2. 01 Introduction iv
02 Geography of Central Asia 1
03 Overview of Ancient Central Asia 4
04 Political System 11
05 Social System 19
TABLE OF
CONTENTS
06 Cultural System 27
07 Summary 32
ii
3. FOREWORD
Message from Group
Representatives
This E-booklet firstly intended to provide the capsulized information about Ancient
Central Asia and aims to proliferate significant development based on existing
studies and reports. The history of the ancient and medieval worlds, in particular,
was shaped to an important extent by the succession of peoples that arose out of
the steppe, desert, oases and mountain ranges of this vast area extending from
the Caspian Sea to the high plateaux of Mongolia.
The output was prepared by the leaders of the cell groups namely John Michael
Reyes, Zhyra Marie Penus, Mary Joy Marang, Ronnie Lin Rullan, Brendth
Constantino, and Majie Anne Mangao with the strenuous help of each groups
members. And it was decided that the information will be attributed to the
UNESCO presentation of facts contained in this book. Hence, the study on Central
Asia should deal with the civilizations of Afghanistan, northeastern Iran, Pakistan,
northern India, western China, Mongolia and the former Soviet Central Asian
republics.
The resources used are from "HISTORY OF CIVILIZATIONS OF CENTRAL ASIA"
Volume I The dawn of civilization: earliest times to 700 b. c; Volume II The
development of sedentary and nomadic civilizations: 700 b. c. to a. d. 250 and
Volume IV The age of achievement: A.D. 750 to the end of the fifteenth century.
pn
In light of giving short and concise presentation, this sought to provide highlights of the aforementioned
volumes of the book. Firstly, Volume I the groups presented a concept of periodization, which is reflected in
its structure. The lengthy Palaeolithic period is dealt with in three successive chapters, following technological
and cultural developments. Also, the presentation and analysis in these chapters follow historical and cultural
subdivisions of the Central Asian. Secondly, Volume II exhibits Volume II the history of Civilizations of Central
Asia deals with the historical period from c. 700 b.c. to c. a.d. 250. This was characterized by the
development of the nomadic and sedentary civilizations, created by the Iranian tribes who lived partly in the
steppe and wooded-steppe zone, partly in the oasis zone. Lastly, Volume IV of this History covers some eight
centuries, a.d. 750–1500, centuries during which the new faith of Islam arose, first in Arabia, and then
gradually spread eastwards and northwards, affecting, over a long period of time, much of Central Asia, the
southern fringes of Siberia and the eastern regions of China, competing in these areas with olderestablished
faiths.
iii
4. Central Asia is a region in the Asian Continent. Mountain ranges, deserts, and steppes are observable,
and just like any other region from ancient times, it is also a part of society that holds and shapes history.
Ancient civilizations have been an important factor that becomes peoples’ basis for some of their traditions
and lifestyle.
Kingdoms and empires that were built during the ancient time in Central Asia hold certain characteristics
of cultural, political, and social progress. This was characterized by the development of the nomadic and
sedentary civilization created by different tribes. One of the human groups that emerged in this region is the
Scythians which is located in the western half of Central Asia. It was divided into two groups, the royal and
ordinary. It can be seen that they have their own system which helps them see what is best for them. People
in this group have a heart for arts and crafts. However, because of conflicts, Scythians began to decline and
scattered throughout the region. The Xiongnu which is said to be the next great Central Asian empire and
may be the ancestors of the Huns also faced conflicts, especially in trading with China which became the
reason for another empire to rise. Uyghurs, the first important Turkic group played a dramatic role in linking
the west and the East they have their own culture and beliefs but despite it, they also borrowed from other
groups. Islam was introduced into China and it is developing at a rapid rate because of traders who used the
Silk Road but due to divisions between the nomadic and sedentary groups, the Uyghurs collapsed. Then
here comes the Mongols, that improved and make changes in their lifestyle. Other countries from central
Asia contributed and engage in recreation of this. A different form of Islam is also adopted and played a big
role.
The changes brought by the movement of people had an immediate and cataclysmic effect on the and
social organization. Despite of it, the rich religious and intellectual background of Central Asian scholars and
literary people helped the region to make a characteristic and significant contribution to world civilization.
INTRODUCTION
iv
5. Central Asia is a sub region of Asia that consists of the
former Soviet republics of Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan,
Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan. It is also colloquially referred to
as "The -Stans" as the countries all have names ending with
the Persian suffix "-stan", meaning "land of".
Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan. The arid lowland is
surrounded by even drier deserts, like the
Kyzylkum or the Karakum deserts. The dominant
rivers in these southern regions are the Amu
Darya and the Syr Darya rivers, both feed Lake
Aral, one of the largest lakes in the world earlier.
Due to irresponsible irrigation, the lake has shrunk
to 10% of its earlier size and split into smaller lakes.
Lake Balkhash in eastern Kazakhstan is another
endorheic lake. It is also one of the largest lakes in
Asia and is diminishing continuously like Lake Aral.
The Irtysh River flows through the northeastern
section of Kazakhstan originating on the southern
slopes of the Altai mountain system and draining
towards the Arctic Ocean after joining the Ob
River in Russia.
PHYSICAL
GEOGRAPHY
The absolute location of Central Asia is 45.4507° N,
68.8319° E while its relative location is extending from the
Caspian Sea in the west to the border of western China in the
east. It is bounded on the north by Russia and on the south by
Iran, Afghanistan, and China. It has an extremely varied
geography, including high mountain passes through vast
mountain ranges, such as the Tian Shan, Hindu Kush, and the
Pamirs. The region is also home to the vast Kara Kum and
Kyzyl Kum deserts, which dominate the interior with extensive
spans of sand and desolation. The expansive treeless, grassy steppes surrounding the desert regions are considered an
extension of Eastern Europe’s steppes. Some geographers think of the Eurasian Steppes as one single, homogenous
geographical zone. Under the sand and prairie grasses lay some of the most extensive untapped reserves of gas and oil on the
planet. Natural resources are the main attraction of the region, driving the economic forces that determine the development
patterns of individual countries. Multinational corporations have vigorously stepped up their activity in the region.
As we move westwards on the Central Asia map, the landscape becomes flatter, the other three countries' geographical
features are mainly steppes, deserts, and lowlands. The Caspian Sea marks the region's western border, which is the largest of
the world’s lakes. The sandy Turan Lowland lies to the east of the Caspian Sea, shared by all three countries, Kazakhstan,
1
6. Tian Shian Hindu Kush Mountain
Pamirs Mountain Karakum and Kyzyl Desert
HUMAN
GEOGRAPHY
The countries of Central Asia were once the center
of multiple nomadic empires and tribes, including the
Scythians, Mongols, and Turks. This had a big influence
on the traditions and cultures of many Central Asian
countries to this day. This is especially true in
Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan, which contain huge green
plains and pastures that are populated by nomadic
groups even now. Many people in Central Asia live in
traditional, movable houses called yurts, which are
covered in Turkish felt. Across many, Central Asian
countries, horseback riding competitions and sports are
popular, which reflect the tradition of nomadic herding.
A strong respect for elders is also common across the
lands in Central Asia.
2
7. The influence of the Soviet Union and Russia is a major factor in Central Asian culture. Russian is spoken in all the countries of
Central Asia. People also put a lot of emphasis and value on family and the homeland. These values are a direct result of the 70
years that the Communist Party ruled Russia. Under Soviet rule, people became dependent on the sharing of resources among
family members, and this meant that a strong extended family was valuable. While, strictly speaking, Uzbekistan and
Turkmenistan didn't take Russia's side during the Cold War, there is still a lot of Russian influence in these countries.
The five largest ethnic groups in Central Asia are in descending order of size, the Uzbek, Kazakh, Tajik, Turkmen, and Kyrgyz. All
those groups speak languages related to Turkish except for the Tajik, who speak a language related to Persian. Islam is the
dominant religion, with most adherents belonging to the Sunni branch. As a result of the region’s historical incorporation into
Russia and then the Soviet Union, large numbers of Russians and Ukrainians give it a distinctive multiethnic character. Population
growth in Central Asia was quite rapid in the 20th century as a result of high birth rates and Soviet health measures that brought
down mortality rates. The region experienced environmental problems in the late 20th century that was due to the effects of
rapid agricultural development, overdependence on irrigation, and the effects of Soviet nuclear-weapons testing in some areas.
Religious rituals are one of the key ways in which people differentiate themselves culturally. Despite the area being a part of
the Soviet Union, where religious activities were forbidden, Islam was and still is a major religion. There is significant variation
within the groupings in Central Asia. Challenges also arise because nearly all common definitions use modern political borders for
simplicity, whereas the concept of Central Asia is much more centered on history, culture, and geography – concepts whose
"borders" tend to flow into one another rather than starting in one place and ending in another.
Central Asia’s economic activity is centered on irrigated agriculture in the south and on heavy and light industry and mining in
Kazakhstan. Under Soviet rule the area supplied most of the U.S.S.R.’s cotton and was a major supplier of coal and other minerals
for industrial use. Irrigated cotton growing is dominant in the east and southeast, while there is some dry farming
3
8. BRONZE AGE
IN CENTRAL ASIA
The Early Bronze Age in northern Central Asia dates from approximately 3200 to 2400 BC
This period is associated with an economic shift to animal pastoralism and mixed economies in various locations of the
Eurasian steppe.
The Middle Bronze Age (2500–1900 BC) in northern Central Asia signifies a shift to more intensive cattle and sheep/goat.
The horse-based economies of the earlier Botai/Tersek sites are replaced by pastoral groups focused on herding sheep,
goat, cattle, and horses.
By the Late/Final Bronze Age (1900/1400–1400/1000 BC), specialized pastoral economies extend across northern Central
Asia from the Ural to the Tian Shan Mountains. This period is associated with a widespread economic shift to animal
pastoralism, along with the emergence of agriculture in mountain settings of northern Central Asia .
Northern Central Asia—The Pastoral Mosaic and Migration
THE SCYTHIANS
(8TH TO 7TH CENTURIES)
The Scythians started out in Central Asia and swept all the way across to the
Black Sea region. They were an important force from 8th-4th centuries B.C.E. They
exhibited a lot of nomadic characteristics of Central Asia.
They are group of ancient tribes of nomadic warriors
The Scythians were divided into two groups, the royal and the ordinary.
Women played a very important role in the nomadic group, women carry out all the chores and labor.
Culture
The nomads love arts and crafts. In the case of the Scythians, it was the gold as seen in the spectacular animal-style
objects.
The Scythians developed horse breeding and riding to a new level. They were accomplished riders and did not use
spiked bits or muzzles. Scythian horse gear (saddles, bridles, bits etc) was also highly developed and functional,
durable and light.
Feasting was an important part of Scythian funeral ceremonies – it was also important for social bonding between
individuals and tribes. Originally known as ‘milk drinkers’, the Scythians adopted wine consumption from Greeks and
Persians.
Society
4
OVERVIEW OF ANCIENT CENTRAL ASIA
9. UYGHURS
The Uyghurs are mainly a sedentary village-dwelling people who live in the network of
oases formed in the valleys and lower slopes of the Tien Shan, Pamirs, and related
mountain systems they have practiced irrigation to conserve their water supply for
agriculture.
The chief Uyghur cities are Ürümqi, the capital of Xinjiang, and Kashgar (Kashi), an
ancient centre of trade on the historic Silk Road near the border between Russia and
China.
Society
Culture
The Uyghur people first to have a developed written language that was based upon Aramaic.
The Uyghur also adopted the Manichaeism and they introduced this religion to China as well.
The Uyghurs traded across Eurasia; they brought different objects into China, such as Persian silvers and textiles.
Meanwhile in Central Asia, Islam was developing at a rapid rate partly through the efforts of Arab and Persian traders
who crossed along the Silk Road. They converted the local people. Mosques were built in cities like Samarkand and
Bukhara.
In the late 9th and early 10th centuries, China collapsed. Simultaneously, the opposite empire in Persia also went into a
period of decline. Thus, from the 10th to the 13th century, Central Asia could no longer function as a transmitter, the
role that it traditionally played.
Period of Decline
THE MONGOLS
The Mongols had taken all the characteristics of Central Asian nomads and
elevated them to the highest degree. They were very interested in trade.
Europeans arrived in China for the first time through the Mongols.
They imported Persian medicine into China and had a great impact on Chinese
medicine. Persian astronomical instruments were also brought to Beijing. A new
and more accurate calendar was created as a result. They also built
observatories in China, which was a Mongol innovation. Mongols also had an
impact on Chinese textile in the 13th century The Mongol empire later collapsed
due to internal rifts.
5
10. THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
In 1526, a Muslim ruler from central Asia called Babur captured Delhi and founded the
Mughal Empire.
Society
In the Mughal social structure, the nobles came mostly from Central Asia and Iran. Afghans, Indian Muslims
(shaikhzadas), Rajputs, and Marathas also obtained the status of nobility.
Inequality in the standard of life amongst the privileged and the underprivileged classes was clear.
The caste system was a dominant institution in society.
Political
Babur- Considered one of the finest Mughal emperors, Babur succeeded in securing the dynasty's
position in Delhi after a series of sultanates failed to consolidate their seats and his empire went on
to rule for over 300 years in India.
Culture
The Mughals were Muslims who ruled a country with a large Hindu majority.
Humayun’s Tomb, the sandstone mausoleum of Akbar’s father, was built during this period of Mughal architecture.
Architecture reached its peak in refinement and attention to detail under Shah Jahan (1628–1658), who
commissioned the famous Taj Mahal, a white marble mausoleum dedicated to his wife Mumtaz Mahal.
Architecture reached its peak in refinement and attention to detail under Shah Jahan (1628–1658), who
commissioned the famous Taj Mahal , a white marble mausoleum dedicated to his wife Mumtaz Mahal.
Humayun- He was the second Mughal Emperors succeeding in Bahur. He was born as Nasir-ud-Din
Muḥammad in 1508 in Kabul to Maham Begum. Humayun lost his empire after a defeat in the Battle
of Kanauj in AD 1540. He was so badly defeated in this war that he went into Exile.
Akbar- Akbar was given the nickname 'the Great' because of his many accomplishments, among
which, was his record of unbeaten military campaigns that established the Mughal rule in the Indian
subcontinent. Mughal firearms in the time of Akbar came to be far superior.
6
11. SPREAD OF BUDDHISM
· Given the geography of Asia, the routes that Buddhism followed in its spread naturally followed the
contours of the land, the paths already traced out since time immemorial by traders.
· Most of the attention paid to the spread of Buddhism across Central Asia concentrates on its
progress north out of the Bamiyan valley, through mountain passes, then eastward, along either the
northern or southern borders of the Taklamakan desert, through the oasis towns there, to the north
through Kashgar, Kucha, and Turfan, to the south through Khotan, Niya, and Miran, joining in the now-
famous Dunhuang oasis.
The transmission of Buddhism to Central Asia and China corresponded with the development of the
silk routes as channels for intercultural exchanges
Soviet Central Asia was the part of Central Asia administered by the Soviet Union between
1918 and 1991 when the Central Asian republics declared independence.
It is nearly synonymous with Russian Turkestan in the Russian Empire
The Soviets transformed the area into a center for cotton and silk production and relocated
tens of thousands of people to the city from around the Soviet Union.
The population also increased with thousands of ethnic Tajiks migrating to Tajikistan following
the transfer of Bukhara and Samarkand to the Uzbek SSR.
The primary object of Soviet policy in Central Asia is to raise the productivity and economic
potential of a region that is not only rich in natural resources but is also relatively remote from
Western striking power.
SOVIET UNION
NOMADIC LIFESTYLE OF
TURKISH AND MONGOL
Traditionally, nearly all of this immense region has been occupied by a variety of peoples, most importantly Turkish and Mongol.
They supported themselves primarily by nomadic pastoralism, using animals to extract sustenance from grazing on the steppe
and living in turn on their milk and meat.
7
12. The animals that made the pastoral nomadic way of life possible were primarily sheep and goats, native to the Central Asian
steppe and very little altered from their wild forms.
Horses and camels were kept for riding and as carriers.
It was earlier farming communities rather than pastoral nomads that first trained the horse to pull loads, using some sort of
harness, perhaps as early as the third millennium b.c.e. Probably only much later did farming communities train the horse for
riding.
Many of the pastoral nomads of Central Asia scorned all agriculture and those who practiced it.
This view seems to have been most true of the Mongols, who associated all farming with their traditionally despised
Chinese enemies and regarded settled agriculture and all sedentary lifestyles.
Nomadic Pastoralism
Agriculture
CENTRAL ASIA AND
THE MONGOL EMPIRE
The vast extent of the Mongol conquests is to some extent
misleading since they lasted only for a few decades, destroyed largely
by fighting among the Mongol clans.
During Europe’s High Middle Ages the Mongol Empire, the largest contiguous land
empire in history, began to emerge.
The Mongol Empire began in the Central Asian steppes and lasted throughout the
13th and 14th centuries.
Many additional countries became tributary states of the Mongol Empire.
Rise Of The Mongol Empire
During the period of the empire the Mongols in occupied areas mostly had to
make the transition from a nomadic way of life.
The Mongols had a unique way of slaughtering their animals to get meat.
The Mongols also hunted animals as a food source, including rabbit, deer, wild
boar, and even wild rodents such as squirrels and marmots.
During the winter, the Mongols also practiced ice fishing.
People of different social classes were assigned to different parts of the meat and
it was the responsibility of the server or the "ba’urchis" to know who was in each
social class.
Society
Genghis Khan authorized the use of paper money shortly before his death in 1227.
It was backed by precious metals and silk.
The Mongols used Chinese silver ingot as a unified money of public account, while circulating
paper money in China and coins in the western areas of the empire such as Golden Horde and
Chagatai Khanate.
During the reigns of Ögedei, Güyük and Möngke, Mongol coinage increased with gold and silver
coinage in Central Asia and copper and silver coins in Caucasus, Iran and southern Russia.
Economy
8
13. Of all the arts, the Mongols themselves loved and cultivated music, developing a unique
form of singing known as throat singing or khoomi.
Under Genghis Khan, textile workers, architects, stone carvers, and jewelers were
relocated from the Middle East and Central Asia to Mongolia to create the magnificent
works of art desired by the Mongols.
Long songs may be accompanied by the other key element of Mongolian traditional
music, the Morin khuur or horse-head fiddle.
Culture (Mongol Empire Art: Mongolian Music)
The fall of the Mongol Empire led to the collapse of political unity along the Silk Road.
Also, the falling victim was the cultural and economic aspects of its unity.
The introduction of gunpowder contributed to the fall of the Mongols, as previously
conquered tribes used it to reassert their independence.
Along the Silk Road, it was quite the opposite: failure to maintain the level of integration
of the Mongol Empire, and a resulting decline in trade, partially exacerbated by the
increase in European maritime trade.
By 1400, the Silk Road no longer served as a shipping route for silk.
Decline
THE MONGOLS IN BATTLE
• Mounted archery became the principal military weapon of the nomads, used
with great skill and with devastating effect by warriors who were also
consummate horsemen.
• The bow was adapted for use on horseback by making it in so-called
compound form, a double reflex in the shape of a Cupid’s bow, which made it
much shorter and hence more manageable on horseback but without any
significant loss of firepower, range, or accuracy.
• the compound bow was an invention of the sedentary peoples, appearing in
China as early as the second-millennium b.c.e. The bows were composites of
laminated wood, horn, and sinew, materials readily available to the nomads.
Throughout Central Asia the camel was also used for carrying and for traveling.
This was the dominant carrier of trade within and across Central Asia, for which
its qualities and its larger carrying capacity fit it far better than the horse. The
Arabs and Turks also used camels as military cavalry,
The nomads produced their own bows and arrows, often made by each
warrior for himself, and they often did not have (and hence were not
encumbered by) swords or spears.
Nomad Warriors
9
14. IRAN: A BRIEF HISTORY
• Iran (formerly Persia) sits at the crossroads between the mountains of western Asia.
• Given survived, and out of the chaos a new Iranian dynasty arose, the Safavids (1501–1736),
founded by yet another Central Asian Turkish group.
• The first Safavid ruler in Iran, Ismail, assumed the ancient title of shah. His son Tahmasp reigned
for 52 years (1524–1576) and presided over a flowering of Persian art, especially miniature
painting.
The greatest of the Safavids, Shah Abbas, ruled from 1587 to 1629; he was
both a patron of the arts and a highly effective administrator. He made
Persian culture again a model for surrounding areas, including India.
Nadir’s military adventuring led to his neglect of the economy and of administration; he squandered human and material
resources on a disastrous scale and then was embroiled in a new campaign in the Caucasus. His huge exactions bred revolt,
and he was assassinated in 1747.
Under Karim, there was wide religious tolerance, including for Jews, although after his death in 1779 they were again
persecuted. After a time of fratricidal fighting, Agha Muhammad had himself crowned shah in 1794.
The Russians were aggressively expanding their control into Central Asia, and in the course of the nineteenth century, they
took all of Central Asia south of Siberia and west of Mongolia, including the old oasis trading cities of Samarkand and Bokara,
once bases for Timur and later Babur. Then in 1907, Russia and Britain arranged to divide Iran into “Spheres of Influence,”
although they did not take over territory.
Reza Shah Pahlavi, an army colonel, became a new reformist shah in 1925 and tried to
modernize the country by secularization, Western clothing, and strengthening the army
with new weapons. He also built new railroad lines and changed the country’s name to
Iran.
In 1907, Russia and Britain arranged to divide Iran into “Spheres of Influence,” although
they did not take over territory.
In World War, I both the Ottomans and the Russians invaded Iran in the west and the
north, but their final defeat left Iran again free.
In 1925 and tried to modernize the country by secularization, Western clothing, and
strengthening the army with new weapons. He also built new railroad lines and changed
the country’s name to Iran.
With the breakup of the Soviet Union in 1990, the Islamic kingdoms of Central Asia—
Kazakhstan (the largest), Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, and others—became at least
nominally independent; all have Turkish populations.
10
15. POLITICAL SYSTEM
The most basic political structure, ruling societal interaction was the clan. It was composed of
several families and included all persons. Technically the ownership of land(ulus) and wealth
accumulated belonged to everyone in the clan. A single leader had the authoritative power. Several
clan joined together formed a tribe. These tribes gathered at vast assemblies called Kurultai and
acted as parliamentary style political election for tribal leaders. Genghis Khan was elected Great
Khan at Kurultai. The kurultai remained as consultative body advising Great Khan. Mongolian
politics were a key feature of the empire as a whole, they involved from a simple clan and tribal
politics-based institution to a complex and effective political system capable of supporting the
biggest empire in history.
Mongol Empire
During the early stages of Mongol supremacy, the empire established by Genghis absorbed
civilizations in which a strong, unified, and well-organized state power had developed. The
social organization of the Mongols was, however, characterized by pastoralism and a
decentralized patrilineal system of clans.
Antagonism existed between a society of this nature and the subjugated advanced
civilizations, between a relatively small number of foreign conquerors and a numerically strong
conquered population. In the early phases of conquest, the Mongols usually attempted to
impose the social structure of the steppes upon their new subjects. It was customary for the
Mongols to enslave a conquered tribe and to present whole communities to distinguished
military leaders as a sort of personal appanage.
ORGANIZATION OF GENGHIS
KHAN’S EMPIRE
These slaves became sooner or later an integral part of the conquering tribe. In the conquered areas a similar procedure was
adopted. Groups of the settled population, usually those living in a certain territory, became the personal property of Mongol
military leaders who exploited the local economic forces as they liked. No use was made of the existing state machinery or
bureaucracy, and the former political divisions were entirely disregarded. Nor was there any attempt to organize the numerous
local Mongol leaders who enjoyed a high degree of independence from the court of the khans. Ruthless exploitation under
strong military pressure was therefore characteristic of the early phase of Mongol domination, which may be said to have
lasted until about 1234, some seven years after Genghis Khan’s death.
11
16. The central power rested with the khan, who was assisted by military and political
councilors. No departmental administration was, however, established during the
early stages of Genghis Khan’s empire. The highly hierarchized military organization
of the Mongols had no political or administrative counterpart.
The influence of the councilors, who were appointed by the khan regardless of
their nationality, was nevertheless great. It was a former Jin subject, the Khitan Yelü
Chucai (1190–1244), a man of high talents with an excellent Chinese education, who
dissuaded Genghis from converting the whole of north China into pastureland.
Other councilors were Uyghurs, and for some time the Uyghur language was as
much used in the court chancery as Mongol. The Uyghur script was also adopted
for writing Mongol. The oldest known document in the Mongol language is a stone
inscription carved in approximately 1224.
KHITAN YELÜ CHUCAI
The economy of the conquered areas was not properly organized
during the period of conquest. The abolition of highly organized
governments gave an opportunity for the exploitation of local
production by the Mongol appanage-holders who relied to a great
extent on non-Mongol tax-farmers.
This general tendency, together with the absence of an original Mongol concept for
ruling a settled population, accounts for the entirely different development that occurred
in various countries.
This resulted in an empire that may not have been “Mongol” but was a Chinese, Persian,
or central Asian empire with a Mongol dynasty.
This trend was expressed more in some locations than others because the absorptive
power of the various civilizations differed in intensity.
In China, for instance, the Mongols could maintain their rule better than elsewhere
because the strong Chinese tradition of centralized state power supplied a stable
framework of governmental organization.
There was no single financial system for the whole empire or even for large parts of it. The absence of civil
organization at the top, the great independence of the various appanages, and the high priority accorded to military
affairs had a strongly disintegrating effect and were, at least in the early phases of Mongol rule, detrimental to
economic progress and prosperity. The Mongol empire was, under Genghis and his successors, not yet a state in the
normal sense of the word but a vast agglomeration of widely different territories held together by military domination.
As the empire grew through new conquests after Genghis’s death, the same pattern repeated itself: a period of
military, and at the same time decentralized, rule marked the first stage of Mongol domination. The result was a
noticeable variation of practice within the empire. Newly conquered areas were still subject to direct exploitation
bearing the imprint of a nomadic and military mentality, but, in those areas which had been subjugated earlier,
attempts were made to build up a state machinery and bureaucracy in order to consolidate Mongol rule. This was
done mostly in accordance with the traditional administrative system of the individual territory.
12
17. The political system in the Mughal Empire was very well organized. When the Mughal
Empire came to power each area was individually run and kept separate from the other
areas.
The great ruler, Akbar, started a centralized government. A centralized government was
easier to control and administer. This government was so successful that it was used
until the nineteenth century.
The emperor was the center of the government in the Mughal Empire. He was the
supreme head of state, commander-in-chief of the army, and the chief judge in all
disagreements.
Centralized Government
MUGHAL EMPIRE
• Whatever the emperor decided could not be challenged. The
emperor's main jobs were to be responsible for diplomacy and
foreign affairs. The emperor still needed some help to control
his enormous empire.
His administration was broken into four parts, each supervised
by a minister.
The section was Diwan, the department of finances and taxes,
Mir Bakshi, the section of military affairs and state intelligence,
Mir Saman, the group who ran the royal household, looked after
factories, stores, roads, and trade, Qazi, which took care of
legal and religious affairs.
was very important to the Mughal Empire. It was a system that helped control the
empire, conquer new territories, and gain money and manpower. Mansabs were
officers of the state or that had some type of high rank. They were often provincial
governors, had top administrative posts, were military commanders, or recruited
and trained the army. A mainjob that the Mansabs had was to provide troops for
imperial service. There were grades of officer depending on the number of troops
that they were in charge of. The number of troops that a Mansab was responsible
for ranged from 20 to 10,000, but 7,000 to 10,000 troops was a title reserved for
royalty. The emperor was responsible to appoint Mansabs, promote them
anddismiss them. The emperor also made sure to never keep a Mansab in one
place for too long. If a Mansab was not moved often, they might build up local
support and try to rebel against the emperor.
The Mansabdar system
THE MANSBDAR SYSTEM
13
18. Mughal Army
The Mughal army consisted of infantry soldiers who were equipped with things
such as muskets and cannons. Elephants were also very important in the army
because they helped transport everything. The army traveled with a portable
city with animals, equipment, supplies, workshops, offices, and a traveling
bazaar. The army was very respected and was also quite successful.
Like the government of the Mughals, their
system of justice was also very well organized.
For criminal cases there were judges, called qazis
who ruled by the Islamic law of Shari'ah. For
cases concerning financial matters, religious
affairs and other general cases, the Panchayat, a
council of elders would make the ruling.
SOVIET UNION
The emperor also had his own court where he held audiences who would present grievances. On Wednesdays he would
make his rulings and have punishments such as fines, imprisonment, whippings, blindings and executions.
The Political system in the Mughal empire was very succesful, and has had many influences on the present. The
government being used in India now is more democratic, but still has some absolute power and split responsibilty for
different areas.
Central Asia has always been left out in the study of
politics. For the Cold War, it basically means US-Soviet
Union—the Soviet Union was ruled by the Russians—in fact,
the term “Soviet” and “Russian” were often used
interchangeably. No one really cared about these Central
Asian republics, except for a small group of Central Asian
sociologists. But in term of mainstream press coverage,
Central Asian has been off the map.
The Soviet rule had some striking similarities and
differences to the Russian imperial rule, and also to
European colonial power. In the 1930s, there were
oppositions to Soviet rule, came in the forms of Muslim
movements, pan-Turkic movements, and Jadid movements.
14
19. The map of Turkestan basically resembles the borders of the former Russian
empire. In the 1920s and 30s, five Soviet republics were formed. They were co-
equal members of the Soviet Union: Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan,
Tajikistan, and Kyrghyzstan. Along these administrative lines, we have
independent states today.
There are three features in the strategies of colonialism in the Soviet empire:
1. Like other colonial powers, or imperial Russia before, the Soviets really took Central Asia
and turned it into a site for extraction of raw materials, for example cotton in Uzbekistan,
oil from Azerbaijan and mining in northern Kazakhstan. Cotton production in Uzbekistan
has dire environmental consequences, such as the shrinking coastline of the Ural Sea. In
addition, other ill effects like from pesticides that contributed to the alarming rate of
cancer in the region. In northern Kazakhstan, there were nuclear test sites.
3. The last similarity is the ideology of a superior civilization. It was true that the Soviets
wanted to sovietized the region, but they didn’t really manage in the end. On the other hand,
the Soviet authority did not really care as long as these Central Asian regions did not come
out of line.
2. Strategy of divide and conquer installed by the Soviets in the region. The Soviets did not try to
compartmentalize individual ethnic groups like other colonial powers. Instead, they did the opposite by
dividing ethnicity and creating large minorities with an administrative unit. The Soviet concern in the 1920s
and 1930s was that there might be a unified movement (pan-Islamic movements or pan-Turkic
movements) that would lead the various people to oppose against Soviet rule. So they deliberately drew
up these large republics with the aim of having a dominant ethnic group, but not too dominant, to play
them off one against each other.
ABBASID PERIOD
15
20. The system of the Samanid state was modelled after the Abbasid system, which in turn was modelled after the Sasanian system.
The ruler of the state was the amir, and the provinces were governed by appointed governors or local vassal rulers. The
administrative, political and economic affairs were administered by the divan. The economy was managed by the mustawfi,
diplomatic correspondence and important state papers by the diwanal-rasa'il, and the royal guard and military affairs by the sahib
al-shurta.
There was no single financial system for the whole empire or even for large parts of it. The absence of civil
organization at the top, the great independence of the various appanages, and the high priority accorded to military
affairs had a strongly disintegrating effect and were, at least in the early phases of Mongol rule, detrimental to
economic progress and prosperity. The Mongol empire was, under Genghis and his successors, not yet a state in the
normal sense of the word but a vast agglomeration of widely different territories held together by military domination.
As the empire grew through new conquests after Genghis’s death, the same pattern repeated itself: a period of
military, and at the same time decentralized, rule marked the first stage of Mongol domination. The result was a
noticeable variation of practice within the empire. Newly conquered areas were still subject to direct exploitation
bearing the imprint of a nomadic and military mentality, but, in those areas which had been subjugated earlier,
attempts were made to build up a state machinery and bureaucracy in order to consolidate Mongol rule. This was
done mostly in accordance with the traditional administrative system of the individual territory.
The Abbasids moved the empire’s capital from Damascus, in modern-day Syria, to
Baghdad, in modern-day Iraq, in 762 CE. The Abbasids had depended heavily on
the support of Persians in their overthrow of the Umayyads, and the geographic
power shift appeased the Persian mawali support base.
Abu al-‘Abbas’s successor, Al-Mansur, welcomed non-Arab Muslims to his court.
While this helped integrate Arab and Persian cultures, it alienated the Arabs who
had supported the Abbasids in their battles against the Umayyads.
The Abbasids established the new position of vizier to delegate central authority
and delegated even greater authority to local emirs. As the viziers exerted greater
influence, many Abbasid caliphs were relegated to a more ceremonial role as
Persian bureaucracy slowly replaced the old Arab aristocracy.
ABBASID EMPIRE
The State of Oghuz
The balance of power between the tribes of northern Central Asia was
continually shifting, and throughout the Middle Ages, the movement of
various peoples can be seen to have far-reaching political effects. The
Oghuz was a Turkic tribe, migrating west in the eighth century, and
occupying the steppes of the Aral Sea in alliance with other tribes.
They became a powerful force in this region in the tenth and eleventh
centuries.
SAMANID STATE
The main responsibility of both governors and local rulers was to collect taxes
and support the Samanid ruler with troops if needed. The most important
province in the Samanid Empire was Khorasan, which was initially given to a
relative of the Samanid ruler or a local Iranian prince (such as the Muhtajids),
but was later given to one of his most trusted slaves. The governor of Khorasan
was normally the sipah-salar (commander-in-chief).
16
21. TURKIC DYNASTY
The dynasty that ruled in Central Asia and Iran, first as vassals of the Seljuqs
and later as independent rulers. The dynasty that ruled the empire was founded
by Anush Tigin (also known as Gharachai), initially a Turkic slave of the rulers of
Gharchistan, later a Mamluk in the service of the Seljuqs.
However, it was Ala ad-Din Atsiz, descendant of Anush Tigin, who achieved
Khwarazm's independence from its neighbors. In 1220, the Mongols under their
ruler Genghis Khan invaded the Khwarazmian Empire, successfully conquering
the whole of it in less than two years.
The Seljuqs and Khwarazm Shahs
The founder of the dynasty was Sebüktigin (ruled 977–997), a former Turkic slave who
was recognized by the Sāmānids (an Iranian Muslim dynasty) as governor of Ghazna
(modern Ghaznī, Afghanistan).
As the Sāmānid dynasty weakened, Sebüktigin consolidated his position and expanded
his domains as far as the Indian border. His son Maḥmūd (ruled 998–1030) continued
the expansionist policy, and by 1005 the Sāmānid territories had been divided.
The Oxus River (Amu Darya) formed the boundary between the two successor states
to the Sāmānid empire, the Ghaznavids ruling in the west and the Qarakhanids in the
east.
The Ghaznavid
DYNASTIC POLITICS AND THE
SAMANID MAUSOLEUM
The political system of Karakhanid’s state was created in process of the
statement of the power on the conquered lands. At an early stage of history of
Karakhanid state the power over the conquired areas belonged to leaders of the
largest and strong ethno-political associations, first of all leaders chigily and
yagma which is confirmed by the set of titles of supreme Karakhanid’s leaders,
who were named the titles "arslan" ("lion") and "bogra" ("camel"). Genesis of the
titles goes back to very ancient totemic representation.
However, in the conditions of development of the social relations these and other
honorary titles already reflected hierarchical structure of the political power.
The Karakhanids
17
22. KUSHAN POLITICAL SYSTEM
The divinity of kingship
Has been the most conspicuous element in the Kushan political system. Their kings
were not only accorded the title of devaputra (Son of God) corresponding to the
chinese imperial title 't'ien tzu'(Son of heaven) but where defied after death and their
statues were set up in devakula (God house).
Hereditary monarchs
The greatest of the Safavids, Shah Abbas, ruled from 1587 to 1629; he was both a
patron of the arts and a highly effective administrator. He made Persian culture
again a model for surrounding areas, including India.
The Western Satraps, or Western Kshatrapas were Indo-
Scythian rulers of the western and central part of India,
between 35 to 415 CE. The Western Satraps were
contemporaneous with the Kushans who ruled the northern
part of the Indian subcontinent and were possibly vassals of
the Kushans.
Ksatrapas
Double Kingship /Concept of
Dvairajya
Scythians
System of Tanistry
- Nobles and princess get together and choose the successor
18
23. MUGHAL EMPIRE
SOCIAL SYSTEM
Genghis Khan established an empire during the early stages of Mongol supremacy that absorbed
civilizations in which a strong, unified, and well-organized state power had developed. The social
organization of the Mongols was, however, characterized by pastoralism and a decentralized
patrilineal system of clans. Antagonism existed between a society of this nature and the
subjugated advanced civilizations, between a relatively small number of foreign conquerors and a
numerically strong conquered population.
Mongol Invasion
In the early phases of conquest, the Mongols usually attempted to impose the social structure
of the steppes upon their new subjects. It was customary for the Mongols to enslave a
conquered tribe and to present whole communities to distinguished military leaders as a sort
of personal appanage.
These slaves became sooner or later an integral part of the conquering tribe. In the
conquered areas a similar procedure was adopted. Groups of the settled population, usually
those living in a certain territory, became the personal property of Mongol military leaders who
exploited the local economic forces as they liked.
No use was made of the existing state machinery or bureaucracy, and the former political
divisions were entirely disregarded. As the empire grew through new conquests after
Genghis’s death, the same pattern repeated itself: a period of military and at the same time
decentralized, rule marked the first stage of Mongol domination.
The Mughal society was like a pyramid on the top of which was the emperor and the nobility followed by the middle
class whom was a very minute population and the last and most heavily concentrated was the poor class. The
emperor though not belonging to the local community enjoyed the power of a despot with an unparalleled status
among the others. Followed by the Mughal king was the class of nobility who were the bearers of most important jobs
of the state and usually they monopolized the important ranks for themselves.
The nobility was the most beneficiary class of the state. They enjoyed privileges and led an extravagant life. Their
dresses and food was the most expensive one and not only the officials but their families and the relatives also used
to exploit the resources of the state for their mean.
19
24. MIDDLE CLASS
Mughal rulers
The Mughal rulers used to patronize education and
many educational institutions were established India
though it was merely confined to the royal court but the
children of the middle class were also able to acquire
knowledge. The educational institutes were also able to
educate the girls of royal families and the middle class.
The Indian Society
The Indian society under the Mughal rule used to live a
moderate life and was not very extravagant as in the context
of middle class. As Hindus were in heavy majority so the
traditions like satti and jouhar were in vogue. The culture of
child marriage, dowry and prohibition of second marriage was
so strong that even the Muslims living in India were
influenced by these trends. Jala-ud-din Akbar did make an
attempt to bring social reforms in the society by synthesizing
good things of all existing religions of that time but the
masses were reluctant to follow this reform better known as
din-i-illahi.
The middle class consisted of the professionals and the
traders and the merchants. They were the skilful class which
was able to lead a successful if not luxurious life. They had
good relations with the emperor and nobility and belonged to
the indigenous population of the state. The lowest and the
most deprived class of the social pyramid was the poor
class. This section comprised of the major section of the
population and was present in masses. This class was socially
marginalised and had very scarce facilities of life. They had
inadequate food and clothing. They were assigned with petty
jobs which acquired heavy physical work with long work
hours and very little wage. They were the peasants and used
to remain financially deprived.
01.
02.
03.
04.
The Mughals
The Mughals also kept slaves which were taken from the
locals or bought from the slave traders. This trend of slavery
was inherited by the sultans of Delhi sultanate. The local
population did not have a direct communication with the
Mughal emperor and throughout the rule of Muslims in India;
the masses recognised the ruler as the despot and the
revenue collector.
20
25. Given the geography of Asia, the routes that Buddhism followed in its spread
naturally followed the contours of the land, the paths already traced out since
time immemorial by traders. These are commonly, although in some respects no
doubt misleadingly, referred to as the Silk Routes. But of course, it was much
more than silk that was traded. This has implications for the transmission of
Buddhism too, since it is very much the exception rather than the rule that
individuals would travel long distances. The Silk Route is the ‘Ancient
International Trade Road’ that spread from China to Italy existed from second
century BC to fifteenth century AD. Although it was known for trade which
carried silk, paper and other goods between East and West through India,
China and Central Asia.
Silk Road transmission of Buddhism
SPREAD OF BUDDHISM
AND TRADE
Women were allowed to receive salaries and own land. In Education, lower
class women were not allowed an education do to their role in the house.
Women would take care of houses daily needs, as the husband would take
care of the economic affairs and work, though they could participate in
business transactions. •
Women from noble families were awarded honorable titles. Women at court
sometimes received an education.
They were able to write poetry, paint, and play music as well. However the
upper class women were under more social customs and restrictions, and they
were able learn many religions.
Female relatives were also depended upon for advice by Mogul rulers.
WOMEN IN MUGHAL EMPIRE
Upper class women were secluded more within the society, but were allowed an
education. Lower class women played a significant role at home, but had the ability to
own land. In conclusion, depending on the class, women in the Mogul Empire led very
different lives.
They took part in the Mogul family society in multiple ways while performing different
jobs.
They were warriors and advisers in political matters, and some women could own land
and do business. However there was a differentiation between the upper and lower
class. One class had more power and freedom while the other did not.
21
26. The transmission of culture as a soft power has
great significance for maintaining peace and
stability in the region, as it happened in the past.
The Silk Road had played a historical role in
spreading Buddhism beyond the territory of India.
Buddhism reached in Central Asia different ways.
The socio-cultural background of Buddhism thought
in which a strong lasting cultural relation was built -
up between India and Central Asia. The role and
contribution of Buddhist thought and culture had
been very important and distinct in shaping the
sociocultural life of Central Asian peoples.
It also became a channel of transmission of art,
architecture, culture, religion, philosophy, literature,
technology etc to different countries in Asia and beyond.
One of the important religions that transmitted through
Silk Road was Buddhism which developed in India. It is
interesting to note that Silk Road turned as the
springboard of Buddhism to spread it from India to
Central Asia.
01.
02.
03.
04.
The close relationship between Buddhist
communities and merchants made a symbolic union
that helped to spread of Buddhist ideas far and far
way and also formed a method by that religious thing
easily gone to the new rising centers of Buddhism.
Third, kings or rulers and their politics in different
parts of Asia carried the transmission of Buddhism
by their patronage. Along the Silk Road, the
development of Buddhism monasteries, caves and
spread throughout the entire Buddhist stupa result
of social.
22
27. EMANCIPATION OF WOMEN
SOVIET UNION
The social structure was typically “Asiatic” because it is based and focused on a complex irrigation
system and a high density of population in the arable oases. Soviet Central Asia experienced a flurry
of administrative reorganization. The basic concern here is the Russian had gained a foothold in
Central Asia, and hence they had gained a foothold into Afghanistan, the critical buffer state. Under
the Soviets the southern border was almost completely closed and all travel and trade was directed
north through Russia. At least a million persons died, mostly in the Kazakh SSR. Islam, as well as
other religions, was also attacked and several million refugees and hundreds of factories were moved
to the relative security of Central Asia. There was no compromise on the part of the Soviet on the
issue of religion. They saw it as a potential uniting political force. As a result, religion was banned. The
practice of Islam was banned with a few exceptions. Mosques were destroyed.
These measures of the Soviet Republic pointed out to the oppressed peoples everywhere the true
path to their liberation and roused their revolutionary consciousness. Central Asia faced many trials
and tribulations. Due to the haphazard nature of evacuation, many labourers did not arrive with
their factory, and had to find labour on their own, though jobs were hard to come by. Additionally,
cities like Tashkent became overwhelmed at the sheer volume of people arriving at its gates and
had great difficulty supplying the food and shelter necessary for evacuees. Upon arrival, many
evacuees died of illness or starvation in extreme poverty in Central Asia.
In the patriarchal societies of Central Asia, which are predominantly Muslim, the division of roles between men and women
before the Soviet period was particular: only men held positions of power, with women being excluded from many spheres.
Women were excluded from many spheres of life. Although they worked mainly in agriculture, they nevertheless played a
significant economic role.
During the Soviet era, a policy of women's liberation was implemented, accompanied by a discourse on the “modernization” of
the status of women. Gender equality was even enshrined in the legislation of the republics.
One of the most significant achievements of the October Revolution was the emancipation of women throughout Russia.
Equally, a remarkable feature of the Cultural Revolution in Central Asia in the wake of the establishment of Soviet power was
the liberation of Central Asian women.
In the very first months following the October Revolution, the Soviet government abrogated all the old laws that humiliated and
demeaned women and that denied them equality of status with men. The feudal concept of treating women as inferior to men
was particularly deep-rooted in Central Asia.
23
28. There was no single financial system for the whole empire or even for large parts of it. The absence of civil
organization at the top, the great independence of the various appanages, and the high priority accorded to military
affairs had a strongly disintegrating effect and were, at least in the early phases of Mongol rule, detrimental to
economic progress and prosperity. The Mongol empire was, under Genghis and his successors, not yet a state in the
normal sense of the word but a vast agglomeration of widely different territories held together by military domination.
As the empire grew through new conquests after Genghis’s death, the same pattern repeated itself: a period of
military, and at the same time decentralized, rule marked the first stage of Mongol domination. The result was a
noticeable variation of practice within the empire. Newly conquered areas were still subject to direct exploitation
bearing the imprint of a nomadic and military mentality, but, in those areas which had been subjugated earlier,
attempts were made to build up a state machinery and bureaucracy in order to consolidate Mongol rule. This was
done mostly in accordance with the traditional administrative system of the individual territory.
The Mongols conquered vast swathes of Asia in the 13th and 14th century CE due to their fast light cavalry and excellent
bowmen, but another significant contribution to their success was the adoption of their enemies' tactics and technology that
allowed them to defeat established military powers in China, Persia, and Eastern Europe. Adapting to different challenges and
terrain, the Mongols became adept at both siege and naval warfare, very different pursuits from their nomadic origins on the
Asian steppe. In addition, diplomacy, espionage, and terror were used in equal measure to win many a battle before it had even
begun.
People are dealt with nomadic communities, pasturing their herds over large
areas of grassland and desert, coexisted with sedentary populations scattered in
cultivated tracts. They primarily relied on domesticated animals to meet most of
their needs like transportation, meat, milk, hides and so much more.
The optimal size of nomadic people is somehow small since the land cannot
sustain a group of animals that is too large in number.
They tend to form more egalitarian and less patriarchal societies as they
experienced greater social movement during their time.
NOMADIC LIFESTYLE OF
TURKISH AND MONGOL
Mongol Empire
Mongols raised five main domestic animals: horses, sheep, camels,
cattle and goats. Greatly dependent on these animals which provided
them food, meat and milk, wool and leather to make dwellings,
transportation, enjoyment, and a medium of exchange for bartering and
bride price.
The social organization was characterized by pastoralism and a
decentralized patrilineal system of clans. Men were dominant but
women had far more freedom and power.
MONGOL IN BATTLE
Ultimately, the Mongols would establish the largest empire the world had ever
seen, and their ruthlessness in battle would cast a long shadow of fear over
those they conquered with generals earning fearsome nicknames such as the
'hounds of war' and their soldiers being labeled 'the devil's horsemen.'
24
29. One of the main sources of legitimacy for a Mongol tribal leader was his ability to
successfully conduct warfare and acquire booty for his followers. Under Genghis Khan
(r. 1206-1227 CE), the founder of the Mongol Empire (1206-1368 CE), the Mongol
people were thus reorganized to specifically gear the state for perpetual warfare.
Mongol leaders ensured loyalty and increased their chances of success by promoting
commanders based on merit rather than the use of clan seniority as had been the
case before Genghis.
A State for War
Motivation was high because booty was shared equally, and there was even a
dedicated body, the jarqu, which ensured booty was distributed correctly (for
example, horses, slaves, precious metals, textiles, high-quality manufactured
goods, and even food).
Commanders could expect to receive both booty and land or tribute from
conquered peoples. Ordinary soldiers could expect rewards, too, some
compensation for their conscription, which any Mongol male from 14 to 60
years old was liable for.
Warriors were prepared from childhood thanks to the Mongol tradition of
having both young boys and girls participate in competitions of athletics, horse
racing, wrestling, hunting, and archery. The Mongol warriors - mostly men but
also sometimes women, too - were, then, already proficient at using battle axes,
lances (often hooked to pull enemy riders from their mounts), spears, daggers,
long knives, and sometimes swords which were typically short, light, and with a
single cutting edge.
The Mongol weapon of choice was the composite bow, which could fire arrows
double the distance of those in competing armies.
Arrowheads tended to be made from bone and, much more rarely, metal while
shafts were made from wood, reed, or a combination of both, and fletching
from bird feathers.
Arrow designs varied depending on their purpose - to wound at close range,
fire at distant targets, carry poison, penetrate armour, or even whistle as a
signal to other units.
A typical mounted archer carried two or three bows and around 30 light and
30 heavier arrows in a quiver. Additional standard equipment included a
horsehair lasso, a coil of rope, an axe, a file for making arrowheads, a sewing
repair kit, a leather bag for food and to use as a float when crossing rivers, two
leather bottles for liquids, and a cooking pot.
Men slept in light versions of the classic yurt tent, one carried for every ten
riders.
To the Mongols, horses were everything - a means to travel, a source of
wealth and a way to measure it, food, and the source of their great mobility
in warfare. Mongol horses were relatively small but sturdy beasts with dense
hair and capable of enduring hardships.
Mongols
25
30. The Iranian empire was too large a morsel for the Caliphate to fully digest, with the
result that Iranian ideas on the nature and practice of ‘just’ government and culture
began to shape the way in which the Caliphate developed. Islam transformed the
Iranian world view, but the political and religious culture of the Islamic world was in
turn shaped by the profound legacy of ancient Iran and many of the leading
administrative and scientific minds of the classical Islamic age including the
polymath Ibn Sina (Avicenna) and the famous vizierial (ministerial) family of the
Barmakids
The Islamic era would witness another profound development in the history of Iran
with the entrance of the Turkic peoples from central Asia from the 11th century, but
most consequentially with the eruption of the Mongols (nomadic warriors from the
steppes of inner Asia) in the 13th century. The Mongol conquest facilitated the
migration of the Turkic tribes onto the plateau – forcing a knock-on migration of
Iranians onto the Anatolian plateau – fundamentally altering the political economy of
the country from one which was largely sedentary to one with a significant nomadic
component, especially in the northern parts of the country.Iranian world.
IRAN: A BRIEF HISTORY
Iranian history proper begins with the migration of the Iranian tribes from Central
Asia onto what is now known as the Iranian plateau in the 2nd millennium BC. But
organized human settlement developed much earlier and Elamite civilization in south
western Iran – southern Iraq today – emerged in the third millennium. By the 1st
millennium BC, two distinct Iranian states emerged in the form of the Medes and
Persians and their emphatic entrance onto the world stage began with the accession
of Cyrus II in 559 BC.
Persepolis - Achaemenid - Fars, Iran
The Achaemenid Persian Empire grew to become the largest contiguous land empire then
known to man, impressing both friend and foe alike with its relatively benign administration
drawing on religious ideas that would later be associated with Zoroastrianism, the pre-Islamic
religion of Iran identified with the mantra “good words, good thoughts and good deeds.”
The Parthian Empire reshaped Iranian history by importing myths and legends from the east and
supplanting the Achaemenids in popular memory. This decentralised kingdom – in which the king was first
among equals; a king over other kings, if you will – made up for its fractiousness with longevity (it is the
longest lived of all Iranian dynasties) and proved a serious foe to the emergent Roman empire, inflicting
upon it one of its greatest defeats.
26
31. MONGOL INVASION
Religion:
− Shamanism, Islamic with a strong admixture of Persian elements
Language:
− Arabic, Turkic Language
Literature:
− Shana-ma (Book of Kings)
Crafts:
− production of fine cotton fabrics, papyrus and parchment paper, and potteries
− embroidery of tiraz decoration
Architectures:
− Samanid mausoleum in Bukhara − Ata mausoleum − Great Mosque of Herat − Balkh
Achievements and Contributions:
− Coins of Samarkand
MUGHAL EMPIRE
Religion:
- Islam
27
32. - Hindu Education: Primary schools for Hindus were maintained by grants or endowments, for which
pupils would not give fees
- Muslim Education: The Muslims used to send their children to Maktabs for getting an education, which
were closed to the mosque and these types of schools existed in every town and village. At the primary
standard, every child had to learn the Quran.
- Women’s Education: Private tutors for education of their daughters were being arranged by nobles at
home, as women did not have any right to educate beyond the primary standard.
- Persian: Akbar brings out the level of Persian to the status of the state language, which leads to the
growth of literature.
- Sanskrit: Work in Sanskrit could not be shaped up to the level desired by Mughals during the rule the
Mughals
Painting Schools
− Mughal Painting − European Painting − Rajasthan School of Painting - Pahari School of Painting
- Tansen of Gwalior: Akbar patronizes him in his court. Tansen, a person who was
credited with composing of many new melodies and Ragas
− Fort of Agra − Massive Red Fort − Pietra Dura - Humayun’s Tomb
Education:
Language:
Arts:
Music:
Architectures:
28
33. SPREAD OF BUDDHISM
Religion:
− Mahayana Buddhism
Literature:
− Daoist texts
- Lous of the Good Law
Language:
− Tibetan Language, written in a variant of Chinese Script
Architectures/Contributions etc:
- The great Buddha at Bingling Si in Gansu province, striking testimony
to the Indian faith’s arrival in north China
− A painted brick from a tomb on the edge of the Gobi desert
− An early Tuoba Wei stele with a bodhisattva at the centre
SOVIET UNION
Language:
− Kipchak languages (such as Kzakhs), Uyghuric languages (Uzbekistan) or Oghuz languages
(Turkmenistan)
Using Veils:
− In Uzbekistan and Tajikistan women wore veils which covered their entire face and body like the Paranja
and faranji
- The traditional veil in Central Asia worn modern times was the faranji but was banned by the Soviet
Communists
NOMADIC LIFESTYLE OF
TURKISH AND MONGOL
29
34. Religion:
− Islam
Language:
− Aramaic language
Crafts:
− The royal fillet and the cylindrical crown, and certain pieces of jewellery (such as the torque-shaped
necklace), thrones in the shape of high armchairs are identifiable nomadic imports from Central Asia.
− Harrapan pottery indicating a degree of contemporaneity and perhaps interaction with that phase of the
Indus Valley Tradition
Contributions:
− Akbar became the first Mongol leader who attempted to introduce vegetarianism among the nobility, at
least on certain days, in an attempt to “tame their” wolfish nature”, along with attempt to curtail heavy
drinking, setting example himself.
− During 1567, Akbar still practice Chingisid code, a harmless ceremonial residues of Chingisid customs to
survive.
Language:
− Mongolian Language
Religion:
− Shamanism
− Tengrism: an ancient-ethnic and state Turko-Mongolic religion originating in the Eurasia steppes,
generally centres around the titular sky god Tengri
− Buddhism
Clothing:
- Men, women, and children essentially wore the same type of clothing, differentiated by color, color
combination, size, and decoration to specify age, gender, married state, and social status.
Music:
− Khoomi : a unique form of singing known as “throat singing”
− Long Song form: Long songs may be accompanied by the other key element of Mongolian traditional
music, the Morin khuur or horse head-fiddle.
MONGOL EMPIRE
30
35. MONGOL IN BATTLE
Armors:
− Mongolian saddle: from China dating between 1271-1368 CE
when China was ruled by the Yuan Dynasty.
− Mongolian armour: it is light so as to not impede the speed of
cavalry riders, but if worn, it was typically made of thick quilted
felt or leather
- Statue of Bo’orchu: one of the most trusted general and
Genghis Khan and a close friend of Ogedei Khan.
IRAN
Religion:
- They practiced the cult of the supreme sun god – Mithra –
associated with various forms of fire- and horse-worship.
The nomads love arts and crafts. In the case of the Scythians, it
was the gold as seen in the spectacular animal-style objects.
− Nomadic herding, but contradicted due to production of milk
− Called “Barbaric ceramics” because of ceramic production
evidence found
Architectures:
− Ichîanlî - a monumental stone building dating from the fifth to second centuries B.C. This
was, in all likelihood, a cult center for the nomadic tribes of the plateau beyond the Uzboi.
o Found two potteries on the site: Daha-Massagetian earthenware and the roundware
brought in from the southwestern and southern regions.
31
36. The countries of Central Asia were once the center of multiple nomadic empires and tribes. This had a big
influence on the traditions and cultures of many Central Asian countries. Many people in Central Asia live in
traditional, movable houses called yurts, which are covered in Turkish felt. The influence of the Soviet Union
and Russia is a major factor in Central Asian culture. People put a lot of emphasis and value on family and the
homeland. Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan didn't take Russia's side during the Cold War, but there is still
Russian influence in these countries. The five largest ethnic groups in Central Asia are Uzbek, Kazakh, Tajik,
Turkmen, and Kyrgyz. Islam is the dominant religion, with most adherents belonging to the Sunni branch.
The region experienced environmental problems in the late 20th century due to rapid agricultural
development. Despite the area's being a part of the Soviet Union, Islam was and still is the major religion.
There is significant variation within the groupings in Central Asia. The concept of Central Asia is centered on
history, culture, and geography—concepts whose "borders" tend to flow into one another. Central Asia's
economic activity is centered on irrigated agriculture in the south and heavy industry and mining in
Kazakhstan. Irrigated cotton growing is dominant in the east and southeast, while there is some dry farming
of wheat in the far northern provinces. The Soviets' Virgin and Idle Lands program of the 1950s brought
much of the steppe under the plow for the first time.
Mongolian politics was a key feature of the empire as a whole. They involved everything from a simple clan
and tribal politics-based institution to a complex political system. Genghis Khan was elected Great Khan at
Kurultai, a vast assembly of tribal leaders. During the early stages of Mongol supremacy, the empire
established by Genghis Khan absorbed civilizations in which a strong, unified, and well-organized state power
had developed. The social organization of the Mongols was characterized by pastoralism and a decentralized
patrilineal system of clans. No departmental administration was, however, established during the early stages
of Genghis Khan's empire. The highly hierarchized military organization of the Mongols had no political or
administrative counterpart. There was no single financial system for the whole empire or even for large parts
of it.
Genghis Khan's conquests marked the first stage of Mongol domination. Newly conquered areas were still
subject to direct exploitation, bearing the imprint of a nomadic and military mentality. In those areas which
had been subjugated earlier, attempts were made to build up state machinery and bureaucracy. In Genghis's
lifetime, the empire was divided among his four favourite sons into ulus, a Mongol word which denotes
supremacy over a certain number of tribes rather than a clearly defined territory. The unity of the Mongol
empire was from the beginning undermined by disintegrating factors. The Mongols conquered vast swathes of
Asia in the 13th and 14th centuries CE due to their fast light cavalry and excellent bowmen. Ultimately, the
Mongols would establish the largest empire the world had ever seen. Their ruthlessness in battle would cast a
long shadow of fear over those they conquered. Mongol warriors were trained in warfare from childhood
thanks to the Mongol tradition of having both boys and girls participate in competitions in athletics, horse
racing, wrestling, hunting, and archery. The Mongol weapon of choice was the composite bow, which could
fire arrows twice the distance of those in competing armies.
The Mughal Emperor was the supreme head of state. His administration was broken into four parts, each
supervised by a minister. During the rule of Akbar, the higher ranks of the government were mainly filled with
"nonnative Muslims," but there were still many lower positions filled by Hindus. The Mansabdar system was
very important to the Mughal Empire. Mansabs were either officers of the state or had some type of high
rank. There were different grades of officer depending on the number of troops that they were in charge of.
The emperor was responsible for appointing Mansabs, promoting them and dismissing them.
SUMMARY
32
37. The Mughal society was like a pyramid, on top of which were the emperor and the nobility, followed by the
middle class. The lowest and most deprived class in the social pyramid was the poor class. This section
comprised the major section of the population and was present in mass. The Indian society under the Mughal
rule used to live a moderate life and was not very extravagant as in the context of the middle class. The
culture of child marriage, dowry, and the prohibition of the second marriage were so strong that even the
Muslims living in India were influenced by these trends.
In the 1930s, there was opposition to Soviet rule which came in the form of pan-Turkic movements and
Jadid movements. The last were attempts to synthesize Islam with socialism to create a national type of
communist party. Along these administrative lines, we have independent states today. The Soviet concern in
the 1920s and 1930s was that there might be a unified movement (pan-Islamic movements or pan-Turkic
movements) against Soviet rule. So they deliberately drew up these large republics with the aim of having a
dominant ethnic group but not too dominant.
The Abbasids moved the empire's capital from Damascus to Baghdad in 762 CE. Abu al-Abbas's successor,
Al-Mansur, welcomed non-Arab Muslims to his court. The Oghuz were a Turkic tribe, migrating west in the
eighth century and occupying the steppes of the Aral Sea. The Samanids were rulers of the region around the
Aral Sea from 977 to 1030, when they conquered Ghazna (modern Ghaznd, Afghanistan) from the Smnids.
The Samanid state was modelled after the Abbasid system and the Sasanian system. Its most important
province was Khorasan, which was given to one of its most trusted slaves or local slaves. The political system
of Karakhanid's state was formed during the process of asserting power over conquered lands. The dynasty
that ruled the empire was founded by Anush Tigin, initially a Turkic slave of the rulers of Gharchistan, later a
Mamluk in the service of the Seljuqs. In 1220, the Mongols, under their ruler Genghis Khan, invaded the
Khwarazmian Empire. However, it was Ala ad-Din Atsiz, a descendant of Anush Tigin, who gained
independence from its neighbors. Their kings were accorded the title of devaputra, corresponding to the
Chinese imperial title "t'ien tzu" (Son of Heaven).
The Parthian Empire was the longest-lived of all Iranian dynasties. It was a serious foe to the emergent
Roman empire, inflicting one of its greatest defeats. The Islamic era witnessed another profound development
in the history of Iran with the entrance of the Turkic peoples from central Asia. Nadir’s military adventuring
led to his neglect of the economy and of administration; he squandered human and material resources on a
disastrous scale and then was embroiled in a new campaign in the Caucasus. His huge exactions bred revolt,
and he was assassinated in 1747. Under Karim, there was wide religious tolerance, including for Jews,
although, after his death in 1779, they were again persecuted. After a time of fratricidal fighting, Agha
Muhammad had himself crowned Shah in 1794. The Russians were aggressively expanding their control into
Central Asia, and in the course of the nineteenth century, they took all of Central Asia south of Siberia and
west of Mongolia, including the old oasis trading cities of Samarkand and Bokara, once bases for Timur and
later Babur. Then, in 1907, Russia and Britain arranged to divide Iran into "Spheres of Influence," although
they did not take over territory.
Reza Shah Pahlavi, an army colonel, became a new reformist shah in 1925 and tried to modernize the
country through secularization, Western clothing, and the strengthening of the army with new weapons. He
also built new railroad lines and changed the country’s name to Iran. In 1907, Russia and Britain arranged to
divide Iran into "Spheres of Influence," although they did not take over territory. In World War I, both the
Ottomans and the Russians invaded Iran in the west and the north, but their final defeat left Iran free again.
In 1925, he tried to modernize the country through secularization, Western clothing, and the strengthening of
the army with new weapons. He also built new railroad lines and changed the country’s name to Iran. With the
breakup of the Soviet Union in 1990, the Islamic kingdoms of Central Asia—Kazakhstan (the largest),
Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, and others—became at least nominally independent; all have Turkish
populations.
33
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Geography of Central Asia
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Murphey, Rhoads & Stapleton, K. (2016) A History of Asia. Routledge
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