE) is the premier international democracy-development organization https://youtu.be/XhBUbbQyhxE New Report Exposes China's Malign Influence and Corrosion of Democracy Worldwide You are hereHome > New Report Exposes China's Malign Influence and Corrosion of Democracy Worldwide CHINESE MALIGN INFLUENCEAND THE CORROSION OF DEMOCRACY An Assessment of Chinese Interference in Thirteen Key Countries The report, entitled "Chinese Malign Influence and the Corrosion of Democracy," brings together research by experts from 12 vulnerable democracies — Cambodia, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Serbia, Ecuador, Zambia, Mongolia, Hungary, The Gambia, Myanmar, Malaysia and the Maldives — and provides local perspectives on how China is impacting the politics and economics of these countries. https://www.iri.org/country/asia/details INTERNATIONAL REPUBLICAN INSTITUTE info@iri.org
Political Institutions and Online campaigningNickAnstead
The document outlines Nick Anstead's research on explaining the discrepancy in how political institutions in the US and UK have impacted the adoption of the internet by political actors. It analyzes factors like the party system, primary elections, campaign financing laws, and cultural narratives that have led to more online success stories in US politics compared to the UK, where the internet has had little impact. Anstead proposes using an institutional approach and new institutionalism as an analytical framework to address this question.
Party Structure and the Development Of Online Campaigning: The US and UK in C...NickAnstead
The document discusses how differences in political party structures between Britain and America have influenced the development of online electoral campaigning. It outlines characteristics of British and American parties, with British parties having formal membership and internal democratic structures, while American parties have no formal membership and weak central organization. It argues that the candidate-focused model of internal democracy used by American parties, manifested through primaries, has allowed the internet to facilitate information transfer between participants, making online campaigning more successful in the US.
The document describes the methodology used to conduct interviews and case studies of over 30 foundations. Foundations were selected based on diversity indicators from the Council on Foundations, including the percentage of minority and women staff and board members. Two indices were created to rank foundations based on these indicators. The top ranking foundations based on diversity were identified for qualitative interviews. Consideration was also given to foundation type, region, and asset size to ensure variety among selected foundations. Interviews were conducted with CEOs initially and then expanded to include more diverse staff members based on recommendations from CEOs.
The Daily Illini- Enrollment ManagementDarshan Patel
This document summarizes discussions around a proposal to centralize the University of Illinois' admissions process. There was conflict between campus administrators who wanted enrollment managers to report to local provosts and the University president who wanted to create an executive director position to oversee enrollment across all campuses. The president initially pushed back on demands for dual reporting lines but later compromised by proposing enrollment managers would primarily report to the executive director and secondarily to campus provosts. Disagreements around centralized administration and shifting reporting lines have occurred previously with other initiatives such as information technology.
This document summarizes an article from the American Journal of Sociology that examines the structural sources of voluntary associations around the world. The authors argue that the expansion of modern states and the structures of world society encourage the formation of associations. They analyze longitudinal cross-national data on voluntary associations using statistical models to test whether institutional features of states and world society are linked to higher levels of association, after controlling for wealth and education. The authors aim to understand global variability in associational life and argue that macro-level factors may differentially impact certain types of associations.
This document discusses gender inequality in the workforce. It summarizes that society structures expectations based on gender, with masculinity expected to be assertive/dominant and femininity expected to be nurturing/caring. This leads to two major barriers - occupational segregation, where men and women cluster into traditional gender-typed careers, and a sex gap in pay, where women typically earn less than men. While changes are occurring, gender stereotypes still influence career choices and perpetuate inequality between men and women in the home and workplace.
New Report Exposes Chinas Malign Influence And Corrosion Of Democracy Worldwi...MYO AUNG Myanmar
https://www.iri.org/resource/new-report-exposes-chinas-malign-influence-and-corrosion-democracy-worldwide IRI (INTERNATIONAL REPUBLICAN INSTITUTE) is the premier international democracy-development organization https://youtu.be/XhBUbbQyhxE New Report Exposes China's Malign Influence and Corrosion of Democracy Worldwide You are hereHome > New Report Exposes China's Malign Influence and Corrosion of Democracy Worldwide CHINESE MALIGN INFLUENCEAND THE CORROSION OF DEMOCRACY An Assessment of Chinese Interference in Thirteen Key Countries The report, entitled "Chinese Malign Influence and the Corrosion of Democracy," brings together research by experts from 12 vulnerable democracies — Cambodia, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Serbia, Ecuador, Zambia, Mongolia, Hungary, The Gambia, Myanmar, Malaysia and the Maldives — and provides local perspectives on how China is impacting the politics and economics of these countries. https://www.iri.org/country/asia/details INTERNATIONAL REPUBLICAN INSTITUTE info@iri.org
Political Institutions and Online campaigningNickAnstead
The document outlines Nick Anstead's research on explaining the discrepancy in how political institutions in the US and UK have impacted the adoption of the internet by political actors. It analyzes factors like the party system, primary elections, campaign financing laws, and cultural narratives that have led to more online success stories in US politics compared to the UK, where the internet has had little impact. Anstead proposes using an institutional approach and new institutionalism as an analytical framework to address this question.
Party Structure and the Development Of Online Campaigning: The US and UK in C...NickAnstead
The document discusses how differences in political party structures between Britain and America have influenced the development of online electoral campaigning. It outlines characteristics of British and American parties, with British parties having formal membership and internal democratic structures, while American parties have no formal membership and weak central organization. It argues that the candidate-focused model of internal democracy used by American parties, manifested through primaries, has allowed the internet to facilitate information transfer between participants, making online campaigning more successful in the US.
The document describes the methodology used to conduct interviews and case studies of over 30 foundations. Foundations were selected based on diversity indicators from the Council on Foundations, including the percentage of minority and women staff and board members. Two indices were created to rank foundations based on these indicators. The top ranking foundations based on diversity were identified for qualitative interviews. Consideration was also given to foundation type, region, and asset size to ensure variety among selected foundations. Interviews were conducted with CEOs initially and then expanded to include more diverse staff members based on recommendations from CEOs.
The Daily Illini- Enrollment ManagementDarshan Patel
This document summarizes discussions around a proposal to centralize the University of Illinois' admissions process. There was conflict between campus administrators who wanted enrollment managers to report to local provosts and the University president who wanted to create an executive director position to oversee enrollment across all campuses. The president initially pushed back on demands for dual reporting lines but later compromised by proposing enrollment managers would primarily report to the executive director and secondarily to campus provosts. Disagreements around centralized administration and shifting reporting lines have occurred previously with other initiatives such as information technology.
Young Adult Gay Persons And Violence A Look At Escalation And Toleranceorian9200
This document discusses issues faced by young adult gay persons, including violence, harassment, and mental health challenges. It defines key terms like homophobia, oppression, and privilege. Laws like the Federal Education Amendments are meant to protect against anti-gay harassment, but many gay youth still feel unsafe at school. Statistics show gay youth have much higher rates of suicide, abuse, and homelessness compared to other groups. Research on young gay adults looks at how their identity develops and how they view themselves over time, from initial comparison to full identity synthesis. Teaching tolerance through role plays and community involvement is important to address these issues.
This document describes a field experiment conducted by researchers at Harvard Medical School to study how colocation impacts scientific collaboration. In the experiment, biomedical researchers who applied for a research grant were randomly assigned to breakout sessions at a research symposium, with the goal of introducing exogenous colocation between some pairs of researchers. The researchers found that pairs who were colocated at the symposium, allowing for face-to-face interaction, saw a 70% increase in likelihood of subsequently collaborating on the research grant application. Certain types of researcher pairs, such as those who worked in similar areas or had previously collaborated, saw even larger impacts from being colocated.
This document proposes researching how chambers of commerce can adapt their membership models for the future. It discusses how baby boomers are retiring, while younger generations have different needs and preferences around community and networking. A survey will gather feedback on different membership models like freemium, open source, and classic approaches. The results will be used to develop recommendations to help the British American Chamber of Commerce strengthen and diversify its model to attract different demographics and ensure long-term sustainability.
- Nearly half (49%) of public sector in-house PR practitioners are worried about redundancy due to budget cuts, compared to 28% overall.
- The top areas of expected growth are online reputation management (97%), strategic planning (93%), and crisis management (91%).
- The top areas of expected decline are sponsorship (82%) and events management (71%).
- While 61% feel comfortable with their social media skills, 23% feel their knowledge is limited.
Niels opstrup is assistant professor in the department of POLY33
This summary provides the key details about the document in 3 sentences:
The document discusses a study examining the relationship between gender diversity in top management teams (TMTs) and financial performance in Danish municipalities. The authors find that gender diversity in TMTs is associated with better financial results, but only in municipalities that have a management structure supporting cross-functional teamwork. The study contributes to research on how demographic diversity impacts public sector organizations and sheds light on organizational factors that help leverage the benefits of diverse management teams.
Charlottesville commission on human rights, diversity2 013garretdurrette
This document discusses the options and processes involved in determining whether to make a complaint about unfair treatment in the workplace. It notes that in one study, over a third of those who reported unfair treatment did nothing, while some complained to friends or family, quit their jobs, or confronted the person responsible. Only a small percentage, 3%, chose to sue the company or co-worker. Deciding on the appropriate response involves complicated decision-making.
This report summarizes the results of a survey of over 1,200 Vermont college students about their plans after graduation. The top factors that would influence students to stay in Vermont are high-paying or meaningful jobs, affordable housing and cost of living, assistance with student loans, and personal relationships. Students gave Vermont its highest ratings for natural amenities but lowest ratings for affordable housing and transportation options. Open-ended responses indicated improved job opportunities, housing, and financial incentives could encourage more students to remain in the state.
This document summarizes a paper analyzing patterns of harmful behaviors such as suicide, substance abuse, and deliberate self-harm among young adults ages 15-25 from a Durkheimian sociological perspective. It discusses how an imbalance of social integration and moral regulation can help explain these behaviors. Specifically, it finds that college students have higher levels of social integration and moral regulation due to social opportunities on campus, resulting in lower suicide rates compared to non-students. However, pressures to conform and use substances to manage stress can also lead to harmful behaviors like binge drinking and prescription drug abuse among college students if regulation is too low.
Thesis-The Effects of Ethnicity and Sexual Orientation on Hiring Discriminati...Jonathan Pfefer
The document describes a study that examined the effects of ethnicity and sexual orientation on hiring discrimination in resume evaluations. 108 participants reviewed one of four resumes that varied the applicant's ethnicity (Arab or French) and sexual orientation (homosexual or heterosexual). Participants then rated the resumes on willingness to hire, leadership, work experience, and extracurricular activities. Previous literature found discrimination based on various minority statuses including ethnicity, gender, disability and sexual orientation. The study hypothesized the Arab/homosexual resume would receive the lowest ratings and the French/heterosexual resume the highest. It also hypothesized ethnicity would have a greater impact than sexual orientation.
20100926080907 lecture 11( sample of proposal)peningla
This document provides an overview of a proposed study that will examine perceptions and effects of polygamy among Muslim communities in Malaysia. The study aims to understand views on polygamy's appropriateness, examine how family law addresses it, and analyze its impact on families and society. Primary data will be collected through interviews with 30 respondents from various states, and secondary data collection. Qualitative data will also be gathered through interviews with 10 feminists from each of two women's organizations to understand their perceptions of polygamy. The methodology employs a multi-method approach including purposive sampling of affected families.
This paper examines the relationship between crime rates and factors like poverty, education funding, minimum wage, and assistance to families. The author analyzes data from 46 U.S. states using Pearson correlation to determine if higher funding for education, higher minimum wages, lower poverty rates, and more assistance to families are associated with lower crime rates. The results show moderate negative correlations between crime rates and assistance to families as well as poverty rates, indicating lower crime when more assistance and lower poverty exist. This supports the hypotheses that increased funding in these areas can help reduce crime.
The document discusses the issue of hydraulic fracturing and its effects on communities. It examines how public relations and electronic media can address concerns about fracking. The main issue is how fracking is presented to the public and how this affects communities. Public relations can help frame the issues and manage public perceptions, which will be important for the shale gas industry to commercially develop gas resources. The document reviews several literature sources that discuss the use of public relations and policy debates around fracking.
This document summarizes a research paper that studied the relationship between agency problems, financial performance, and corruption from country, industry, and firm levels. At the country level, the paper finds companies in more corrupt countries tend to have lower stock returns. At the industry level, some industries ("corruption-sensitive" industries) show a stronger negative relationship between corruption and returns. At the firm level, the paper shows agency problems are exacerbated in corruption-sensitive industries. The paper aims to identify corruption-sensitive industries and provide evidence that corruption exacerbates agency conflicts and affects how corporate governance mechanisms impact financial performance.
Este documento presenta información sobre el departamento de La Guajira en Colombia. Detalla que La Guajira se ubica al norte de Colombia, está dividido en 15 municipios y su capital es Riohacha. Incluye una sección sobre el turismo en la región, mencionando destinos como el Cabo de la Vela, Balneario el Silencio y las playas de Mayapo. También hay una sección sobre la cultura de La Guajira, resaltando festivales como el Festival de la Cultura Wayuu y el Festival del Retorno. El documento concluye invitando a
El documento describe el impacto de las aplicaciones informáticas en la educación y la sociedad. Las computadoras ahora se usan ampliamente en empresas, escuelas y hogares para tareas como cálculos, almacenamiento de datos, control de sistemas y comunicaciones. Si bien las computadoras han aumentado la productividad y el acceso a la información, también han eliminado puestos de trabajo y homogeneizado las culturas. La revolución de la información continúa transformando la sociedad de maneras aún por definirse a medida que la tecnología evoluciona rá
Unpaid Care Work: An Integral Contributor to Gendered Poverty and Intra-Hous...Prema Rahman
Summative Essay for GY421 Gender and Development: Geographical Perspectives. This paper analyzes the relationship between care work and gendered poverty within the household, and calls for GAD policies and initiatives to incorporate unpaid care work in households into their agenda.
Grade: Distinction
This paper analyzes data from a major online dating service to understand mate preferences and match outcomes. The data includes detailed profiles on over 23,000 users with information on income, education, attractiveness ratings, and online activities. The paper finds that physical attractiveness strongly influences the number of introductory emails received by both men and women. Preferences for higher earning partners are found, especially among women. Differences are also seen between what attracts men versus women, such as height and weight being more important for men's success online.
The document summarizes the agenda for a new member educators' summit that will provide training and resources for fraternity and sorority new member educators. The summit will cover topics like developing new member education programs, teaching values and rituals, alternatives to hazing, big brother/sister programs, academic performance, and creating positive change within new member education.
cepts and examine how they can be addressed in inte.docxcravennichole326
cepts and examine how they can be addressed in intergroup rela-
bons programs. While exploring these concepts/ we discuss sociai-
and we provide approaches to d
Figure 2.1 shows the interre
and djsCH 川山 ation , Stereo ぬ @ 'ause of prejudice, but prejii-
diCealsoC 「 eateSSte 「 eotYpeS.PFe す ud テ Ceand5tepe 「 mga 「 ema 了 O 「
causes of discriminatory behavic &, intergroup relations can be
improved by creating conditions for positive contact and reducing
prejudice, stereotyping/ and di; lation. We address contact first
19
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eq-ua1-stahts interactions, the pursuit of common goals, support by
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え餓 8;w 。 G , 慾呼ぬ n , Fg ;;. Stephan & Stephan/1996). In fact/ the お故 o 王 Su 絃が OE h る S 堺 機 幻 坤 0 血 [email protected] てシ me necessaF へ Lto
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taCt:SoCletaIfaCto 「 S , 別 互ぴ aFon 山
factors (W, G. Stephan Sc, Stephan, 1996). In this approach^ societal
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Young Adult Gay Persons And Violence A Look At Escalation And Toleranceorian9200
This document discusses issues faced by young adult gay persons, including violence, harassment, and mental health challenges. It defines key terms like homophobia, oppression, and privilege. Laws like the Federal Education Amendments are meant to protect against anti-gay harassment, but many gay youth still feel unsafe at school. Statistics show gay youth have much higher rates of suicide, abuse, and homelessness compared to other groups. Research on young gay adults looks at how their identity develops and how they view themselves over time, from initial comparison to full identity synthesis. Teaching tolerance through role plays and community involvement is important to address these issues.
This document describes a field experiment conducted by researchers at Harvard Medical School to study how colocation impacts scientific collaboration. In the experiment, biomedical researchers who applied for a research grant were randomly assigned to breakout sessions at a research symposium, with the goal of introducing exogenous colocation between some pairs of researchers. The researchers found that pairs who were colocated at the symposium, allowing for face-to-face interaction, saw a 70% increase in likelihood of subsequently collaborating on the research grant application. Certain types of researcher pairs, such as those who worked in similar areas or had previously collaborated, saw even larger impacts from being colocated.
This document proposes researching how chambers of commerce can adapt their membership models for the future. It discusses how baby boomers are retiring, while younger generations have different needs and preferences around community and networking. A survey will gather feedback on different membership models like freemium, open source, and classic approaches. The results will be used to develop recommendations to help the British American Chamber of Commerce strengthen and diversify its model to attract different demographics and ensure long-term sustainability.
- Nearly half (49%) of public sector in-house PR practitioners are worried about redundancy due to budget cuts, compared to 28% overall.
- The top areas of expected growth are online reputation management (97%), strategic planning (93%), and crisis management (91%).
- The top areas of expected decline are sponsorship (82%) and events management (71%).
- While 61% feel comfortable with their social media skills, 23% feel their knowledge is limited.
Niels opstrup is assistant professor in the department of POLY33
This summary provides the key details about the document in 3 sentences:
The document discusses a study examining the relationship between gender diversity in top management teams (TMTs) and financial performance in Danish municipalities. The authors find that gender diversity in TMTs is associated with better financial results, but only in municipalities that have a management structure supporting cross-functional teamwork. The study contributes to research on how demographic diversity impacts public sector organizations and sheds light on organizational factors that help leverage the benefits of diverse management teams.
Charlottesville commission on human rights, diversity2 013garretdurrette
This document discusses the options and processes involved in determining whether to make a complaint about unfair treatment in the workplace. It notes that in one study, over a third of those who reported unfair treatment did nothing, while some complained to friends or family, quit their jobs, or confronted the person responsible. Only a small percentage, 3%, chose to sue the company or co-worker. Deciding on the appropriate response involves complicated decision-making.
This report summarizes the results of a survey of over 1,200 Vermont college students about their plans after graduation. The top factors that would influence students to stay in Vermont are high-paying or meaningful jobs, affordable housing and cost of living, assistance with student loans, and personal relationships. Students gave Vermont its highest ratings for natural amenities but lowest ratings for affordable housing and transportation options. Open-ended responses indicated improved job opportunities, housing, and financial incentives could encourage more students to remain in the state.
This document summarizes a paper analyzing patterns of harmful behaviors such as suicide, substance abuse, and deliberate self-harm among young adults ages 15-25 from a Durkheimian sociological perspective. It discusses how an imbalance of social integration and moral regulation can help explain these behaviors. Specifically, it finds that college students have higher levels of social integration and moral regulation due to social opportunities on campus, resulting in lower suicide rates compared to non-students. However, pressures to conform and use substances to manage stress can also lead to harmful behaviors like binge drinking and prescription drug abuse among college students if regulation is too low.
Thesis-The Effects of Ethnicity and Sexual Orientation on Hiring Discriminati...Jonathan Pfefer
The document describes a study that examined the effects of ethnicity and sexual orientation on hiring discrimination in resume evaluations. 108 participants reviewed one of four resumes that varied the applicant's ethnicity (Arab or French) and sexual orientation (homosexual or heterosexual). Participants then rated the resumes on willingness to hire, leadership, work experience, and extracurricular activities. Previous literature found discrimination based on various minority statuses including ethnicity, gender, disability and sexual orientation. The study hypothesized the Arab/homosexual resume would receive the lowest ratings and the French/heterosexual resume the highest. It also hypothesized ethnicity would have a greater impact than sexual orientation.
20100926080907 lecture 11( sample of proposal)peningla
This document provides an overview of a proposed study that will examine perceptions and effects of polygamy among Muslim communities in Malaysia. The study aims to understand views on polygamy's appropriateness, examine how family law addresses it, and analyze its impact on families and society. Primary data will be collected through interviews with 30 respondents from various states, and secondary data collection. Qualitative data will also be gathered through interviews with 10 feminists from each of two women's organizations to understand their perceptions of polygamy. The methodology employs a multi-method approach including purposive sampling of affected families.
This paper examines the relationship between crime rates and factors like poverty, education funding, minimum wage, and assistance to families. The author analyzes data from 46 U.S. states using Pearson correlation to determine if higher funding for education, higher minimum wages, lower poverty rates, and more assistance to families are associated with lower crime rates. The results show moderate negative correlations between crime rates and assistance to families as well as poverty rates, indicating lower crime when more assistance and lower poverty exist. This supports the hypotheses that increased funding in these areas can help reduce crime.
The document discusses the issue of hydraulic fracturing and its effects on communities. It examines how public relations and electronic media can address concerns about fracking. The main issue is how fracking is presented to the public and how this affects communities. Public relations can help frame the issues and manage public perceptions, which will be important for the shale gas industry to commercially develop gas resources. The document reviews several literature sources that discuss the use of public relations and policy debates around fracking.
This document summarizes a research paper that studied the relationship between agency problems, financial performance, and corruption from country, industry, and firm levels. At the country level, the paper finds companies in more corrupt countries tend to have lower stock returns. At the industry level, some industries ("corruption-sensitive" industries) show a stronger negative relationship between corruption and returns. At the firm level, the paper shows agency problems are exacerbated in corruption-sensitive industries. The paper aims to identify corruption-sensitive industries and provide evidence that corruption exacerbates agency conflicts and affects how corporate governance mechanisms impact financial performance.
Este documento presenta información sobre el departamento de La Guajira en Colombia. Detalla que La Guajira se ubica al norte de Colombia, está dividido en 15 municipios y su capital es Riohacha. Incluye una sección sobre el turismo en la región, mencionando destinos como el Cabo de la Vela, Balneario el Silencio y las playas de Mayapo. También hay una sección sobre la cultura de La Guajira, resaltando festivales como el Festival de la Cultura Wayuu y el Festival del Retorno. El documento concluye invitando a
El documento describe el impacto de las aplicaciones informáticas en la educación y la sociedad. Las computadoras ahora se usan ampliamente en empresas, escuelas y hogares para tareas como cálculos, almacenamiento de datos, control de sistemas y comunicaciones. Si bien las computadoras han aumentado la productividad y el acceso a la información, también han eliminado puestos de trabajo y homogeneizado las culturas. La revolución de la información continúa transformando la sociedad de maneras aún por definirse a medida que la tecnología evoluciona rá
Unpaid Care Work: An Integral Contributor to Gendered Poverty and Intra-Hous...Prema Rahman
Summative Essay for GY421 Gender and Development: Geographical Perspectives. This paper analyzes the relationship between care work and gendered poverty within the household, and calls for GAD policies and initiatives to incorporate unpaid care work in households into their agenda.
Grade: Distinction
This paper analyzes data from a major online dating service to understand mate preferences and match outcomes. The data includes detailed profiles on over 23,000 users with information on income, education, attractiveness ratings, and online activities. The paper finds that physical attractiveness strongly influences the number of introductory emails received by both men and women. Preferences for higher earning partners are found, especially among women. Differences are also seen between what attracts men versus women, such as height and weight being more important for men's success online.
The document summarizes the agenda for a new member educators' summit that will provide training and resources for fraternity and sorority new member educators. The summit will cover topics like developing new member education programs, teaching values and rituals, alternatives to hazing, big brother/sister programs, academic performance, and creating positive change within new member education.
cepts and examine how they can be addressed in inte.docxcravennichole326
cepts and examine how they can be addressed in intergroup rela-
bons programs. While exploring these concepts/ we discuss sociai-
and we provide approaches to d
Figure 2.1 shows the interre
and djsCH 川山 ation , Stereo ぬ @ 'ause of prejudice, but prejii-
diCealsoC 「 eateSSte 「 eotYpeS.PFe す ud テ Ceand5tepe 「 mga 「 ema 了 O 「
causes of discriminatory behavic &, intergroup relations can be
improved by creating conditions for positive contact and reducing
prejudice, stereotyping/ and di; lation. We address contact first
19
i iw tistt-i iMltKUKHL'P RELATIONS
ntact theory in
zveaF ノ p て Oa 之 L フ
the role of contact in intergroup relatif
6
れ, p 。 All W 、 (G
甲, 餌 ぬ 。
価
n ぽ [email protected]@v [email protected] 甘 ons ぬ
eq-ua1-stahts interactions, the pursuit of common goals, support by
,yuunun ・ interests and humanity. authority figures, and a 碑 eo れ haVe ぬ dl irge number of additional features that
affect 山 。 OufC け口 e5ofcQma 釘 ( 土 。 ヱ peviews , 5ee Re 田 w , 1971 , ]986;
え餓 8;w 。 G , 慾呼ぬ n , Fg ;;. Stephan & Stephan/1996). In fact/ the お故 o 王 Su 絃が OE h る S 堺 機 幻 坤 0 血 [email protected] てシ me necessaF へ Lto
r 慈 [email protected]@zemeong ミ HdC taCt ぬ @
A Re め兜
Fou 「 Ca を e ぎ O e5 O 「ど aCto ア 5a
taCt:SoCletaIfaCto 「 S , 別 互ぴ aFon 山
factors (W, G. Stephan Sc, Stephan, 1996). In this approach^ societal
下 aC 十 O 了 5 a 丁 e 之石 o 口 ght to f 工 u Cep SO 了 lfa Or5 dSI atlon 良上 faC-
tors, which in" turn inf て Ii dualCo8 爪 jt テ QnSan てテ 包廿支 eCt , a ぬ d
these mediating factors tnen influence the outcomes of contact (see
Figu て e2 , ユ 7
The societal factors that impact contact include the structure of the
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This document summarizes a study examining whether having close peers in the same academic major affects a student's GPA. The author hypothesizes that being surrounded by peers in one's major program leads to better academic decisions and higher GPAs. A survey collected data on 71 students, including their major, years in major, close peers in major, SAT score, gender, major GPA and overall GPA. The author plans to use regression analysis to determine if these variables, particularly close peers in major, have a statistically significant impact on major GPA. Previous related studies found mixed results on peer influences, with some showing effects on GPA and others finding no difference between social and random peers.
Ewa 4
Vincent Ewa Topic: What do we know about school discipline reform?
February 11, 2017
Article Review # 1
Bibliography entry:
Steinberg, Matthew P., and Johanna, Lacoe. "What do we know about school discipline reform?." Education Next 17, no. 1 (Winter2017 2017): 44-52. Education Research Complete, EBSCOhost.
Purpose: The U.S. Department of Education’s Office for Civil Rights announced this spring that the number of suspensions and expulsions in the nation’s public schools had dropped 20 percent between 2012 and 2014.
Authoraffiliations:
· Steinberg – The University Pennsylvanian’s Graduate School of Education
· Lacoe - Researcher at Mathematica Policy Research
Summary:
According to the department of Education office for civil rights, there has been a drop of suspensions and expulsions in public schools between 2012 and 2014. There have been moves to abolish the use of suspensions and expulsion by some policy makers. Furthermore, there have also been complains that suspensions and expulsions where used in a way that was not fair and discriminative of other students. Others do also believe that the abolishment of such punishment would result to a better working environment. There has also been a push by politicians including Barak Obamas government, which advocated for an alternative kind of punishment for students found on the wrong line of the school rules. This involved a joint venture by the Department of Education and the Department of Justice who eventually arrived on measures to improve the school climate and the discipline among students. They also send a strict warning of racism when it comes to disciplining of students at school. It is evident also that the move for discipline reforms has gone to the grassroots, which is the state and school district levels. Example is the District of Colombia.
A critical look on the effects of this alternative ways of suspension should be made. Various statistical reports have brought out variety of evidences. Example is the documentation in disparities in school in school discipline and race. In addition is the statistical report by the National Centre for Education show a downward trend in suspensions, student victimization and reports of bullying. It also shows decline in suspensions and expulsions. There has also been more that 30% if teachers reporting of disruption to studies due to behavior and tardiness. Evidence of exposure to extreme harsh conditions such has students exposed to Hurricanes tend to be out of school for a given time while dealing with the disaster. Finally, exposure to disruptive peers tends to affect students later in their studies.
Statistics also show disproportionate rates of suspension with it mainly affecting students of a specific race and also students with disabilities. Most of these being racial especially among the blacks in preschool, primary, middle and high schools. This has also created gaps between blacks ...
This document summarizes a study that examined budgeting and spending behaviors of college students. It found that female students were more likely than male students to create monthly budgets and use daily planners. It also found that upperclassmen were more likely to have budgets and spend their entire printing budgets than underclassmen. The study surveyed 550 students at a small Midwestern liberal arts college about their budgeting, spending on meals and discretionary items, and use of the school-provided printing budget. It found several significant differences in these behaviors based on student gender and class year.
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This document provides an introduction to Greek organizations (fraternities and sororities) on college campuses. It acknowledges that these organizations can provide benefits like leadership development and community involvement, but are also criticized for behaviors seen as antithetical to education like hazing and alcohol abuse. The document then outlines a study that will examine the effects of fraternity membership on the academic performance of high school students in the Philippines. It defines key terms, outlines the research problem and questions, sampling methodology, and significance of understanding the impacts of fraternity involvement on students' attitudes, skills, reasons for joining, and school performance. The goal is to determine if there is a significant effect of fraternities on academic achievement.
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2. It notes weaknesses in only using secondary data and recidivism rates to measure program effectiveness, as this does not capture inmate learning. Other moderating variables like job opportunities, program type, and post-release support also impact recidivism but are often not considered.
3. Moving forward, the document argues that further research on prison education programs needs to account for these other factors in addition to recidivism to better understand the
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1. Using the guidelines provided in this weeks chapter (and other.docx
Economics Research Assistant
1. 1
Social Animal House:
The Economic and Academic Consequences of Fraternity Membership*
April 12, 2016
Jack Mara, Lewis Davis and Stephen Schmidt†
Abstract: We exploit changes in the residential and social environment on campus to identify
the economic and academic consequences of fraternity membership at a small northeastern
college. Our estimates suggest that these consequences are large, with fraternity membership
lowering student GPA by 0.4 points on the traditional four-point scale, but raising future income
by 30%, for those students whose decision about membership is affected by changes in the
environment. These results suggest that fraternity membership produces large gains in social
capital, which more than outweigh its negative effects on human capital for potential members.
Alcohol use does not appear to be a significant channel for either the human capital or social
capital effects. These findings suggest that college administrators face significant trade-offs
when crafting policies related to Greek life on campus.
JEL Codes: I23, J24, and I12.
Keywords: Fraternities, Social Capital, Human Capital, Grades, Alcohol, Drinking.
*
Thanks
to
Caleb
Yoken
for
excellent
research
assistance.
†
Mara: 10 Thoughts, Boston, MA. Davis and Schmidt: Department of Economics, Union
College, 807 Union Street, Schenectady NY 12308. Corresponding author, Stephen Schmidt:
schmidsj@union.edu
2. 2
1. Introduction
For a certain generation of American, the image of fraternities is indelibly linked to National
Lampoon’s Animal House (1978), a fictionalized account of a group of hedonistic fraternity
brothers at a US college.‡
Interestingly, the movie ends by revealing that the students in question
have gone on to become, inter alia, a doctor, a lawyer, and a US senator. While easily met with a
smirk, these “where are they now” updates raise important questions about the long run
economic consequences of fraternity membership. Do the members of actual fraternities prosper
relative to non-members, and if so, do they prosper because of, or in spite of, their participation
in Greek life?
The existing literature provides incomplete and at times contradictory evidence on this
question. To begin with, while several papers investigate the economic consequences of
fraternity membership, they focus on its impact on a graduate’s initial employment opportunities.
For example, Routon and Walker (2014) report that fraternity membership increases the
probability of a recent graduate obtaining a job. Similarly, Marmaros and Sacredote (2002)
report that fraternity membership is positively associated with networking and with finding a
high paying job directly out of college.§
It is unclear, however, to what degree these initial
placements are correlated with long run equilibrium outcomes. It may be that the benefits of
fraternity membership diminishes over time, as the labor market sorts out under qualified
fraternity member and correctly identifies and rewards talented non-members.
‡
The portrayal of fraternity life in the movie draws on the college experiences of its writers at Dartmouth College,
Washington University, and McMaster University.
§
Popov and Bernhardt (2012) provide a theoretical treatment of student rush and fraternity member selection in
which membership signals student quality to potential employers.
3. 3
Second, any advantage fraternity membership conveys with respect to social capital and
connections may be partly or fully offset by its deleterious effect on human capital formation.
Both Grubb (2006) and Routon and Walker (2014) find that fraternity membership is associated
with significantly lower college grades. In addition, a substantial literature links fraternity
membership to increased drinking and increased binge drinking (Alva, 1998; Cashin et al., 1998;
Chaloupka and Wechsler, 1996; DeSimone, 2007, 2009), which provides a plausible channel
through which membership may affect academic performance. As a result, any attempt to
estimate the long run consequences of fraternity membership should account for its influence on
both human and social capital.
In this paper, we present evidence on the impact of fraternity and sorority membership on
the academic and economic performance of the alumni of one small northeastern college. Our
results are based on an alumni survey administered in the fall of 2009, with detailed questions on
income, employment, collegiate social activities, collegiate academic performance,
demographics and personal characteristics. After restricting the data to men who are currently
employed full-time, the data include more than 1600 observations for alumni with graduation
dates that span over 40 years.
The structure of our survey allows us to address two key issues that have not been
considered in the literature. First, we are able to investigate the impact of fraternity membership
on an individual’s future income.**
The use of income has a number of advantages. First,
income is a more finely grained measure of the economic return to social capital than
employment status, and second, the longer time horizon may provide a better estimate of the
equilibrium impact of fraternity membership. Finally, as income levels likely reflect the impact
**
While it is perhaps most natural to think of fraternity membership affecting labor market outcomes, recent work
suggests social capital also affects entrepreneurship and investment income, e.g. Guiso et al. (2004).
4. 4
of both human and social capital, their use provides a more comprehensive measure of the
economic impact of fraternity membership.
A second advantage of the long time period covered by our dataset is that it allows us to
employ a unique strategy for identifying the causal effects of fraternity membership. Identifying
the effect is fraternity membership is a challenge due to selection bias. As DeSimone (2009, p.
338) notes, there’s concern that “students choose to join fraternities in part because of
preexisting preferences toward behaviors that membership facilitates.” Thus, it is difficult to tell
whether fraternity membership decreases grades and increases drinking and social networking, or
whether low achieving, hard drinking, and highly social students select into fraternities. The
available evidence suggests causation likely runs in both directions. For example, Sacerdote
(2001) finds that high school drinking behavior predicts fraternity membership.
The existing literature employs a number of strategies to identifying the causal effect of
fraternity membership on individual behavior and outcomes. A number of papers address
causation by controlling for a large number of potential covariates. For example, to identify the
causal effect of fraternity membership on binge drinking, DeSimone (2007) controls for
situational and total alcohol use. A downside of this approach is that it may result in over
controlling and thus underestimate the impact of fraternity membership. For example, after
controlling for a large number of potential covariates, Grubb (2006) reports that fraternity
membership lowers grades by 2.2%, an estimated effect that may seem small relative to the
priors of many academics and may be too small to justify strong interventions. Similarly,
Routon and Walker (214) use propensity score matching approach, which does not control for
the influence of unobserved individual characteristics that are related to the propensities to study,
drink or socialize. Finally, DeSimone (2009) controls for drinking behavior three years after
5. 5
graduation, but it’s unclear how this approach might be extended to other areas of interest, such
as grades or economic outcomes.
In this paper, we identify the causal effect of fraternity membership on college grades and
future income levels by exploiting time variation in the college’s social and residential
environment. In particular, we employ measures of the number of fraternities and number of
sororities on campus and a dummy variable for the presence on campus a non-Greek system of
social houses. As students select from a changing set of residential options, an increase in the
number of fraternities or sororities on campus will tend to increase the likelihood of a given
individual joining a fraternity, while an increase in non-Greek living and social options will tend
to decrease it. Using these variables as instruments, we are able to identify shifts in the
probability of fraternity membership that are plausibly exogenous and, thereby, to estimate the
impact of fraternity membership on an individual’s academic and economic performance.
An additional advantage of using these particular instruments is that they are clearly
choice variables from the perspective of the college administration. Thus, our estimates provide
an estimate of the plausible impact of one dimension of college policy toward Greek life on
fraternity membership, student grades, and expected future income levels. Although the precise
magnitude of these effects is likely to be particular to the college used in the study, which has a
strong Greek culture, it is reasonable to expect the qualitative effects of these policies to be
similar at similar institutions.
We find that the academic and economic consequences of fraternity membership are
quite large. Fraternity membership reduces a student’s GPA by 0.4 points on a four-point scale.
Moreover, controlling for alcohol-related behavior only slightly reduces this effect, suggesting
that college policies designed to reduce alcohol use at fraternities will have only limited
6. 6
academic benefits. We also find that, in spite of the strong negative effect on human capital
accumulation, fraternity membership increases expected future income by roughly 30%. This
suggests that the negative effect of fraternity membership on human capital accumulation is
more than offset by its positive impact on social capital formation. For this reason, joining a
fraternity may be a rational decision that improves the long-term prospects of an individual
student despite its damaging short-term effects on a student’s grades. These estimates also
indicate that college administrators face an important trade-off when they limit fraternity life on
campus: while this may be expected to significantly raise academic performance, these gains
may come at a significant cost in terms of expected future income for their graduates.
2. Data
Our data are taken from a survey administered in 2009 to alumni of one Northeastern liberal arts
college who were between the ages of 24 and 65 at the time of the survey. 3,762 alumni
responded to the survey, a response rate of 25.8%. The survey asked respondents for information
about their demographic characteristics, college activities, academic achievement, and current
work status and income. In the analysis below, we limit the sample to men who are employed
fulltime and for whom all of the control variables are present, resulting in 1,632 observations.††
Measures of the institution-specific variables are taken from college records. Descriptive
statistics for all of the variables used in the analysis are found in Table 1.
††
We have also examined the effects of sorority membership on grades and income, but the female student sample is
smaller than the male student sample, as the college did not admit female students until 1974. We found little
significant effect of sorority membership on academic or economic outcomes, so we restrict attention here to
fraternity membership.
7. 7
We use two outcome variables. GPA is a respondent’s self-reported grade point average
on a four-point scale. It is our main measure of collegiate human capital formation. For current
income, we ask respondents for the range in which their average annual income for the last three
years falls. We convert income ranges to dollar figures, and then take the natural log of these
numbers to produce the variable Log(income). We also ask if the respondent is currently
employed full time, part time, or not employed. In the regressions below we limit the sample to
full-time workers, and our results should be interpreted as being conditional on selecting full-
time work. Our treatment variable, Greek, is a dummy variable which is 1 if the respondent was
a member of a fraternity and 0 if not.
We also use a number of exogenous demographic variables that may affect choice of
college activities, academic achievement, or post-college income. These include Age, Age
Squared, Gender, and a set of dummy variables for the respondent’s race and ethnicity, including
African-American, Asian, Hispanic and Other race, to measure for a student’s race and ethnicity.
The reference race-ethnicity category is non-Hispanic White. These variables are used to control
for systematic difference across student populations in labor market and academic outcomes and
opportunities for collegiate social capital accumulation that might otherwise provide alternative
causal channels between fraternity membership and the two outcome variables. For example,
there could be a positive correlation between fraternity membership and income if minority
students face discrimination in both the Greek system and in labor markets; controlling for race
prevents this effect from biasing our estimates. The variables Age and Age Squared control for a
quadratic relationship in the evolution of the college academic and social environment, such as
grade inflation and social norms related to Greek life.
8. 8
In addition, we include three student characteristics that may affect aptitude for or interest
in different college activities. The variable SAT is a respondent’s self-reported score on the
Scholastic Aptitude Test. We interpret this variable as a control for a variety of individual
characteristics that might reasonably be expected to affect a student’s academic performance in
college, e.g. intellectual ability, work effort, and socio-economic background. Note: citation
here. The variable Parents College is defined to be the number of a respondent’s parents who
graduated from college and is included as a rough measure of socioeconomic background. The
variable Appearance corresponds to a respondent’s self-assessment of their physical
attractiveness during their college years. We include this variable on the theory that physical
attractiveness may influence student opportunities for social capital accumulation (Glaser et al.,
2000) or labor market outcomes (Hamermesh and Biddle, 1994). These variables are plausibly
unaffected by a student’s decision to join a fraternity.
We also ask two questions about drinking habits. Drinking nights is the self-reported
number of nights per week the respondent drank in college. Drinking intensity is the
respondent’s subjective measure of drinking intensity on a five-point scale, with categories
ranging from Didn’t Drink to Very Heavy. We convert this to a dummy variable, Binge, which is
1 if the respondent gave an answer of 4 or 5, which correspond to Heavy and Very Heavy
drinking, to this question, and 0 if the respondent answered 1, 2, or 3.‡‡
Although these variables
are likely to be affected by fraternity membership, and hence not exogenous, we use them in
some specifications to control the part played by alcohol use in the Greek system’s effects on
human and social capital formation. By using both dimensions of drinking behavior, our analysis
‡‡
We
have
also
estimated
regressions
using
the
original
1-‐5
responses;
they
are
substantially
the
same
as
those
reported
here,
and
are
available
from
the
authors
on
request.
9. 9
permits frequent and intense drinking to affect human and social capital accumulation
differently.
Finally, we collect three variables that describe important aspects of student residential
options and the social environment of the college. Fraternities is the number of housed
fraternities that exist at the college (almost all fraternities at the college are housed, and the few
that are not have limited social function). Sororities is the number of sororities that exist at the
college. The first sororities on campus were formed in 1978, shortly after the college admitted
female students. Minervas is a dummy variable indicating the presence of seven Minerva houses
on the campus. These are student houses which were created in 2004 to provide a social
alternative to Greek life. All students are members of one of the houses (though most do not live
there) and the houses have substantial budgets for programs and activities designed to create a
social sphere alongside the Greek system.
3. Methodology
In this section of the paper, we describe the methodology used to identify the causal effect of
fraternity membership on academic achievement and future income. The basic regressions we
estimate are
GPAi = β0 + β1*Greeki + βj*Xji + εi (1)
log(Incomei) = γ0 + γ1*Greeki + γj*Xji + εi (2)
10. 10
where Xj is the set of exogenous control variables affecting grades and income. Fraternity
membership is likely to be correlated with unobserved factors that influence a student’s GPA and
income, because students choosing how hard to study are also choosing whether to join a
fraternity, and both of these may be correlated with the student’s post-college income. As a
result, least squares estimates of equations (1) and (2) will not correctly identify the casual effect
that Greek life has on grades and income. They may be biased by self-selection of students with
particular unobserved characteristics into the fraternity system.
To consistently estimate the causal effect of fraternities, we need instrumental variables
which are plausibly randomly assigned to students, hence are not correlated with the error terms
of equations (1) and (2), but significantly affect decisions about joining a fraternity, and do not
affect grades and post-college income except through the student’s decision to join a fraternity.
We use the three variables that describe the residential and social choices available to students,
both inside and outside the Greek system, as our instruments. If there are more options, or more
attractive options, to live in fraternities, then students are more likely to choose to do so; if there
are better options for non-fraternity living, students are more likely to select those and thus less
likely to join a fraternity.
Having more fraternities makes more Greek housing options open to male students, and
also allows students a choice among more differentiated set of fraternity brothers, making it
more likely to find a social match. In addition, an increase in the number of fraternities may also
reduce the selectivity of the Greek system, as fraternities compete for members. Both of these
considerations suggest a positive relationship between the number of fraternities on campus and
the likelihood any individual student will select fraternity membership. Although male students
cannot live in sororities, interactions between fraternities and sororities provide channels for
11. 11
male and female students to meet. When there are more sororities, fraternities have more
opportunities to offer these connections to their members, making fraternity membership more
attractive. Some of the variation in this instrument comes from the fact that there were no
sororities when the college was all-male; but since sororities were established, not long after the
college admitted female students, their numbers have fluctuated as new ones have opened and
closed. The Minerva houses, by contrast, offer additional residential and social options outside
the Greek system. Their presence on campus decreases the opportunity cost of fraternity
membership and likely reduces the probability of fraternity membership.. The number of
Minerva houses has been constant at seven since their opening, so we represent them by a
dummy variable for their presence or absence, rather than by the number of houses.
Because these variables are measures of the residential options the college offers, not of
the characteristics of the students or the academic program, they are unlikely to be correlated
with the errors in equations (1) or to have any causal effect on student grades and incomes except
through influencing fraternity membership. They are identical for all students in a given class at
the college, but vary over time as the college varies the housing options it offers. Changes in
these variables over time provide variation in the demand for fraternity housing that will change
the propensity of students to join fraternities, and allow us to identify the effect of fraternity life
on grades and post-college income.§§
In addition to providing a plausible strategy for identifying the causal effect of fraternities
on academic and economic outcomes, our instrumental variables may plausibly be considered
policy variables by college administrators. Thus, they shed light on how changes in college
§§
We have also used a wide range of other variables describing social and academic conditions at the college as
instruments. The results are quite robust to the choice of instruments used. We select these instruments because,
being most directly related to the choice of whether to live in a fraternity or not, they are the most powerful, and
hence suffer the least from potential concerns about weak instruments.
12. 12
policies, particularly rules limiting the number of fraternities and sororities on campus and
attempts to provide venues for residential and social activities, affect fraternity membership, and
through membership, academic effort and post-college income of alumni.
As noted in the introduction, fraternity membership may influence future outcomes
through a number of channels, including drinking behavior and the accumulation of human and
social capital. We investigate the importance of these channels by considering specifications that
include controls related to student drinking behavior and, in the income equation, academic
performance. Since drinking behavior and grades are clearly endogenous, the coefficients on
these variables should not be interpreted as representing causal effects; these regressions shed
light on important policy questions by decomposing the effects of the Greek system into alcohol-
related and non-alcohol-related channels. For example, controlling for measures of drinking
behavior in equation (1) provides information on the effect of fraternity membership on
academic achievement holding student drinking behavior constant. This information might
matter for college administrators interested in addressing the impact of fraternities on academic
performance by implementing policies related to student alcohol use. Similarly, controlling for
grades in equation (2) provides a rough proxy of the relative importance of human and social
capital channel on future income.
4. Results
4.1. Residence Options as Determinants of Greek Membership
We estimate equations (1) and (2) by two-stage least squares. The first-stage regression is
13. 13
Greeki = δ0 + δj*Xji + λk*Zik + εi (3)
where Z is the set of variables describing residential and social offerings on campus, with k=1, 2,
or 3 indicating one of the three variables in the set of instruments. Since Greek is an indicator
variable, equation (3) can be interpreted as a linear probability model.
Results of estimating equation (3) are shown in column 1 of Table 2. All three
instruments are significant at the 5% level, and two of the three are significant at the 1% level.
More fraternities and more sororities increase the odds that a student will choose to live in a
fraternity, and the Minerva house system reduces the odds that a student will do so. All of these
are the expected signs. The presence of an additional fraternity on campus increases the
likelihood of fraternity membership by around 3.5 percent, while the effect of an additional
sorority is roughly twice as large, and the presence of an alternative social and residential
housing system reduces the probability of fraternity membership by 14.5%. The partial R2
for the
three instruments together is 0.0468, and the F-statistic for their exclusion from the first stage,
which is also the Cragg-Donald statistic for instrument strength, is 26.53. The latter is
comfortably above the critical values for the test for 5% relative bias (13.91) and the test for
2SLS size of 10% (16.38). The correlations of the three instruments with fraternity membership
are 0.1983 for number of fraternities, 0.0716 for number of sororities, and -0.0952 for the
Minerva houses. Thus we are comfortable with the strength of the instruments for use in the
second stage regression.
Columns 2 through 4 of Table 2 provide regression results that include controls for
student drinking behavior and grades, which correspond to the first stages of two-stage least
squares regressions which include those variables, presented below. Controlling for these
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variables in the second stage regression provides valuable information about the channels
through which fraternity membership affects academic and economic outcomes. Since drinking
behavior and grades are highly likely to be endogenous to fraternity membership, the coefficients
on these variables should not be viewed a representing causal effects. Our results indicate the
fraternity membership is associated with lower grades and with more frequent and heavier
drinking. More importantly, the effects of fraternities, sororities, and Minervas on fraternity
membership are similar in magnitude and significance in all four specifications.
4.2. Fraternity Membership and Academic Performance
We turn next to our main equations of interest, beginning with the effects of fraternity
membership on grades. Column 1 of Table 3 shows the result of estimating equation (1) by OLS.
The least squares result suggests a negative association between grades and fraternity
membership, with fraternity members having GPAs 0.211 points (on the standard 0-4 scale)
below those of non-fraternity members. In addition, college grades are quadratic in age, peaking
in 1991, negatively related to Black and Hispanic ethnicity, and positively related to the SAT
score, though the effect is fairly small, with an additional 100 points on SATs (1600 scale)
producing only a 0.072 increase in GPA.
Column (2) shows results for the 2SLS regression in which we instrument for fraternity
membership using Fraternities, Sororities and Minervas. Comparing our results in columns (1)
and (2), we find that OLS significantly underestimates the negative effects of fraternities on
grades. Joining a fraternity causes students to suffer a loss of 0.420 points to their GPA, almost
exactly double the least-squares result. We conduct the Sargan test for the validity of the
overidentifying restrictions and find that, conditional on at least one instrument being valid, the
15. 15
restrictions are acceptable with a p-value of 0.428. The pattern of coefficients for the control
variables is highly similar across these two specifications
This finding may be counter-intuitive, particularly if one assumes that fraternity
membership is more attractive to students with lower academic standards. To make sense of this
finding, it is important to recall that two-stage least squares estimate measures the local average
treatment effect (LATE). That is, it measures the effect of fraternity membership on the
academic performance of marginal fraternity members, who are sorted into or out of fraternity
membership based on changes in the treatment variables. Our results suggest that the academic
performance of these students is more sensitive to fraternity membership than the academic
performance of students whose decision to join a fraternity (or not) is relatively unaffected by
marginal changes in the housing options on campus. This might be the case if marginal
fraternity members have higher academic standards or aspirations than inframarginal fraternity
members, and thus have more to lose, or if they are less able to balance the social and academic
demands on their time that come with fraternity membership.
Some of the effects of fraternities on grades may be related to the impact of fraternity
membership on student drinking behavior. To see how important this channel of influence is, we
re-estimate equation (1) including controls for intensity and frequency of drinking, both of which
are higher for fraternity members. The estimated value of β1 is no longer an estimate of the
LATE of fraternity membership; it can be understood as the difference in grades between two
students, one a fraternity member and one not, whose drinking habits are held constant. The
estimated value of β1 in this specification is -0.380, only about ten percent less than the estimated
treatment effect, when alcohol is not held constant. This implies that only about ten percent of
the negative effect of fraternities on grades is due to alcohol use; the rest has other causes, such
16. 16
as anti-intellectual attitudes in fraternity houses. These results suggest that college policies
designed to influence fraternity-related drinking behavior are unlikely to have a large effect on
the academic achievement of fraternity members.
4.3 Fraternity Membership and Economic Performance
Next we turn to the effects of fraternity membership on post-college incomes. Column 1 of Table
4 shows the result of estimating equation (2) by OLS and suggests that fraternity members have
18.0% higher incomes than non-members. Other coefficients take expected signs. Income rises
with age at a decreasing rate and is predicted to peak at 52.6 years of age. Black students have
significantly lower incomes, and Asian students have higher incomes, though the latter effect is
not significant in the 2SLS results. Several explanations of these results are possible, including
discrimination in labor markets and differences in choice of major and classes. Neither parents’
college education nor SAT scores have any effect on post-college income, but college
appearance does, with a one-point increase in self-reported attractiveness increasing wages by
10.2%.
Column (2) presents results from the 2SLS regression and indicates that Greek
membership increases future income by 29.7%. This estimate suggests that the formation of
social capital that takes place in fraternities is more than sufficient to overcome the loss of
human capital from reduced studying, as reflected in poorer grades. In addition, comparing the
OLS and IV results, our findings suggest that fraternity membership matters more for the future
incomes of marginal fraternity members, whose membership decisions are influenced by
marginal changes in college living options, than it does for individuals whose membership
decision is relatively unaffected by such changes. A plausible explanation for this outcome is
17. 17
that fraternity membership has a larger impact on social capital formation for marginal than
average members.
Because the alumni in our survey are at all stages of their careers, the income effects
should be understood as being the increase in earnings over the student’s lifetime, not just the
earnings from the first job. They may be higher than effects of fraternity membership on salary
in the student’s first job if social capital formation through fraternity membership increases the
ability of a student to get promotions or salary increases in mid-career, or to shift from lower-
paying to higher-paying career tracks in response to changes in the economic environment.
Columns (3), (4), and (5) show the effects of re-estimating equation (2) including
controls for collegiate drinking behavior, for grades, and for both. This allows us to decompose
the effects of fraternity membership on income into an alcohol channel, a human capital channel,
and all other channels, which we expect primarily to reflect social capital accumulation. As seen
in column (3), controlling for collegiate drinking behavior has little effect on our estimate of the
effect of fraternity membership on future income. This implies that the social capital formation
that takes place in fraternities is not particularly affected by the amount of drinking a student
does. In addition, neither collegiate drinking variable is significantly related to future income.
In column (4), controlling for GPA, we find that the fraternity membership increases
future income by 41.1%, an effect we attribute to social capital accumulation. Comparing results
for columns (2) and (4), we find that the human capital channel accounts for a 11.4% decline in
future income, indicating that the social capital channel is roughly four times as important as the
human capital channel for future income, which is why fraternity members earn higher incomes
despite the harmful effects of fraternity membership on their grades.
18. 18
Column (5) includes both the drinking behavior and GPA controls. The estimated effect
of fraternity membership in this specification is 41.9%, much the same as the result in column 4,
and again suggests that the social capital formation effects of fraternities are not dependent on
the amount of drinking that takes place in them. Our results for this specification show frequent
drinking is associated with higher future income; this could indicate that frequency (but not
intensity) of drinking is associated with higher social capital formation for Greeks and non-
Greeks alike. However, it cannot be given a causal interpretation due to the endogeneity of
drinking behavior.
5. Conclusion
This paper identifies the academic and economic consequences of fraternity membership using
data from a survey of the alumni of a small northeastern college that spans nearly fifty years.
We identify the causal effect of fraternity membership by considering changes to the college’s
residential and social environment over this timespan. These include changes in the number of
fraternities and sororities on campus and the introduction of the Minerva houses, a set of non-
Greek social houses intended to provide a wider range of social alternatives to students.
Consistent with expectations, we find that the probability of fraternity membership increases in
the number of fraternities and sororities on campus and decreases with the introduction of the
Minerva houses.
We find that fraternity membership lower grades by 0.42 points on the traditional four-
point scale. Controlling for alcohol-related behavior reduces this estimate slightly, to 0.38,
suggesting that while alcohol consumption may play a highly visible aspect of fraternity life, in
19. 19
terms of grades it is far from the most important. Our findings also suggest limits to the ability
to address the academic impact of fraternities through policies directed at alcohol use alone. We
also find that fraternity membership has a large positive impact on future income levels,
increasing it by roughly 30 percent. Thus, it appears that the impact of fraternity membership on
human capital accumulation is more than offset by its effect on the formation of social capital.
Because our data is collected from workers from ages 25 to 65, it incorporates the effect of
Greek membership on lifetime earnings, not just on earnings in the first job after college.
In interpreting these results, we stress that two-stage least squares estimates reflect the
local average treatment effect. That is, they reflect the effect of fraternity membership on
marginal fraternity members whose membership decision is influenced by marginal changes in
residential options at the college, rather than the effects on those students who will join
fraternities in any event. This may differ from the average effect of fraternity membership if the
marginal and average members respond to membership differently. In particular, marginal
members may be less capable of balancing their academic lives and the demands of fraternity
social life. However, the large impact of fraternity membership in future income suggests that
marginal members may experience large gains in terms of social capital and relationships.
Our estimates pertain to the effects of fraternity membership at one northeastern college
with a long history of fraternity life on campus and, thus, may not extend to other schools with
different histories or social environments. That said, we find no reason to believe that the
fundamental trade-off that we identify would be qualitatively different at other institutions.
Taken together, our estimates suggest that academic policy makers face a significant
tradeoff when designing policies that affect the prevalence of Greek organizations on campus.
Limiting Greek life may increase academic achievement, particularly by reducing fraternity
20. 20
membership, but these academic gains will tend to come at relatively large cost in terms of
alumni incomes. Of course, the presence of Greek organizations may also influence campus
culture in ways not considered here. For example, the exclusive nature of Greek organizations
may work against creating a culture of inclusion, and fraternities may also contribute to a climate
that encourages undesirable sexual behavior and norms. From a broader social perspective, some
of the income gains to fraternity members may represent redistribution to fraternity members
from non-members, rather than increased productivity. For this reason, the private gains to
fraternity members may exceed the social return to social capital formation. Academic
administrators may wish to consider these and other factors, together with the effects of
fraternities on grades and future incomes of alumni, in determining the appropriate extent of a
Greek system on campus.
21. 21
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