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Chapter 6: Sharpen the Focus: Target Marketing Strategies and Customer Relationship Management
Copyright © 2013 Pearson Canada, Inc. 1
Chapter 6
Sharpen the Focus: Target Marketing Strategies and
Customer Relationship Management
I. CHAPTER OVERVIEW
As small children, we are often taught to treat everyone alike. However, after reading this
chapter, students will quickly learn that this strategy does not work in marketing. The goal of
marketing is to create value and satisfy needs. However, everyone’s needs are not the same.
Understanding needs is a complex task.
In this chapter, students learn why segmentation is important and the different dimensions used
by marketers to segment the population. How marketers evaluate and select potential market
segments is explained, as is the development of a targeting strategy. Students understand how a
firm develops and implements a positioning strategy and creates a customer-relationship
management strategy to increase long-term success and profits. After careful study, students will
learn that it is not only okay to treat people differently but is a requirement in successful
marketing.
II. CHAPTER OBJECTIVES
1. Identify the steps in the target marketing process.
2. Understand the need for market segmentation and the approaches available to do it.
3. Explain how marketers evaluate segments and choose a targeting strategy.
4. Understand how marketers develop and implement a positioning strategy.
5. Explain how marketers increase long-term success and profits by practising customer
relationship management.
III. CHAPTER OUTLINE
The outline also includes a feature entitled “Marketing Moment,” which is identified by an arrow
icon (►). These are short, in-class activities—appropriate for either individual or group work.
►MARKETING MOMENT – INTRODUCTION
Ask students to identify two magazines—one for women and one for men. How does the
marketing mix for each magazine differ? How does the marketing mix reflect the preferences of
the target market?
p. 174 REAL PEOPLE, REAL CHOICES
HERE’S MY PROBLEM AT NORTH SHORE CREDIT
UNION
The North Shore Credit Union (NSCU) is a full-service financial
institution offering banking, investment, loan and insurance
solutions through its branch network in the British Columbia
Lower Mainland. The organization’s vision is to become a
premium financial services boutique catering to the unique needs

Part 2: Understand Consumers’ Value Needs
of the West Coast marketplace. Catharine Downes, Assistant VP
Marketing, heads up the marketing team at NSCU.
Traditionally most of the big banks and all of the credit unions
utilized an undifferentiated (mass) targeting strategy. This
strategy has resulted in 20% of customers delivering 80% of the
profits for the banks. While focusing on all potential customers
some banks began to realize they were actually losing money on
some low value transaction customers and not paying enough
attention to their most profitable customers. Industry research
also highlighted a key underserved demographic – the “mass
affluent”.
In 2005 NSCU President and CEO Chris Catliff articulated a bold
new vision to elevate the NCSU brand and to grow assets under
administration by $3 billion. In the context of this shift the NCSU
marketing team was faced with the strategic decision of which
targeting strategy to employ.
Catharine and the NCSU marketing team considered their
options:
1. Continue to utilize an undifferentiated (mass) targeting
strategy in their current market.
2. Develop a more targeted strategy focused on the West
Coast affluent.
3. Develop a more focused strategy and expand into new
markets.
The vignette ends by asking the student which option she would
choose.
 Catharine chose option #2.
Visit the North Shore Credit Union Website
www.nscu.com

p. 176 OBJECTIVE #1
Identify the steps in the target marketing process.
1. TARGET MARKETING STRATEGY: PROCESS
OVERVIEW
Understanding people’s needs is an even more complex task
today because technological and cultural advances in modern
society have created a condition of market fragmentation. This
means that people’s diverse interests and backgrounds divide
them into numerous groups with distinct needs and wants.
Because of this diversity, the same good or service will not appeal
to everyone.
Marketers must balance the efficiency of mass marketing where
they serve the same items to everyone, with effectiveness that
comes when they offer each individual exactly what she wants.
Marketers select a target marketing strategy in which they
divide the total market into different segments based on customer
characteristics, select one or more segments, and develop
products to meet the needs of those specific segments.
Pre) Select Markets
Identify and Select Market(s)
One of the biggest challenges in developing a target marketing
strategy is effectively defining the market you are in and what
market you should be segmenting. Is a beer marketer in the beer
market or the alcoholic beverage market? Deciding what market
you are in has significant implications for the segments you
identify
Criteria for Identifying Market Segments
1. Segment members must be similar to each other in their
wants and needs.
2. Segments should be sufficiently different from each other
so that different marketing programs would appeal to
different segments.
3. The segment must be large enough to warrant targeting.
4. The segment must represent a measurable segment – i.e.
have the purchasing power, authority, willingness and
ability to make the purchase.
5. The segment must be reachable. Marketers must be able
to identify and communicate with the segment.
Figure 6.1
Steps in the
Target
Marketing
Process
Figure 6.2
Criteria for
Effective
Segmentation
Approaches
►MARKETING MOMENT – ACTIVITY
List the criteria used for determining whether a segment may be a good candidate for targeting.

p. 178
p. 179
p. 180
OBJECTIVE #2
Understand the need for market segmentation and the approaches
available to do it.
2.1. STEP 1: SEGMENTATION
Segmentation is the process of dividing a larger market into
smaller pieces based on one or more meaningfully shared
characteristics. Segmentation is often necessary in both consumer
and industrial markets. The marketer must decide on one or more
useful segmentation variables—that is, dimensions that divide
the total market into homogeneous groups, each with different
needs and preferences.
2.1.1. Segment Consumer Markets
We can slice the larger consumer “pie” into smaller pieces in a
number of ways, including demographic, psychographic, and
behavioural differences. In the case of demographic segmentation
there are several key sub-categories of demographics: age
(including generational differences), gender, family life cycle,
income and social class, ethnicity, and place of residence –
sometimes referred to separately as geographic segmentation.
Figure 6.3
Segmenting
Consumer
Markets
Exhibit 6.1
Chinese
Canadian Beef
Consumer
Segment
Exhibit 6.2
Vanilla Coke
Exhibit 6.3
THERMOHAIR
p. 180 2.1.1. Segment by Behaviour
Behavioural segmentation slices consumers based on how they
act toward, feel about, or use a product. One way to segment
based on behaviour is to divide the market into users and nonusers
of a product. In addition to distinguishing between users and
nonusers, marketers can describe current customers as heavy,
moderate, and light users. They often do this according to a rule
of thumb we call the <keyterm id="ch7term017"
linkend="gloss7_017" preference="0" role="strong">80/20
rule</keyterm><link linkend="ch7mn017" preference="1"/>: 20
percent of purchasers account for 80 percent of the product’s sales
(the ratio is an approximation, not gospel). This rule means that it
often makes more sense to focus on the smaller number of people
who are really into a product rather than on the larger number
who are just casual users.
An approach called the <keyterm id="ch7term018"
linkend="gloss7_018" preference="0" role="strong">long
tail</keyterm><link linkend="ch7mn018" preference="1"/> turns
traditional thinking about the virtues of selling in high volume on
its head. The basic idea is that we need no longer rely solely on
big hits (like blockbuster movies or best-selling books) to find
profits. Companies can also make money when they sell small
amounts of items that only a few people want—if they sell
enough different items.
Exhibit 6.4
PDA
Behavioural
Segments

Another way to segment a market based on behaviour is to look at
<keyterm id="ch7term019" linkend="gloss7_019" preference="0"
role="strong">usage occasions</keyterm><link
linkend="ch7mn019" preference="1"/>, or when consumers use
the product most. We associate many products with specific
occasions, whether time of day, holidays, business functions, or
casual get-togethers. Businesses often divide their markets
according to when and how their offerings are in demand.
p. 181 2.1.2. Segment by Psychographics
Psychographics</keyterm><link linkend="ch7mn014"
preference="1"/> segments consumers in terms of psychological
and behavioural similarities such as shared activities, interests,
and opinions, or <emphasis>AIOs</emphasis>.
VALS™ (Values and Lifestyles)</keyterm><link
linkend="ch7mn015" preference="1"/> is based on psychological
traits that correlate with consumer behaviour. VALS™ divides
U.S. adults into eight groups according to what drives them
psychologically as well as by their economic resources.
Three primary consumer motivations are key to the system:
ideals, achievement, and self-expression. Consumers who are
motivated primarily by ideals are guided by knowledge and
principles. Consumers who are motivated primarily by
achievement look for goods and services that demonstrate success
to their peers. In addition, consumers who are motivated primarily
by self-expression desire social or physical activity, variety, and
risk.
VALS™ helps match products to particular types of people.
Exhibit 6.5
Ocean Spray
Exhibit 6.6
Covenant House
Exhibit 6.7
Harley riders
picture
Exhibit 6.8
Toyota ad
Exhibit 6.9
Jones Soda
Figure 6.4
VALSTM
Framework
Figure 6.5
Goldfarb
Segments
p. 184 2.1.3. Segment by Demographics
Demographics</keyterm><link linkend="ch7mn006"
preference="1"/> are statistics that measure observable aspects of
a population, including size, age, gender, ethnic group, income,
education, occupation, and family structure. These descriptors are
vital to identify the best potential customers for a good or service.
Because they represent objective characteristics they usually are
easy to identify, and then it is just a matter of tailoring messages
and products to relevant groups.
p. 185 2.1.3.1. Segment by Demographics: Sex
Many products, from fragrances to footwear, specifically appeal
to men or women. Segmenting by gender starts at a very early
age—even diapers come in pink for girls and blue for boys. In
some cases, manufacturers develop parallel products to appeal to
each sex.
Exhibit 6.10
FUEL

2.1.3.2. Segment by Demographics: Age
Consumers of different age groups have different needs and
wants. Members of a generation tend to share the same outlook
and priorities. We call such a focus <keyterm id="ch7term007"
linkend="gloss7_007" preference="0"
role="strong">generational marketing</keyterm><link
linkend="ch7mn007" preference="1"/>.
Baby boomers</keyterm><link linkend="ch7mn009"
preference="1"/>, consumers born between 1947 and 1966 and
who are now in their 40s, 50s, and 60s, are an important segment
to many marketers—if for no other reason than that there are so
many of them who make a lot of money. Over 30% of the
Canadian population is in this group. Boomers are willing to
invest a ton of money, time, and energy to maintain their youthful
image.
The group of consumers born between 1967 and 1979 is known as
role="strong">Generation X</keyterm><link
linkend="ch7mn008" preference="1"/> . Many of this group have
a cynical attitude toward marketing and do not have the spending
power of the baby boomers. They have developed an identity for
being an entrepreneurial group. One study revealed that Xers are
already responsible for 70 percent of new start-up businesses in
the North America. The majority of this group believe that they
will have to fund their own retirement as well as medical and
personal expenses.
Sometimes labeled the “echo boom”, Generation Y is made up of
the children of the baby boomers. <endnoteref label="10"
olinkend="ch07en010"/> They are the first generation to grow up
on-line and are more ethnically diverse than earlier generations.
Generation Y is an attractive market for a host of consumer
products because of its size and free-spending nature.
The Millennium Busters is the name given to the consumers
born between 1196 and 2010.
Teens</emphasis> are also an attractive market segment. The 12
to 17-year-old age group represents more than 26 million
consumers in North America who spend almost $200B annually.
Tweens represent the group of consumers between the ages of 9
to 12.
Exhibit 6.10
FUEL
Exhibit 6.11
No Gray
Exhibit 6.12
Cell Phone
Exhibit 6.13
siblings
Exhibit 6.14
iPhone

p. 188 2.1.3.3. Segment by Demographics: Family Life
Cycle
Because family needs and expenditures change over time, one
way to segment consumers is to consider the stage of the family
life cycle they occupy. Consumers in different life cycle segments
are unlikely to need the same products, or at least they may not
need these things in the same quantities. As family’s age and
move into new life stages, different product categories ascend and
descend in importance.
p. 188 2.1.3.4. Segment by Demographics: Income and
Social Class
The distribution of wealth is of great interest to marketers because
it determines which groups have the greatest buying power.
Marketers, obviously, are often more interested in high-income
consumers. In the past, it was popular for marketers to consider
social class segments, such as upper class, lower class, and lower
class. However, many consumers buy not according to where they
may fall in the schema but rather according to the image they
wish to portray.
Ethical and
Sustainable
Decisions in the
Real World
p. 191 2.1.3.5. Segment by Demographics: Ethnicity
A consumer’s national origin is often a strong indicator of his
preferences for specific magazines or TV shows, foods, apparel,
and choice of leisure activities. Marketers need to be aware of
these differences and sensitivities—especially when they invoke
outmoded stereotypes to appeal to consumers of diverse races and
ethnic groups.
Canadians of British origin are the largest ethnic group in Canada
followed by French Canadians at 22%.
Other than people of British, French and Aboriginal origins the
largest ethnic groups are German, Italian and Chines with the
fastest growing being the Chinese group.
Exhibit 6.15
RBC Ad
►Marketing Moment In-Class Activity
Ask students to look around at their classmates and determine how they might segment the class.
What products might be appropriate for the different segments they develop?
p. 193 2.1.3.6. Segment by Demographics: Geography
Recognizing that people’s preferences often vary depending on
where they live, many marketers tailor their offerings to appeal to
different regions.
When marketers want to segment regional markets even more
precisely, they sometimes combine geography with demographics
by using a technique called geodemography. A basic premise of
geodemography is that people who live near one another share
similar characteristics. Companies can customize web advertising

by geocoding so that people who log on in different places will
see ad banners for local businesses.
USE WEBSITE HERE
PRIZM (geodemographic system): www.claritas.com
Website that classifies zip codes into segments. Also use: www.mybestsegments.com
►Marketing Moment In-Class Activity
If you go to www.strategicbusinessinsights.com<ulink url="www.sric-bi.com"> and click on
“VALS™ Survey”, you can complete a brief questionnaire free to find out your own VALS™
type (you might be surprised).
USE WEBSITE HERE
http:///www.sric-bi.com/VALS VALS survey
p. 191
p. 191
p. 192
p. 193
2.1.4. Segmenting Business-to-Business Markets
While the segmentation variables may differ for B2B vs. B2C
markets it is equally important to segment the B2B market in
order to sharpen the focus of the marketing plan.
2.1.4.1. Segment by Organizational Behaviour
It is often useful to segment based on how the organization
operates. Organizational behaviours will vary depending on the
use and consumption of the products they purchase. Dell, for
example, has created the B2B behavioural segments of corporate,
small business, government and home office.
2.1.4.2. Segment by Industrial Psychographics
Industrial psychographics is the application of psychographics
in a B2B context. An example would be segmenting by
organizational mission, goals and values. It is likely that the
purchase and consumption behaviour will vary based on the
mission, goals and values of the management team.
2.1.4.3. Segment by Organizational
Demographics
Organizational demographics</emphasis> also help a business-to-
business marketer to understand the needs and characteristics of
its potential customers. These classification dimensions include
the size of the firms either in total sales or number of employees,
the number of facilities, whether they are a domestic or a
multinational company, purchasing policies, and the type of
business they are in. Business-to-business markets may also be
segmented based on the production technology they use and
whether the customer is a user or a nonuser of the product.
Exhibit 6.16
Grand & Toy
USE WEBSITE
Hoovers Online (<ulink url="www.hoovers.com">Error! Hyperlink reference not valid.>),
which provides subscribers with up-to-date information on private and public companies
worldwide.
p. 193 OBJECTIVE #3

p. 193
p. 193
p. 193
Explain how marketers evaluate segments and choose a targeting
strategy.
3.1. STEP 2: TARGETING
The next step is <keyterm id="ch7term020"
role="strong">targeting</keyterm><link linkend="ch7mn020"
preference="1"/>, in which marketers evaluate the attractiveness
of each potential segment and decide in which of these groups
they will invest resources to try to turn them into customers. The
customer group or groups they select are the firm’s <keyterm
id="ch7term021" linkend="gloss7_021" preference="0"
role="strong">target market</keyterm><link
linkend="ch7mn021" preference="1"/>.
The three phases of targeting are: evaluate market segments,
develop segment profiles, and choose a targeting strategy.
3.1.1. Evaluate Market Segments
Just because a marketer identifies a segment does not necessarily
mean that it is a useful one to target. A viable target segment
should satisfy the following requirements:
1. Segment members must be similar to each other in their
wants and needs.
2. Segments should be sufficiently different from each other
so that different marketing programs would appeal to
different segments.
3. The segment must be large enough to warrant targeting.
4. The segment must represent a measurable segment – i.e.
have the purchasing power, authority, willingness and
ability to make the purchase.
5. The segment must be reachable. Marketers must be able
to identify and communicate with the segment.
3.1.2. Develop Segment Profiles
Once a marketer identifies a set of usable segments, it is helpful to
generate a profile of each to really understand segment members’
needs and to look for business opportunities. This segment profile
is a description of the “typical” customer in that segment. For
example, a <keyterm id="ch7term022" linkend="gloss7_022"
preference="0" role="strong">segment profile</keyterm><link
linkend="ch7mn022" preference="1"/> includes customer
demographics, location, lifestyle information, and a description of
how frequently the customer buys the product.
Figure 6.6
Phases of
Targeting
Figure 6.2
Criteria for
Effective
Segmentation
Approaches
p. 194 3.1.3. Choose One or More Target Segments
Once a the market has been divided into actionable segments and
Figure 6.7
Framework for

p. 195
p. 196
rich profiles are developed for each segment marketers must
evaluate the attractiveness of each segment to determine which of
these groups they will target with their marketing programs. A
basic targeting decision is how finely tuned the target should be.
3.1.3.1. Target Market Selection
There are three basic criteria for deciding which segments are
attractive:
1. Segment size and growth
2. The external environment
3. The internal environment
3.1.3.2. Choose a Target Market Strategy
An undifferentiated targeting strategy is one that appeals to a
wide-spectrum of people. If successful, this type of operation can
be very efficient, especially because production, research, and
promotion costs benefit from economies of scale—it’s cheaper to
develop one product or one advertising campaign than to choose
several targets and create separate products or messages for each.
The company must be willing to bet that people have similar
needs or differences among them that are trivial.
A company that chooses a differentiated targeting strategy
develops one or more products for each of several customer
groups with different product needs. A differentiated strategy is
called for when consumers are choosing among brands that are
well known in which each has a distinctive image in the
marketplace and in which it is possible to identify one or more
segments that have distinct needs for different types of products.
Differentiated marketing can also involve connecting one product
with different segments by communicating differently to appeal to
those segments.
When a firm offers one or more products to a single segment, it
uses a <keyterm id="ch7term025" linkend="gloss7_025"
preference="0" role="strong">concentrated targeting
strategy</keyterm><link linkend="ch7mn025" preference="1"/>.
Smaller firms that do not have the resources or the desire to be all
things to all people often do this.
Ideally, marketers should be able to define segments so precisely
that they can offer products and services that exactly meet the
unique needs of each individual or firm. A custom marketing
strategy is common in industrial contexts in which a
manufacturer often works with one or a few large clients and
develops products and services that only these clients will use.
Creating Rich
Segment Profiles
Figure 6.8
Criteria for
Choosing Target
Market
Segments
Exhibit 6.17
So Good soy
beverage
Figure 6.9
Choose a
Targeting
Strategy
Exhibit 6.18
Blacksocks Ad

Of course, in most cases this level of segmentation is neither
practical nor possible when mass-produced products such as
computers or cars enter the picture. However, advances in
computer technology, coupled with the new emphasis on building
solid relationships with customers, have focused managers’
attention on devising new ways to tailor specific products and the
messages about them to individual customers. Thus, some
forward-looking, consumer-oriented companies are moving
toward <keyterm id="ch7term027" linkend="gloss7_027"
preference="0" role="strong">mass
customization</keyterm><link linkend="ch7mn027"
preference="1"/> in which they modify a basic good or service to
meet the needs of an individual.
p. 199
p. 199
p. 199
p. 201
p. 203
OBJECTIVE #4
Understand how marketers develop and implement a
positioning strategy.
4.1. STEP 3: POSITIONING
The final stage of developing a target marketing strategy is to
provide consumers who belong to a targeted market segment with
a good or service that meets their unique needs and expectations.
Positioning</keyterm><link linkend="ch7mn028"
preference="1"/> means developing a marketing strategy to
influence how a particular market segment perceives a good or
service in comparison to the competition. To position a brand,
marketers have to clearly understand the criteria target consumers
use to evaluate competing products and then convince them that
their product, service or organization will meet those needs.
4.1.1. Steps in Positioning
Marketers use four steps to decide just how to position their
product or service: strategic orientation, differentiation,
defendability and brand personality.
Strategic Orientation is the overall approach to how you plan to
compete and create value for your customers. Common
orientations are :
 Product leadership
 Customer intimacy
 Operational excellence
Differentiation explains how you will be different from and
better than competitive offerings. A brand concept is how a firm
wants to be differentiated.
Table 6.1
Positioning
Strategy
Implementation
Exhibit 6.19
Buckley’s
Exhibit 6.20
Body Shop

p. 205
Defendability refers to the organization’s ability to defend the
positioning that they have taken.
Brand Personality is the distinctive image that captures a
product’s character and benefits. Part of creating a brand
personality is developing an identity for the product that the target
market will prefer over competing brands. How do marketers
determine where their product actually stands in the minds of
consumers? One solution is to ask consumers what characteristics
are important and how competing alternatives would rate on these
attributes, too. Marketers use this information to construct a
role="strong">perceptual map</keyterm><link
linkend="ch7mn032" preference="1"/>, which is a vivid way to
construct a picture of where products or brands are “located” in
consumers’ minds.
A change strategy is <keyterm id="ch7term029"
role="strong">repositioning</keyterm><link
linkend="ch7mn029" preference="1"/>, and it is common to see a
company try to modify its brand image to keep up with changing
times.
Exhibit 6.21
WESTJET
Exhibit 6.22
Brand Logos
Marketing
Metrics
Figure 6.10
Perceptual Map
Exhibit 6.23
Listerine
repositioning
4.1.2. Implementing the Positioning strategy
The success of a target marketing strategy hinges on a marketer’s
ability to identify and select appropriate target markets and then
devise a positioning that will set them apart from their
competitors and be highly appealing to their selected target(s).
the process is ongoing and over time the organization may find
the need to adjust and change the segments it has chosen.
Positioning is not easy, the main challenges are:
 Vague positioning
 Confused positioning
 Off-target positioning
 Over positioning
p. 208
p. 208
OBJECTIVE #5
Explain how marketers increase long-term success and profits
by practicing customer relationship management.
5.1. CUSTOMER RELATIONSHIP MANAGEMENT
(CRM): TOWARD A SEGMENT OF ONE
Currently many highly successful marketing firms embrace
role="strong">customer relationship management
(CRM)</keyterm><link linkend="ch7mn033" preference="1"/>
programs that involve systematically tracking consumers’
preferences and behaviours over time in order to tailor the value
Table 6.2
The Four Steps
of One-to-One
Marketing

p. 208
proposition as closely as possible to each individual’s unique
wants and needs. CRM allows firms to talk to individual
customers and to adjust elements of their marketing programs in
light of how each customer reacts. <endnoteref label="52"
olinkend="ch07en052"/> The CRM trend facilitates
<emphasis>one-to-one marketing</emphasis>, which includes
several steps.
1. Identify customers and get to know them in as much detail
as possible.
2. Differentiate these customers in terms of both their needs
and their value to the company.
3. Interact with customers and find ways to improve cost
efficiency and the effectiveness of the interaction.
4. Customize some aspect of the goods or services that you
offer to each customer.
A CRM strategy allows a company to identify its best customers,
stay on top of their needs, and increase their satisfaction.
5.1.1. CRM: A New Perspective on An Old Problem
CRM is about communicating with customers, and about
customers being able to communicate with a company “up close
and personal.” CRM systems are applications that use computers,
specialized computer software, databases, and often the Internet
to capture information at each <keyterm id="ch7term034"
linkend="gloss7_034" preference="0" role="strong">touch
point</keyterm><link linkend="ch7mn034" preference="1"/>,
which is any point of direct interface between customers and a
company (online, by phone, or in person). It is through CRM that
companies act upon and manage the information they gather from
their customers.
CRM has become a driving philosophy in many successful firms.
p. 209
p. 209
p. 210
5.1.2. Characteristics of CRM
Followers of CRM look at four critical elements, as portrayed in
Figure 7.8: share of the customer, lifetime value of a customer,
customer equity, and customer prioritization.
5.1.2.1. Share of the Customer
Historically, marketers have measured success in a product
category by their share of market. Because it is always easier and
less expensive to keep an existing customer than to get a new
customer, CRM firms focus on increasing their share of
customer—the percentage of an individual customer’s purchase
that is a single brand—not share of market.
5.1.2.2. Lifetime Value of a Customer
Figure 6.11
Characteristics
of CRM

p. 208
p. 208
Lifetime value of a customer is the potential profit generated by
a single customer’s purchase of a firm’s products over the
customer’s lifetime.
Lifetime value is calculated by estimating a customer’s future
purchases across all products from the firm over the next 20 or 30
years. The goal is to try to figure out what profit the company
could make from the customer in the future. The lifetime value of
the customer would be the total profit the revenue stream
generates.
5.1.2.3. Customer Equity
Today an increasing number of companies are considering their
relationships with customers as financial assets. Such firms
measure success by calculating the value of the customer
equity—the financial value of a customer throughout the lifetime
of the relationship.
5.1.2.4. Focus on High Value Customers
Using a CRM approach, the organization prioritizes its customers
and customizes its communications to them accordingly.
DISCUSSION QUESTION
What is CRM? How do firms practice CRM?
►MARKETING MOMENT – IN-CLASS ACTIVITY
Ask students to identify products/brands that they remember using at home. Do they still buy/use
them at college? Will they continue to buy/use them when they graduate? (Hint: Food products
such as cereal, fast food, ketchup, peanut butter, etc., work well with this exercise). To further
illustrate the power of lifetime value, have students estimate (based on current usage) how many
boxes of cereal they will consumer throughout their life.

IV. END-OF-CHAPTER ANSWER GUIDE
Chapter Questions and Activities
CONCEPTS: TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE
1. What is market segmentation and why is it an important strategy in today’s market-
place?
Market segmentation is a process whereby marketers divide a large customer group into
segments that share important characteristics. Market segmentation and target marketing are
important strategies in today’s marketplace because of market fragmentation—that is, the
splintering of a mass society into diverse groups due to technological and cultural
differences. Thus, marketers must determine if they can better satisfy customers with a mass-
marketing strategy or target marketing based on strategy efficiency and effectiveness.
2. List and explain the major ways to segment consumer markets.
 Behavioural
 Consumer markets may also be segmented based on how consumers behave
toward the product—brand loyalty, usage rates (heavy, moderate, or light), usage
occasions, product type purchased, and/or reasons for using a product (benefit
segmentation) are all options that can be used to more narrowly define segments.
 Psychographics
 Psychographics is useful to help understand differences among consumers who
may be statistically similar to one another, but whose needs vary. Psychographic
segmentation examines shared attitudes, interests, and opinions. VALS (Values
and Lifestyles) is the most well-known system used to divide the American
population into eight groups.
 Demographics
 Generational: consumers of different age groups have very different needs and
wants.
 Gender: segmenting by sex starts at a very early age. Many marketers are looking
to gender segmentation as a means of expanding markets. For example, hair
dryers sold to men dramatically expanded the industry’s sales.
 Family structure: using the family life cycle, marketers can segment based on
family status and position occupied. Newlyweds will have different needs and
desires than empty nesters.
 Income and social class: the distribution of wealth has great interest to marketers
because it determines what groups have the greatest buying power and market
potential. Social class designations also affect purchasing patterns based on one’s
appreciation of status in his or her life.
 Race and ethnicity: membership in the various racial and ethnic groups within our
country accounts for many changes in the way a consumer receives information,
develops tastes, and makes purchases. Submarkets (such as the Hispanic market)

are receiving increased attention from marketers because of their size and
increased affluence.
 Geography: though not as dynamic as the other categories, geography does affect
tastes and purchase behaviour. Many marketers use geography to tailor their
offerings to appeal to different regions of the country.
3. What are some of the ways marketers segment industrial markets?
Categories similar to those in the consumer market are frequently used for segmenting
business-to-business markets. Organizational demographics include industry and/or company
size, (total sales, number of employees, or number of facilities), whether they are domestic or
multinational firm, purchase policies, the type of business they are in and production
technology. North American Industry Classification System (NAICS) is used to obtain
information about the size and number of companies in a particular industry.
4. List the criteria marketers use to determine whether a segment may be a good
candidate for targeting.
There are several criteria for determining whether a segment may be a good candidate for
targeting. To choose one or more segments to target, marketers examine each segment and
evaluate its potential for success as a target market. A viable target segment should have
positive answers to the following requirements:
 Are members of the segment similar to each other in their product needs and wants
and, at the same time, different from consumers in other segments?
 Can marketers measure the segment?
 Is the segment large enough to be profitable now and in the future?
 Can marketing communications reach the segment?
 Can the marketer adequately serve the needs of the segment?
5. Explain undifferentiated, differentiated, concentrated, and customized marketing
strategies. What is mass customization?
Strategies include:
 Undifferentiated marketing strategy: a marketing strategy that 1) assumes the
majority of customers have similar needs and 2) attempts to appeal to a broad
spectrum of people.
 Differentiated marketing strategy: a market strategy in which a firm develops one or
more products for each of several distinct customer groups.
 Concentrated marketing strategy: a marketing strategy in which a firm focuses its
efforts on offering one or more products to a single segment.
 Custom marketing strategy: a marketing strategy in which a firm develops a separate
marketing mix for each customer.
 Mass customization: a marketing strategy in which a firm modifies a basic good or
service to meet an individual customer’s needs.

6. What is product positioning? What do marketers mean by creating a brand
personality? How do marketers use perceptual maps to help in developing effective
positioning strategies?
Product positioning is developing a marketing strategy aimed at influencing how a particular
market segment perceives a good or service in comparison to the competition.
A brand personality is a distinctive image that captures a good or service’s character and
benefits. Creating a brand personality means developing an identity for the product that the
target market will prefer over competing brands.
Perceptual maps construct a picture of where products or brands are “located” in consumers’
minds. Asking consumers what characteristics are important and how competing alternatives
rate on the attributes develops perceptual maps.
7. Explain the concept of strategic orientation and the value creation strategy of intimacy.
Strategic orientation is the overall approach to how a firm plans to compete and create value
for its customers. Organizations may choose to focus on product leadership, customer
intimacy, operational excellence or symbolic expressive value.
Customer intimacy is a strategy concerned with exceptional customer experiences and
catering tailored solutions to narrowly defined market segments.
8. How can marketers defend their positioning strategies?
Organizations must “play to their strengths” when selecting which positioning strategy to pursue.
Different positioning strategies require different strengths and therefore it is difficult to be the
industry leader in more than one of these positioning strategies. Organizations must clearly
define where and how you are going to compete, how you will be able to create the value you
have said you will create, and how you will be able to maintain or enhance the basis of
differentiation that sets you apart. This plan typically centres on having the requisite resources,
people, core competencies and/or the situation.
9. What is CRM? How do firms practise CRM?
Customer Relationship Management are programs that allow companies to talk to the
individual customers and adjust elements of their marketing programs in light of how each
customer reacts to elements of the marketing mix. Firms practice CRM by communicating
with customers and customers being able to communicate with the company one-to-one.
There are four steps in CRM marketing:
 Identify customers and get to know them in as much detail as possible.
 Differentiate these customers in terms of both their needs and their value to the
company.

 Interact with customers to find ways to improve cost efficiency and the effectiveness
of the interaction.
 Customize some aspect of the products or services they offer to each customer.
10. Explain the concepts of share of customer, lifetime value of a customer, customer
equity, and customer prioritization.
Because it is always easier and less expensive to keep an existing customer than to get a new
customer, CRM firms focus on increasing their share of customer, not share of market. Share
of customers is the percentage of an individual customer’s purchase of a product that is a
single brand.
Lifetime value of a customer is the potential profit generated by a single customer’s purchase
of a firm’s products over the customer’s lifetime. With CRM, a customer’s lifetime value is
identified and it the true goal.
Customer equity is the financial value of a customer relationship throughout the lifetime of
the relationship.
Using a CRM approach, the organization prioritizes its customers and customizes its
communications to them accordingly. For example, banks use CRM systems to generate a
profile of each customer based on factors such as value, risk, attrition, and interest in buying
new financial products. This automated system helps the bank decide which current or
potential customers it will target with certain communications or how much effort it will
expend to retain an account—all the while cutting its costs by as much as a third.
 ACTIVITIES: APPLY WHAT YOU’VE LEARNED
1. Assume that a small regional beer brewery has hired you to help them with their target
marketing. They are unsophisticated about marketing – you will need to explain some things
to them and provide ideas for their future. In the past, the brewery has simply produced and
sold a single beer brand to the entire market—a mass-marketing strategy. As you begin work,
you come to believe that the firm could be more successful if it developed a target marketing
strategy. Write a memo to the owner outlining the following:</para>
 <orderedlist continuation="restarts" inheritnum="ignore"
numeration="loweralpha" spacing="normal"><listitem><inst></inst><para>The
basic reasons for doing target marketing</para></listitem> in the first place
 <listitem><inst></inst><para>The specific advantages of a target marketing
strategy for the brewery
 An initial “short list” of possible target segment profiles
This question asks students to review what they have learned about target marketing and the
justifications for target marketing. Implied in this question is the idea that the brewery must
consider a change in its basic approach to the marketplace. Some firms do quite well with a
niche strategy (where a unique market is found and exploited). A small firm will have a great
deal of trouble following a mass-marketing strategy where it tries to be all things to all

people. This could be a competitive misstep. To aid the students in their answer, suggest that
they consider local or regional breweries that have rejected the mass-marketing approach
(i.e., Samuel Adams or Shiner Bock in Texas). Visit websites to explore strategic approaches.
2. As the marketing director for a company that is planning to enter the business-to-business
market for photocopy machines, you are attempting to develop an overall marketing strategy.
You have considered the possibility of using mass-marketing, concentrated marketing,
differentiated marketing, and custom marketing strategies.
 Prepare a summary explaining what each type of strategy would mean for your
marketing plan in terms of product, price, promotion, and distribution channel.
 Evaluate the desirability of each type of strategy.
 What are your final recommendations for the best type of strategy?
First, students should get some basic information on the photocopy industry (see Canon or
Xerox on the web). Next, consider the industrial side of the market. Call a local supplier if
necessary. Once information has been obtained, the students should move to matching the
information with the different types of marketing strategies mentioned. Students are free to
choose (just as businesses are free to choose), however, no matter what their choice is, and
justification must be supplied. Be sure that students state any assumptions that might affect
understanding of the issue at hand. A firm recommendation should be reached.
3. As an account executive for a marketing consulting firm, your newest client is a university—
your university. You have been asked to develop a positioning strategy for the university.
Develop an outline of your ideas, including the following:
 Who are your competitors?
 What are the competitors’ positions?
 What target markets are most attractive to the university?
 How will you position the university for those segments relative to the
competition?
This is an excellent exercise to get the class involved with a real issue. Have students do
research on the university by examining documents, literature, brochures, advertisements,
websites, and/or conduct interviews with appropriate university officials. Examine pertinent
competitive websites for an idea of what they are doing. Next, students must make an
appraisal of potential target markets for the university. The Admissions Office is an excellent
place to begin. Recruiters are often even willing to come to class to discuss the issue. Should
the university continue its present strategy, reposition, or devise a new strategy? The students
should be challenged to find the answer.
4. Assume that a firm hires you as marketing manager for a chain of retail bookstores. You
believe that the firm should develop a CRM strategy. Outline the steps you would take in
developing that strategy.
In order to accomplish this project successfully, students should first review material in the
text on the CRM process. Next, go to Amazon.com, Barnes & Noble at www.bn.com or
other online booksellers to examine how these companies use CRM to their advantage. Now

students are ready to proceed with the construction of a CRM plan. The plan should include
an appraisal of which customers are at present, services provided for the customer, how the
company ensures information flow. It should also include how the company can keep track
of customers and their expenditures (such as a reading club card, credit card purchases,
online purchases, etc.). Students should examine how customers are kept in a database, and
what is done with database information, and specific plans for gaining feedback, meeting
needs, providing services, and stimulating sales and loyalty of customers. If students can get
all these topics incorporated into a report, they will be well on their way to understanding
CRM.
MARKETING METRICS EXERCISE
In the chapter discussion about CRM, you read about four key characteristics of CRM: share
of customer, lifetime value of a customer, customer equity, and customer prioritization. Each
of these elements is discussed in the context of monitoring and assessing the effectiveness of
a CRM initiative.
Consider Scene, a relatively new loyalty partnership between Cineplex and Scotiabank. Go
out to their website (www.scene.ca ) and explore how it works. In what ways could Cineplex
measure the four elements of CRM above within the context of a reward program such as
this? How would data be collected for each element, and how might management at Cineplex
utilize that data to provide loyal customers with a very strong relationship with the firm?
The chapter provides the following information regarding the four key CRM characteristics:
 Share of customer: the percentage of an individual customer’s purchase of a product
that is a single brand. In addition to its own purchase data for each customer,
Cineplex would need to survey the customer about purchasing competitor brands.
 Lifetime value of a customer: the potential profit a single customer’s purchase of a
firm’s products generates over the customer’s lifetime. Cineplex must first estimate a
customer’s future purchases across all products from the firm over the next 20 or 30
years. The goal is to try to figure out what profit the company could make from the
customer in the future (obviously, this will just be an estimate).
 Customer equity: the financial value of a customer throughout the lifetime of the
relationship. To do this, Cineplex must compare the investments they make to acquire
customers and then to retain them to the financial return they will get on those
investments.
 Customer prioritization: using a CRM approach, the organization prioritizes its
customers and customizes its communications to them accordingly. Cineplex can use
CRM systems to generate a profile of each customer based on factors such as value,
risk, attrition, and interest in buying new products. This automated system would help
Cineplex decide which current or potential customers it will target with certain
communications or how much effort it will expend to retain a customer—all the while
cutting its costs.
CHOICES: WHAT DO YOU THINK?

1. Some critics of marketing have suggested that market segmentation and target marketing lead
to an unnecessary proliferation of product choices that wastes valuable resources. These
critics suggest that if marketers did not create so many different product choices, there would
be more resources to feed the hungry, house the homeless, and provide for the needs of
people around the globe. Are the results of segmentation and target marketing harmful or
beneficial to society as a whole? Should firms be concerned about these criticisms? Why or
why not?
As far back as 1920 Al Sloan (a pioneering marketer at Ford’s rival General Motors),
realized that consumer’s tastes and needs are different. There are many ways to deal with the
need to improve the social environment but the dissolution of product choice for the
consumer is probably not one of the better alternatives. For many years, the Soviet Union
followed a policy of “one product fits all needs.” That solution did not satisfy consumers nor
did it fix their social system. In fact, one could argue that by striving to match the needs and
wants of the individual consumer more social good will be the result because the consumer
would be able to better direct their resources and use the remainder for social causes (if they
so choose).
2. One of the criteria for a usable market segment is its size. This chapter suggests that to be
usable, a segment must be large enough to be profitable now and in the future and that some
very small segments are ignored because they can never be profitable. So, how large should a
segment be? How do you think a firm should go about determining if a segment is profitable?
Have technological advances made it possible for smaller segments to be profitable? Do
firms ever have a moral or ethical obligation to develop products for small, unprofitable
segments? When?
The students may produce a variety of answers to the questions cited above. Some of their
answers will be the result of the role that they perceive that marketing plays in the firm and in
society in general. With respect to size of market segments, demand must be measured and
applied to short- and long-term goals and profit projections. There is no magic number.
Profitability is a question of costs, resources, and competition. Most firms today are in
business to make a profit and are responsible to their owners or shareholders for their
performance record. Some unprofitable activities can be undertaken as long as they are
subsidized by profitable activities (the unprofitable activities of today may become the
profitable activities of tomorrow). Technology (such as the Internet, computer information
systems, and databases) has certainly helped the firm to be able to profitably deal with small
customer segments. The moral or ethical obligation is part of the corporate management and
cultural structure of the firm. Students may cite whether or not pharmaceutical companies
should develop and sell drugs that save the lives of a very few consumers who get certain
diseases.
3. A few years ago, Anheuser-Busch Inc., created a new division dedicated to marketing to
Hispanics and announced it would boost its ad spending in Hispanic media by two-thirds, to
more than $60 million, while Miller Brewing Co. signed a $100 million, three-year ad
package with Spanish-language broadcaster Univision Communications Inc. However,
Hispanic activists immediately raised public-health concerns about the beer ad blitz because

it targets a population that skews young and is disproportionately likely to abuse alcohol.
Surveys of Hispanic youth show that they are much more likely to drink alcohol, get drunk,
and to engage in binge drinking, than their white or black peers drink. A senior executive at
Anheuser Busch responded, “We would disagree with anyone who suggests beer billboards
increase abuse among Latino or other minority communities. It would be poor business for us
in today’s world to ignore what is the fastest-growing segment of our population.”
Manufacturers of alcohol and tobacco products have been criticized for targeting
unwholesome products to certain segments of the market—the aged, ethnic minorities, the
disabled, and others. Do you view this as a problem? Should a firm use different criteria in
targeting such groups? Should the government oversee and control such marketing activities?
This could lead to an interesting discussion among the students. There are those who would
feel that marketing to this segment of the population might be socially irresponsible. From a
marketing perspective, there will be students that feel that this is a market segment is
growing and would be representative of a growing market segment.
Should the firm use different criteria in targeting such groups? This will also link to the
decisions made on the first part of this question. The marketers must determine if they can
better satisfy customers with a mass-marketing strategy or a target marketing strategy based
on the strategy efficiency and effectiveness.
The government overseeing and controlling marketing activities will lead to an interesting
discussion without a predetermined answer. There will be those how feel the government
should control and those who feel the government has too much control now. This is a good
area of discussion, and can lead to expression of very different views.
4. Customer relationship management (CRM) relies on data collected from customers to create
customized or one-to-one experiences for those customers. Data are collected at various
touch points—places in which the customer interfaces with the firm to provide information,
such as at a checkout lane, on the phone, on the website, and so on. Do firms have an
obligation to explain to customers that they are collecting information from them to populate
and drive their CRM initiatives, or is it inherently obvious in today’s world that such
practices are routine? In general, what is your personal viewpoint of database-driven
positioning strategies? What are the potential pros and cons to the company and to the
customer?
Students will have different opinions about these questions—encourage an open debate on
these topics.
MINI-PROJECT: LEARN BY DOING
This mini-project will help you to develop a better understanding of how firms make target-
marketing decisions. The project focuses on the market for women’s beauty-care products.
1. Gather ideas about different dimensions useful for segmenting the women’s beauty products
market. You may use your own ideas, but you probably will also want to examine advertising
and other marketing communications developed by different beauty care brands.

2. Based on the dimensions for market segmentation that you have identified, develop a
questionnaire and conduct a survey of customers. You will have to decide which questions
should be asked and which consumers should be surveyed.
3. Analyze the data from your research and identify the different potential segments.
4. Develop segment profiles that describe each potential segment.
5. Generate several ideas for how the marketing strategy might be different for each segment
based on the profiles. Develop a presentation (or write a report) outlining your ideas, your
research, your findings, and your marketing strategy recommendations.
There are five specific questions individuals or marketing teams are asked to review:
1. Different dimensions of segmenting the women’s beauty products market
2. Develop a questionnaire and conduct a survey of consumers
3. Analyze data and identify potential segments
4. Develop segment profiles that describe each potential segment
5. Generate ideas on how marketing strategy might be applied to each segment based on
profiles
Students (or student teams) should research this industry carefully before proceeding with the
mini-project. Before conducting any human subject research, students or teams should
familiarize themselves with the rules for interviewing and conducting research (see any
appropriate university or college guidelines).
Instructors may wish to extend the deadline for this assignment so students have many
opportunities to conduct the research and report the findings.
V. MARKETING IN ACTION CASE: REAL CHOICES AT
SPITZ INTERNATIONAL
Summary of Case
Spitz International is the number one sunflower seed company in Canada. The introduction of a
line of roasted sunflower seed snacks for humans was an immediate success and sales increases
of 300 to 500 percent between 1990 and 1995 did not meet the demand for the new snack. Spitz
increased its share of the market by buying out its competition. Today this privately held
company commands a 75% market share in Canada and is the third largest selling brand in the
U.S.
Spitz has set its sights on doubling company sales over the next three years and is considering
either targeting current markets with new products finding new markets for existing products or
both. Myles Hamilton, newly appointed Vice President for Spits International Ltd. knows the
place to start is with segmenting the market and then choosing which segments to focus on with
what positioning.
Suggestions for Presentation
This case could be assigned for various out-of-class or in-class discussion activities.
Out of class

Research Spitz via their website. Identify their current positioning and describe how they have
implemented the strategy.
Evaluate if there are expansion opportunities for the sunflower and pumpkin seed markets.
In class
Discuss how targeted marketing can help identify the market segment that would be interested in
this market.
Conduct a brainstorming session to identify the key characteristics of potential customers that
would seek Subaru cars.
Suggested Answers for Discussion Questions
1. If you were Myles Hamilton and the Spitz company, what would you do and why?
Students will come up with a number of different decisions that Spitz might make such as:
 Spitz must identify potential new target markets for their existing products and develop a
positioning strategy for their seeds that will enable the company to compete effectively
against current competitors in those markets.
 Spitz must identify potential new market segments for products the currently do not
produce. They will need to develop a positioning strategy for their new product that will
enable the company to compete effectively against current competitors in those segments.
2. How might the seed consumption market be segmented?
The detail of student answers may vary but students should describe how Spitz can segment by:
 Behaviour
 Psychographics
 Demographics
3. Which segment(s) should the Spitz company be targeting?
Student answers will vary but should provide the rationale behind their recommendation.
Student rationale should tie into the strengths and weaknesses of the Spitz company and a
realistic positioning strategy.

WEB RESOURCES
Prentice Hall support link: http://247.prenhall.com
North Shore Credit Union Website: www.nscu.com
Thermohair: http://www.thermohair.com/
Coca-Cola: http://www.cocacola.ca/
Ocean Spray: http://www.oceanspray.ca/
Covenant House: http://www.covenanthouse.ca/Public/Home.aspx
Harley Davidson: http://www.harley-davidson.com/en_CA/Content/Pages/home.html
Toyota: http://www.toyota.ca/
Jones Soda: http://www.jonessoda.com/
Royal Bank of Canada: http://www.rbc.com/country-select.html
Grand and Toy: http://www.grandandtoy.com/sites/core/default.aspx
So Good Soy Beverage: http://www.sogoodbeverage.com/
Blacksocks: www.blacksocks.com
Buckley’s Cough Syrup: http://www.buckleys.com/index.html
The Body Shop: http://www.thebodyshop.ca/en/index.aspx
Westjet: http://www.westjet.com/guest/en/home.shtml
Listerine: http://www.listerine.ca/
PRIZM (geodemographic system): www.claritas.com
MyBestSegments (Consumer Segments, Defined and Described Detailed Customer
Segmentation Profiling): www.mybestsegments.com
SRI Consulting Business Intelligence (developed VALS2TM
): www.sric-bi.com/VALS
Hoovers Online (provides subscribers with up-to-date information on private and public
companies worldwide): www.hoovers.com

VI. CBC VIDEO CASE – PART 2
ELECTRIC FUTURE
Description:
The North American auto industry is at a crossroads with consumers and governments seeking
cars with fewer emissions and better mileage. The two main questions raised in this case are:
“How will the demand for cleaner, greener cars revolutionize the auto industry?”
“How soon can you be plugging in your car instead of pumping gas?”
The five year prediction is that by 2014, as the economy improves, the car industry will be
overhauled with new concept cars (i.e. electric cars), new car manufacturers and new dealer
distribution systems.
Suggested Uses:
This video focuses on various environmental forces: modified government policies, changing
economic forces, shifting consumer trends, increased competitive activity and new, improved
technologies. The factors are impacting on the auto industry and leading to drastic changes for
automobile manufacturers and marketers.
The main focus is on the future of electric cars and how the demand will revolutionize the
consumer market. This case incorporates many consumer behaviour principles and concepts. It
addresses what motivates consumers to buy? How consumers buy? What they buy? What
variables impact on the decision making process? How quickly will consumers adopt the newer
technologies, newer products?
The case also includes some B2B concepts as it deals with the changing dealer distribution
systems and the impact of online purchasing.
This case covers many topics that relate to part 2 of the Solomon 4th
Canadian edition dealing
with the understanding of consumers’ value needs (chapters 4, 5, and 6). It also includes topics
relating to part 3 of the Solomon 4th
Canadian edition dealing with types of innovation and
innovator categories which are discussed in chapter 7 on product. Therefore, this case is
appropriate for discussion of part 2 content as well as some part 3 content.
Also, given that both case 2 and case 3 are on the same topic of electric cars, it is suggested that
these cases be covered together for a more complete discussion. Note that case 2 is longer in
length and provides a more in-depth review of the topic and should be covered prior to case 3.
Questions and Answers
1. What forces of environmental concern are changing the auto industry? What are other
key factors changing the nature of the auto industry? When are these changes likely to
occur?

Many concerns regarding the environment are impacting the auto industry and will result in
drastic changes in the marketplace by the year 2014. Some key factors in this follow:
a. Government policies in both the US and Canada seeking cars with lower emissions and
better fuel efficiency. California laws, already in place, for emission controls and fuel
efficiency standards will impact other geographic markets as well.
b. Newer, improved technologies found in new products (electric cars), new systems (online
purchasing), and new electrical infrastructures (charge points and electrical parking
stations).
c. Shifting consumer trends and preferences as electric cars are adopted and accepted.
Consumers are seeking greener, environmentally safer alternatives.
d. An improving economic environment. A recovery from the current recession is anticipated
over the next five years and is likely to positively impact consumers’ ability to purchase
new vehicles.
e. Increased competitive activity among existing and new entrants in the electric car market.
GM, Ford, Nissan, and Toyota have introduced their electric models. Tesla Motors is
changing the image of electric cars with the introduction of a sports car version. China is
also expected to have a large impact with introduction of 0.5 billion electric cars with its
BYD.
2. What are the distinctive consumer trends that are expected to alter the auto industry
within the next five years? Identify and describe the changes in consumer behaviour.
How will consumers purchase cars? What will likely motivate customers to change their
purchasing habits?
There are a number of consumer trends likely to impact the purchase and use of cars over the
next five years:
a. Shifting Consumer Preferences: The prediction is that the next generation of car buyers
will consider electric cars. The typical consumer driving short distances every day will be
attracted to this new technology as a viable option. The change to electric cars is now
predicted to occur faster than was initially anticipated.
b. Changing Purchasing Habits: Consumers’ car purchase patterns will change. The case
indicates that 95 percent of buyers research their purchases online and that many car
buyers , including those buying electric cars, will be able to compare fixed prices online
as new online buying systems develop (such as Zag.com). It is thought that the old
practice of haggling over price with dealers will have less appeal as purchasers using the
online buying system will get the added benefit of a price certificate—a guaranteed price
for a specific model.
c. Changing Usage Habits: The electric car customer will adopt new consumption habits in
response to information and training on how to best use their electric cars. As they plug
in instead of pump gas, users will rely on a new electrical infrastructure with charge
points that resemble parking meters. Stations will be located in parking lots of shopping
malls, companies, and major highway service centres.

The key motivating factor behind the adoption of these newer technologies is consumer demand
for a greener environment. Those seeking ways to improve the environment will be attracted to
these new electric cars. The affordability of newer technologies will also impact the adoption
rate. Government policies may also impact consumer attitudes. Lastly, the availability of an
electrical infrastructure, ease of its access and use, will also be a determining factor.
3. Which consumer groups are likely to be the first to adopt the newer electric cars?
Describe the typical innovator.
The initial buyers of the new cars are likely to be innovators, those defined as the first to try new
ideas and buy new products. According to the diffusion theory of innovation, innovators
typically represent 2.5 percent of the population, and they are described as adventuresome high
income earners (therefore willing to take risks), and more highly educated. Given the higher
initial prices of electric cars (especially Tesla products, some currently priced at over US$100
000), innovators are the most likely consumer group to be attracted.
Early adopters, which account for 13.5 percent of the population, are also likely to be attracted to
the newer technologies, in particular to the new electric cars introduced by the Japanese and
Chinese auto makers. Early adopters are described as consumers that rely on their intuition, are
guided by respect, and are of above average education. Acceptance of new electric cars by early
adopters is important as this will likely shape the eventual acceptance and adoption of the new
product by other consumer groups (such as the early majority consumers).
4. What target market strategies are likely to be adopted with this new product
introduction?
A differentiated target market strategy is likely to be adopted by the marketers of electric cars. A
differentiated (or segmented) strategy is defined as one in which a firm decides to target one or
several market segments and designs a separate offer for each segment. The new products,
electric cars, will be offered to distinct consumer segments. The initial consumer likely to
consider the electric car as a viable option is one who drives short distances every day.
Sources:
This case was prepared by Susan Ormiston and is based on “Electric Future,” The National, CBC
video, Toronto, 19 May 2009 (time: 13:40min).
Marketing theory based on Marketing: An Introduction, 4th
Canadian edition, Armstrong et al.,
Pearson Canada, 2012.

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remote. If the question occur, Is it a good man, or a good house, the
adjective, which, in the inanimate form is onishish-í, is, in the
animate onishish-in´. If the question be put, Is it this man, or this
house, the pronoun this, which is mâ bum, in the animate, is
changed to mâ ndun, in the inanimate.
Nouns animate embrace the tribes of quadrupeds, birds, fishes,
insects, reptiles, crustaceæ, the sun and moon and stars, thunder
and lightning, for these are personified; and whatever either
possesses animal life, or is endowed, by the peculiar opinions and
superstitions of the Indians, with it. In the vegetable kingdom, their
number is comparatively limited, being chiefly confined to trees, and
those only while they are referred to, as whole bodies, and to the
various species of fruits, and seeds, and esculents. It is at the option
of the speaker to employ nouns, either as animates or inanimates:
but it is a choice seldom resorted to, except in conformity with
stated exceptions. These conventional exceptions are not numerous,
and the more prominent of them, may be recited. The cause of the
exceptions it is not always easy to perceive. It may, however,
generally be traced to a particular respect paid to certain inanimate
bodies, either from their real or fancied properties,—the uses to
which they are applied, or the ceremonies to which they are
dedicated. A stone, which is the altar of sacrifice to their Manitoes; a
bow, formerly so necessary in the chase; a feather, the honored sign
of martial prowess; a kettle, so valuable in the household; a pipe, by
which friendships are sealed and treaties ratified; a drum, used in
their sacred and festive dances; a medal, the mask of authority;
vermillion, the appropriate paint of the warrior; wampum, by which
messages are conveyed, and covenants remembered. These are
among the objects, in themselves inanimates, which require the
application of animate verbs, pronouns, and adjectives, and are
thereby transferred to the animate class.
It is to be remarked, however, that the names for animals, are
only employed as animates, while the objects are referred to, as
whole and complete species. But the gender must be changed, when
it becomes necessary to speak of separate numbers. Man, woman,

father, mother, are separate nouns, so long as the individuals are
meant; but hand, foot, head, eye, ear, tongue, are inanimates. Buck,
is an animate noun, while his entire carcass is referred to, whether
living or dead; but neck, back, heart, windpipe, take the inanimate
form. In like manner, eagle, swan, dove, are distinguished as
animates, but beak, wing, tail, are arranged with inanimates. So oak,
pine, ash, are animate; branch, leaf, root, inanimates.
Reciprocal exceptions, however, exist to this rule,—the reasons for
which, as in the former instance, may generally be sought, either in
peculiar opinions of the Indians, or in the peculiar qualities or uses
of the objects. Thus the talons of the eagle, and the claws of the
bear, and of other animals, which furnish ornaments for the neck,
are invariably spoken of, under the animate form. The hoofs and
horns of all quadrupeds, which are applied to various economical
and mystic purposes; the castorum of the beaver, and the nails of
man, are similarly situated. The vegetable creation also furnishes
some exceptions of this nature; such are the names for the outer
bark of all trees, (except the birch,) and the branches, the roots, and
the resin of the spruce, and its congeners.
In a language, which considers all nature as separated into two
classes of bodies, characterized by the presence or absence of life;
neuter nouns, will scarcely be looked for, although such may exist
without my knowledge. Neuters are found amongst the verbs and
the adjectives, but it is doubtful whether they render the nouns to
which they are applied, neuters, in the sense we attach to that term.
The subject in all its bearings, is interesting, and a full and minute
description of it, would probably elicit new light respecting some
doubtful points in the language, and contribute something towards a
curious collateral topic—the history of Indian opinions. I have stated
the principle broadly, without filling up the subject of exceptions, as
fully as it is in my power, and without following its bearings upon
points, which will more properly come under discussion, at other
stages of the inquiry. A sufficient outline, it is believed, has been
given, and having thus met, at the threshold, a principle deeply laid
at the foundation of the language, and one which will be perpetually

recurring, I shall proceed to enumerate some other prominent
features of the substantive.
2. No language is perhaps so defective, as to be totally without
number. But there, are, probably, few which furnish so many modes
of indicating it, as the Ojibwai. There are as many modes of forming
the plural, as there are vowel sounds, yet there is no distinction
between a limited and unlimited plural; although there is, in the
pronoun, an inclusive and an exclusive plural. Whether we say man
or men, two men or twenty men, the singular, inin´i, and the plural
inin´iwug, remains the same. But if we say we, or us, or our men,
(who are present,) or we, or us, or our Indians, (in general,) the
plural we, and us, and our—for they are rendered by the same form
—admit of a change to indicate whether the objective person be
included or excluded. This principle, of which full examples will be
given under the appropriate head, forms a single and anomalous
instance of the use of particular plurals. And it carries its distinctions,
by means of the pronouns, separable and inseparable, into the verbs
and substantives, creating the necessity of double conjugations and
double declensions, in the plural forms of the first person. Thus, the
term for Our Father, which, in the inclusive form, is Kôsinân, is, in
the exclusive, Nôsinân.
The particular plural, which is thus, by the transforming power of
the language, carried from the pronoun into the texture of the verb
and substantive, is not limited to any fixed number of persons or
objects, but arises from the operations of the verb. The general
plural is variously made. But the plural, making inflections take upon
themselves an additional power or sign, by which substantives are
distinguished into animate and inanimate. Without this additional
power, all nouns plural, would end in the vowels a, e, i, o, u. But to
mark the gender the letter g, is added to animates, and the letter n,
to inanimates, making the plurals of the first class, terminate in âg,
eeg, ig, ôg, ug, and of the second class in ân, een, in, ôn, un. Ten
modes of forming the plural are thus provided, five of which are
animate, and five inanimate plurals. A strong and clear line of
distinction is thus drawn between the two classes of words, so

unerring indeed, in its application, that it is only necessary to inquire
how the plural is formed, to determine whether it belong to one, or
the other class. The distinctions which we have endeavored to
convey, will perhaps, be more clearly perceived, by adding examples
of the use of each of the plurals.
Animate Plural.
a.
Ojibwâi,
a Chippewa. Ojibwaig, Chippewas.
e. Ojee, a Fly. Ojeeg, Flies.
i.
Kosénân,
Our father,
(in.)
Kosenân-
ig,
Our fathers,
(in.)
o. Ahmô, a Bee. Ahm-ôg, Bees.
u. Ais, a Shell. Ais-ug, Shells.
Inanimate Plural.
a. Ishkôdai, Fire. Ishkôdain, Fires.
e. Waddôp, Alder. Waddôp-een, Alders.
i. Adetaig, Fruit. Adetaig-in, Fruits.
o. Nôdin, Wind. Nôdin-ôn, Winds.
u. Meen, Berry, Meen-un, Berries.
Where a noun terminates with a vowel in the singular, the addition
of the g, or n, shows at once, both the plural and the gender. In
other instances, as in peenai, a partridge—seebi, a river—it requires
a consonant to precede the plural vowel, in conformity with a rule
previously stated. Thus, peenai, is rendered peenai-wug—and seebi,
seebi-wun. Where the noun singular terminates in the broad, instead
of the long sound of a, as in ôgimâ, a chief ishpatinâ, a hill, the
plural is ogim-ag, ishpatinân. But these are mere modifications of
two of the above forms, and are by no means entitled to be
considered as additional plurals.
Comparatively few substantives, are without number. The
following may be enumerated.

Missun´, Fire wood.
Pinggwi, Ashes.
Méjim, Food.
Kôn, Snow.
Mishk´wi, Blood.
Ukkukkuzhas, Coals.
Ussáimâ, Tobacco.
Naigow, Sand.
Ahioun, Mist.
Kimmiwun, Rain.
Ossâkumig, Moss.
Unitshimin, Peas.
Others may be found, and indeed, a few others are known. But it is
less an object, in this lecture to pursue exceptions into their
minutest ramifications, than to sketch broad rules, applicable, if not
to every word, to at least a majority of words in the language.
There is, however, one exception from the general use of number,
so peculiar in itself, that not to point it out, would be an
unpardonable remissness, in giving the outlines of a language, in
which it is an object, neither to extenuate faults, nor to overrate
beauties. This exception consists in the want of number in the third
person of the declensions of animate nouns, and the conjugation of
animate verbs. Not, that such words are destitute of number, in their
simple forms, or when used under circumstances requiring no
change of these simple forms—no prefixes and no inflections. But it
will be seen, at a glance, how very limited such an application of
words must be, in a transpositive language.
Thus mang and kâg (loon and porcupine) take the plural inflection
wug, becoming mang wug and kag wug (loons and porcupines.) So,
in their pronominal declension—
My loon Ni mang oom
Thy loon Ki mang oom
My porcupine Ni gâg oom

Thy porcupine Ki gâg oom
My loons Ni mang oom ug
Thy loons Ki mang oom ug
My porcupines Ni gâg oom ug
Thy porcupines Ki gâg oom ug
But his loon, or loons, (o mang oom un) his porcupine or
porcupines, (o gâg oom un) are without number. The rule applies
equally to the class of words, in which the pronouns are inseparable.
Thus, my father and thy father, nôs and kôs, become my fathers and
thy fathers, by the numerical inflection ug, forming nôsug and
kôsug. But ôsun, his father or fathers is vague, and does not indicate
whether there be one father or twenty fathers. The inflection un,
merely denotes the object. The rule also applies equally to
sentences, in which the noun is governed by, or governs the verb.
Whether we say, I saw a bear—ningi wâbumâ mukwah, or a bear
saw me—mukwah ningi wâbumig, the noun, itself, undergoes no
change, and its number is definite. But ogi wâbum-ân muk-wun, he
saw bear, is indefinite, although both the verb and the noun have
changed their endings. And if the narrator does not subsequently
determine the number, the hearer is either left in doubt, or must
resolve it by a question. In fine, the whole acts of the third person
are thus rendered questionable. This want of precision, which would
seem to be fraught with so much confusion, appears to be obviated
in practice, by the employment of adjectives, by numerical
inflections in the relative words of the sentence, by the use of the
indefinite article, paizhik, or by demonstrative pronouns. Thus,
paizhik mukwun ogi wâbumân, conveys with certainty the
information—he saw a bear. But in this sentence both the noun and
the verb retain the objective inflections, as in the former instances.
These inflections are not uniformly un, but sometimes een, as in
ogeen, his mother, and sometimes ôn, as in odakeek-ôn, his kettle,
in all which instances, however, the number is left indeterminate. It
may hence be observed, and it is a remark which we shall presently
have occasion to corroborate, that the plural inflection to inanimate

nouns, (which have no objective form,) forms the objective inflection
to animate nouns, which have no number in the third person.
3. This leads us to the consideration of the mode of forming
possessives, the existence of which, when it shall have been
indicated by full examples, will present to the mind of the inquirer,
one of those tautologies in grammatical forms, which, without
imparting additional precision, serve to clothe the language with
accumulated verbiage. The strong tendency to combination and
amalgamation, existing in the language, renders it difficult, in fact to
discuss the principles of it, in that elementary form which, could be
wished. In the analysis of words and forms we are constantly led
from the central point of discussion. To recur, however, from these
collateral unravelings, to the main thread of inquiry, at as short and
frequent intervals as possible, and thus to preserve the chain of
conclusions and proofs, is so important that without keeping the
object distinctly in view, I should despair of conveying any clear
impressions of those grammatical features, which impart to the
language its peculiar character.
It has been remarked that the distinctions of number, are founded
upon a modification of the five vowel sounds. Possessives are
likewise founded upon the basis of the vowel sounds. There are five
declensions of the noun to mark the possessive, ending in the
possessive in âm, eem, im, ôm, um, oom. Where the nominative
ends with a vowel, the possessive is made by adding the letter m, as
in maimai, a woodcock, ni maimaim, my woodcock, &c. Where the
nominative ends in a consonant, as in ais, a shell, the full possessive
inflection is required, making nin dais-im, my shell. In the latter form
the consonant d, is interposed between the pronoun and noun, and
sounded with the noun, in conformity with a general rule. Where the
nominative ends in the broad, in lieu of the long sound of a, as in
ogimâ, a chief—the possessive is âm. The sound of i, in the third
declension, is that of i in pin, and the sound of u, in the fifth
declension, is that of u in bull. The latter will be uniformly
represented by oo.

The possessive declensions run throughout both the animate and
inanimate classes of nouns, with some exceptions in the latter—as
knife, bowl, paddle, &c.
Inanimate nouns are thus declined.
Nominative, Ishkôdai, Fire.
Possessive.
My, Nin Dishkod-aim.
Thy, Ki Dishkod-aim.
His, O Dishkod-aim.
Our, Ki Dishkod-aim-inân. (in.)
— Ni Dishkod-aim-inân. (ex.)
Your, Ki Dishkod-aim-iwâ.
Their, O Dishkod-aim-iwâ.
Those words which form exceptions from this declension, take the
separable pronouns before them, as follows.
Môkoman, A Knife.
Ni môkoman, My Knife.
Ki môkoman, Thy Knife.
O môkoman, His Knife, &c.
Animate substantives are declined precisely in the same manner
as inanimate, except in the third person, which takes to the
possessive inflections, aim, eem, im, ôm, oom, the objective particle
un, denoting the compound inflection of this person, both in the
singular and plural, aimun, eemun, imun, ômun, oomun, and the
variation of the first vowel sound, âmun. Thus, to furnish an
example of the second declension, pizhik’i, a bison, changes its
forms to nim, bizhik-im, my bison—ke bizhik-im, thy bison, O bizhik-
imun, his bison, or bisons.
The cause of this double inflection in the third person, may be left
for future inquiry. But we may add further examples in aid of it. We
cannot simply say, The chief has killed a bear, or, to reverse the
object upon which the energy of the verb is exerted, The bear has
killed a chief. But, ogimâ ogi nissân mukwun, literally, Chief he has

killed him bear, or, mukwah ogi nissân ogimân, Bear he has killed
him chief. Here the verb and the noun are both objective in un,
which is sounded ân, where it comes after the broad sound of a, as
in nissân, objective of the verb to kill. If we confer the powers of the
English possessive, (’s) upon the inflections aim, eem, im, ôm, oom,
and âm respectively, and the meaning of him, and of course he, her,
his, hers, they, theirs, (as there is no declension of the pronoun, and
no number to the third person) upon the objective particle un, we
shall then translate the above expression, o bizhik-eemum, his
bison’s hisn. If we reject this meaning, as I think we should, the
sentence would read, His bison—him—a mere tautology.
It is true, it may be remarked, that the noun possessed, has a
corresponding termination, or pronominal correspondence, with the
pronoun possessor, also a final termination indicative of its being the
object on which the verb exerts its influence—a mode of expression,
which, so far as relates to the possessive, would be deemed
superfluous, in modern languages; but may have some analogy in
the Latin accusatives am, um, em.
It is a constant and unremitting aim in the Indian languages to
distinguish the actor from the object, partly by prefixes, and partly
by inseparable suffixes. That the termination un, is one of these
inseparable particles, and that its office, while it confounds the
number, is to designate the object, appears probable from the fact,
that it retains its connexion with the noun, whether the latter follow
or precede the verb, or whatever its position in the sentence may
be.
Thus we can, without any perplexity in the meaning say,
Waimittigôzhiwug ogi sagiân Pontiac-un, Frenchmen they did love
Pontiac him. Or to reverse it, Pontiac-un Waimittigôzhiwug ogi
sagiân, Pontiac, he did Frenchmen he loved. The termination un in
both instances, clearly determines the object beloved. So in the
following instance, Sagunoshug ogi sagiân Tecumseh-un,
Englishmen, they did love Tecumseh, or Tecumseh-un Sagunoshug
oji sagiân, Tecumseh, he did Englishmen he loved.

In tracing the operation of this rule, through the doublings of the
language, it is necessary to distinguish every modification of sound,
whether it is accompanied, or not accompanied by a modification of
the sense. The particle un, which thus marks the third person and
persons, is sometimes pronounced wun, and sometimes yun, as the
harmony of the word to which it is suffixed, may require. But not the
slightest change is thereby made in its meaning.
Wâbojeeg ogi meegân-ân nâdowaisi-wun.
Wâbojeeg fought his enemies. L. W. he did fight them, his enemy,
or enemies.
O sâgi-ân inini-wun.
He, or she loves a man. L. He, or she, loves him-man, or men.
Kigo-yun waindji pimmâdizziwâd.
They subsist on fish. L. Fish or fishes, they upon them, they live.
Ontwa o sagiân odi-yun.
Ontwa loves his dog. L. O. he loves him, his dog, or dogs.
In these sentences the letters w and y are introduced before the
inflection un, merely for euphony’s sake, and to enable the speaker
to utter the final vowel of the substantive, and the inflective vowel,
without placing both under the accent. It is to be remarked in these
examples, that the verb has a corresponding inflection with the
noun, indicated by the final consonant n, as in sagiâ-n, objective of
the verb to love. This is merely a modification of un, where it is
requisite to employ it after broad a (aw,) and it is applicable to
nouns as well as verbs whenever they end in that sound. Thus, in
the phrase, he saw a chief, O wâbumâ-n O gimâ-n, both noun and
verb terminate in n. It is immaterial to the sense, which precedes.
And this leads to the conclusion, which we are, in some measure,
compelled to state, in anticipation of our remarks on the verb. That
verbs must not only agree with their nominatives in number, person
and gender (we use the latter term for want of a more appropriate
one,) but also with their objectives. Hence the objective sign n, in

the above examples. Sometimes this sign is removed from the
ending of the verb, to make room for the plural of the nominative
person, and is subjoined to the latter. Thus,
O sagiâ(wâ)n.
They love them, him or them.
In this phrase the interposed syllable (wâ) is, apparently, the
plural—it is a reflective plural—of he—the latter being, indicated as
usual, by the sign O. It has been observed, above, that the
deficiency in number, in the third person, is sometimes supplied “by
numerical inflections in the relative words of the sentence,” and this
interposed particle, (wâ) affords an instance in point. The number of
the nominative pronoun appears to be thus rendered precise, but
the objective is still indefinite.
When two nouns are used without a verb in the sentence, or
when two nouns compose the whole matter uttered, being in the
third person, both have the full objective inflection. Thus,
Os-(un.) Odi-(yun.)
His father’s dog. L. His father—his dog or dogs.
There are certain words, however, which will not admit the
objective un, either in its simple or modified forms. These are
rendered objective in een, or ôn.
O wâbumâ-(n,) ossin-(een.)
He sees the stone. L. He sees him—stone or stones.
O wâbumâ-(n) mittig o mizh-(een.) L. He sees him, tree or trees.
He sees an oak tree.
O mittig wâb (een,) gyai o bikwuk-(ôn.)
His bow and his arrows. L. His bow him, and his arrows him or
them.
Odyâ | wâ | wâ (n,) akkik-(ôn.)

They possess a kettle. L. They own them, kettle or kettles.
The syllable wâ, in the verb of the last example included between
bars, (instead of parentheses,) is the reflective plural they, pointed
out in a preceding instance.
I shall conclude these remarks, with full examples of each
pronominal declension.
a. First declension, forming the first and second persons in aim,
and the third in aimun.
Nominative
.
Pinâi, a partridge.
Pinâi-wug, partridges.
1 & 2d P.
My Nim Bin-aim.
Thy Ki Bin-aim.
Our Ki Bin-aim inân. Inclusive
plural.
Our Ni Bin-aiminân. Exclusive
plural.
Your Ki Bin-aim wâ.
3rd P.
His O Bin-aim, (un.)
Their O Bin-aim iwâ (n.)
e. Second declension forming the first and second persons in eem,
and the third in eemun,
Nominative.
Ossin, a stone.
Ossineen, stones.
1 & 2d P.
Thy Ki Dossin-eem.
Our Ki Dossin-eeminân. (in.)
My Nin Dossin-eem.
Our Ni Dossin-eeminân. (ex.)
Your Ke Dossin-eemewâ.
3rd P.
His O Dossin-eem(un.)
Their O Dossin-eemewâ (n.)

i. Third declension forming the first and second persons in im, and
the third in imun.
Nominative.
Ais, a shell.
Ais-ug, shells.
1 & 2d P.
My Nin Dais-im.
Thy Ki Dais-im.
Our Ki Dais-iminân. (in.)
Our Ni Dais-iminân. (ex.)
Your Ki Dais-imiwâ.
3rd P.
His O Dais-im (un.)
Their O Dais-imewâ (n.)
o. Fourth declension forming the first and second persons in ôm,
and the third in ômun.
Nominative.
Monidô, a Spirit.
Monidôg, Spirits.
1 & 2d P.
My Ni Monid-ôm.
Thy Ki Monid-ôm.
Our Ki Monid-ôminân. (in.)
Our Ni Monid-ôminân. (ex.)
Your Ki Monid-ômiwâ.
3rd P.
His O monid-ôm (un.)
Their O Monid-ômewâ (n.)
u. (oo) Fifth declension forming the first and second persons in
oom, and the third in oomun.
Nominative.
Môz, a Moose.
Môzôg, Moose.
1 & 2d P.
My Ni Môz-oom.
Thy Ki Môz-oom.
Our Ki Môz-oominân. (in.)
Our Ki Môz-oominân. (ex.)
Your Ki Môz-oominân. (in.)

3rd P.
His O Môz oom (un.)
Their O Môz oomiwa (n.)
aw. Additional declension, required when the noun ends in the
broad, instead of the long sound of a, forming the possessive in âm,
and the objective in âmun.
Nominative.
Ogimâ, a Chief.
Ogimâg, Chiefs.
1 & 2d P.
My Ni Dôgim âm.
Thy Ki Dôgim âm.
Our Ki Dôgim âminân. (in.)
Our Ni Dôgim âminân. (ex.)
Your Ki Dôgim âmiwâ.
3rd P.
His O Dôgim âm (un.)
Their O Dôgim âmiwâ (n.)
The abbreviations, in. and ex. in these declensions, mark the
inclusive and exclusive forms of the pronoun plural. The inflection of
the third person, as it is superadded to the first and second, is
included between parentheses, that the eye, unaccustomed to these
extended forms, may readily detect it.
Where the inseparable, instead of the separable pronoun is
employed, the possessive inflection of the first and second person is
dispensed with, although the inflection of the third is still retained.
Os: Father.
S. singular.
Nos. My father.
Kos. Thy father.
Os-un, His father. Sing. and plural.
Nos-inân. Our father. (ex.)
Kos-inân. Our father. (in.)
Kos-iwâ. Your father.
Os-iwân. Their father. Sing. and plural.
S. plural.

Nos-ug. My fathers.
Kos-ug. Thy fathers.
Os-un. His fathers. Sing. and plural.
Nos-inân
ig.
Our fathers. (ex.)
Kos-inân
ig.
Our fathers. (in.)
Kos-iwâg. Your fathers.
Os-iwân.
Their fathers. Sing. and
plural.
The word dog, and this word alone, is declined in the following
manner.
Annimoosh: a Dog.
S. singular.
Nin Dy (or Di) My dog.
Ki Dy Thy dog.
O Dy-un His dog or dogs.
Ki Dy-inân Our dog (in.)
Ni Dy-inân Our dog (ex.)
Ki Dy-iwâ Your dog.
O Dy-iwân Their dog, &c.
S. plural.
Nin Dy-ug My dogs.
Ki Dy-ug Thy dogs.
O Dy-un His dogs, &c.
Ki Dy-inânig Our dogs (in.)
Ni Dy-inânig Our dogs (ex.)
Ki Dy-iwâg Your dogs.
O Dy-iwân His dogs, &c.
The word Dy which supplies this declension is derived from
Indyiàm mine. pron. an.—a derivative form of the word, which is,
however exclusively restricted, in its meaning, to the dog. If the

expression Nin Dy or N’ Dy, is sometimes applied to the horse, it is
because it is thereby intended to call him, my dog, from his being in
a state of servitude similar to that of the dog. It must be borne in
mind, as connected with this subject, that the dog, in high northern
latitudes, and even as far south as 42 deg. is both a beast of
draught and of burden. He is compelled during the winter season to
draw the odàban, or Indian sleigh; and sometimes to support the
burden upon his back, by means of a kind of drag constructed of
slender poles.
A review of the facts which have been brought together respecting
the substantive, will show that the separable or inseparable
pronouns under the form of prefixes, are throughout required. It will
also indicate, that the inflections of the first and second persons
which occupy the place of possessives, and those of the third
person, resembling objectives, pertain to words, which are either
primitives, or denote but a single object, as moose, fire. There is,
however another class of substantives, or substantive expressions,
and an extensive class—for it embraces a great portion of the
compound descriptive terms—in the use of which, no pronominal
prefixes are required, The distinctions of person are, exclusively,
supplied by pronominal suffixes. Of this character are the words
descriptive of country, place of dwelling, field of battle, place of
employment, &c. The following example will furnish the inflexions
applicable to this entire class of words.
Aindâd: Home, or place of dwelling.
S. singular.
Aindâ-yân. My home.
Aindâ-yun. Thy home.
Aindâ-d. His home.
Aindâ-yâng. Our home. (ex.)
Aindâ-yung. Our home. (in.)
Aindâ-yaig. Your home.
Aindâ-wâd. Their home.
S. plural.

Aindâ-yân-in. My homes.
Aindâ-yun-in. Thy homes.
Aindâ-jin. His homes.
Aindâ-yâng-in. Our homes. (ex.)
Aindâ-yung-in. Our homes. (in.)
Aindâ-yaig-in. Your homes.
Aindâ-wâdjin. Their homes.
LECTURE II.
Further Remarks on the Substantive. Local, diminutive, derogative, and tensal
inflections. Mode in which the latter are employed to denote the disease of
individuals, and to indicate the past and future seasons. Restricted or sexual terms.
Conversion of the substantive into a verb, and the reciprocal character of the verb, by
which it is converted into a substantive. Derivative and compound substantives.
Summary of the properties of this part of speech.
In the view which has been taken of the substantive in the
preceding lecture, it has been deemed proper to exclude several
topics, which, from their peculiarities, it was believed, could be more
satisfactorily discussed in a separate form. Of this character are
those modifications of the substantive by which locality, diminution,
a defective quality, and the past tense are expressed; by which
various adjective and adverbial significations are given; and finally,
the substantives themselves converted into verbs. Such are also the
mode of indicating the masculine and feminine (both merged, as we
have shown, in the animate class) and those words which are of a
strictly sexual character, or are restricted in their use either to males
or females. Not less interesting is the manner of forming derivatives,
and of conferring upon the derivatives so formed, a personality,
distinguished as either animate or inanimate, at the option of the
speaker.
Much of the flexibility of the substantive is derived from these
properties, and they undoubtedly add much to the figurative
character of the language. Some of them have been thought
analogous to case, particularly that inflection of the noun which

indicates the locality of the object. But if so, then there would be
equally strong reasons for establishing an adjective, and an
adverbial, as well as a local case, and a plurality of forms in each.
But it is believed that no such necessity exists. There is no regular
declension of these forms, and they are all used under limitations
and restrictions incompatible with the true principles of case.
It is under this view of the subject, that the discussion of these
forms has been transferred, together with the other accidents of the
substantive just adverted to, and reserved, as the subject matter of
a separate lecture. And in now proceeding to express the
conclusions at which we have arrived touching these points, it will be
an object so to compress and arrange the materials before us, as to
present within a small compass, the leading facts and examples,
upon which each separate position depends.
1. That quality of the noun, which, in the shape of an inflection,
denotes the relative situation of the object, by the contiguous
position of some accessory object, is expressed in the English
language, by the prepositions in, into, at, or on. In the Indian they
are denoted by an inflection. Thus the phrase, In the box, is
rendered in the Indian by one word, mukukoong. Of this word,
mukuk, simply, is box. The termination oong, denoting the locality,
not of the box, but of the object sought after. The expression
appears to be precise, although there is no definite article in the
language.
The substantive takes this form, most commonly, after a question
has been put, as, Anindl ni môkoman-ais? where is my penknife?
Mukukoong, (in the box,) addôpowin-ing, (on the table,) are definite
replies to this question. But the form is not restricted to this relation.
Chimân-ing n’guh pôz, I shall embark in the canoe; wakyigun n’guh
izhâ, I shall go into the house, are perfectly correct, though
somewhat formal expressions, when the canoe or the house are
present to the speaker’s view.
The meaning of these inflections has been restricted to in, into, at,
and on. But they are the more appropriate forms of expressing the

three first senses, there being other modes beside these of
expressing the preposition on. These modes consist in the use of
prepositions and will be explained under that head. The choice of
the one, or the other, is, however, with the speaker. Generally, the
inflection is employed, when there is some circumstance or condition
of the noun, either concealed, or not fully apparent. Thus,
Muzzinyigun-ing, is the appropriate term for in the book, and may
also be used to signify on the book. But if it is meant only to signify
on the book, something visible being referred to, the preposition
ogidj would be used, that word indicating with certainty on, and
never in. Wakyigun-ing indicates with clearness, in the house; but if
it is necessary to say on the house, and it be meant at the same
time to exclude any reference to the interior, the expression would
be changed to ogidj wakyigun.
It will be proper further to remark, in this place, in the way of
limitation, that there is also a separate preposition signifying in. It is
pinj. But the use of this word does not, in all cases, supersede the
necessity of inflecting the noun. Thus the expression pindigain, is
literally walk in, or enter. But if it is intended to say, walk in the
house, the local, and not the simple form of house must be used;
and the expression is—Pindigain waky´igun-ing, Enter in the house,
—the verbal form which this preposition pinj puts on, having no
allusion to the act of walking, but merely implying position.
The local inflection, which in the above examples, is ing and oong,
is further changed to aing and eeng, as the ear may direct—changes
which are governed chiefly by the terminal vowel of the noun.
Examples will best supply the rule, as well as the exceptions to it.
Simple form. Local form.
a. First inflection in aing.
Ishkodai Fire Ishkod-aing In, &c. the fire.
Muskodai Prairie Muskod-aing
In, &c. the
prairie.
Mukkuddai Powder Mukkud-aing
In, &c. the
powder.

Pimmedai Grease Pimmid-aing
In, &c. the
grease.
e. Second inflection in eeng.[26]
Seebi River Seeb-eeng In, &c. the river.
Neebi Water Neeb-eeng
In, &c. the
water.
Miskwi Blood Miskw-eeng
In, &c. the
blood.
Unneeb Elm Unneeb-eeng In, &c. the elm.
i. Third inflection in ing.
Kôn Snow Kôn-ing
In, &c. the
snow.
Min Berry Meen-ing
In, &c. the
berry.
Chimân Canoe Chimân-ing
In, &c. the
canoe.
Muzziny
´egun
Book Muzziny´egun-ing In, &c. the book.
o. Fourth inflection in oong.
Azhibik Rock Azhibik-oong In, &c. the rock.
Gizhig Sky Gizhig-oong In, &c. the sky.
Kimmiwun Rain Kimmiwun-oong In, &c. the rain.
Akkik Kettle Akkik-oong
In, &c. the
kettle.
Throw it in the fire.
1. Puggidôn ishkod-aing.
Go into the prairie.
2. Muskôdaing izhân.
He is in the elm.
3. Unneeb-eeng iâ.
It is on the water.
4. Nib-eeng attai.
Put it on the table.

5. Addôpôwin-ing attôn.
Look in the book.
6. Enâbin muzziny´igun-ing.
You stand in the rain.
7. Kimmiwun-oong ki nibow.
What have you in that box.
8. Waigonain aitaig mukuk-oong.
Put it in the kettle.
9. Akkik-oong attôn, or Pôdawain.
My bow is not in the lodge; neither
is it
in the canoe, nor on the rock.
10. Kâwin pindig iâsi ni mittigwâb;
kâwiuh gyai chimân-ing;
kâwin gyai âzhibik-oong.
An attentive inspection of these examples will show, that the local
form pertains either to such nouns of the animate class, as are in
their nature inanimates, or at most possessed of vegetable life. And
here another conclusion presses upon us—that where these local
terminations, in all their variety, are added to the names of animated
beings, when such names are the nominatives of adjectives or
adjective-nouns, these words are converted into terms of
qualification, indicating like, resembling, equal. Thus, if we wish to
say to a boy, he is like a man, the expression is, Inin-ing
izzhinâgozzi; or if to a man, he is like a bear, Mukk-oong
izzhinâgozzi; or to a bear, he is like a horse, Pabaizhikogâzh-ing
izzhinâgozzi. In all these expressions the word izzhi, is combined
with the pronominal inflection â (or nâ) and the animate termination
gozzi. And the inflection of the nominative is merely an adjective
correspondence with izzhi:—a term indicative of the general qualities
of persons or animated beings. Where a comparison is instituted or
a resemblance pointed out between inanimate instead of animate
objects, the inflection gozzi, is changed to gwud, rendering the

expression, which was, in the animate form, izzhinâgozzi, in the
inanimate form, izzhinâgwud.
There is another variation of the local form of the noun, in
addition to those above instanced, indicative of locality in a more
general sense. It is formed by ong or nong—frequent terminations in
geographical names. Thus from Ojibwai, (Chippewa), is formed
Ojibwainong, Place of the Chippewas. From Wamittigozhiwug,
Frenchmen, is formed Wamittigozhinong, Place of Frenchmen. From
Ishpatinâ hill, Ishpatinong, Place of the hill, &c. The termination ing,
is also sometimes employed in this more general sense, as in the
following names of places.
Monomonikâning. In the place of wild rice.
Moninggwunikâning. In the place of Sparrows
Ongwashagooshing. In the place of the fallen tree. &c.
2. The diminutive forms of the noun are indicated by ais, eas, ôs,
and aus, as the final vowel of the word may require. Thus Ojibwai, a
Chippewa, becomes Ojibw-ais, a little Chippewa: Iniṅ´i, a man, inin-
ees, a little man: Amik, a beaver, amik-ôs, a young beaver: Ogimâ, a
chief, ogim-âs, a little chief, or a chief of little authority. Further
examples may be added.
Simple form. Diminutive form.
—ais.
A woman Eekwâ Eekwâz-ais.
A partridge Pinâ Pin-ais.
A woodcock Mâimâi Mâim-ais.
An island Minnis Minnis-ais.
A grape Shômin Shômin-ais.
A knife Môkoman Môkoman-ais.
—ees.
A stone Ossin Ossin-ees.
A river Seebi Seeb-ees.
A pigeon Omimi Omim-ees.
A bison Pizhik´i Pizhik-ees.

A potatoe Opin Opin-ees.
A bird Pinâisi Pinâish-ees.
—ôs.
A moose Môz Môz-ôs.
An otter Nigik Nigik-ôs.
A reindeer Addik Addik-ôs.
An elk Mushkôs Mushkos-ôs.
A hare Wâbôs Wâbôs-ôs.
A box Mukuk Mukuk-ôs.
—aus.
A bass Ogâ Og-âs.
A medal Shôniâ Shôni-âs.
A bowl Onâgun Onâg-âns.
A bed Nibâgun Nibâg-aûns.
A gun Pâshkizzigun Pâshkizzig-âns.
A house Wakyigun Wakyig-àns.
In the four last examples, the letter n, of the diminutive, retains its
full sound.
The use of diminutives has a tendency to give conciseness to the
language. As far as they can be employed they supersede the use of
adjectives, or prevent the repetition of them. And they enable the
speaker to give a turn to the expression, which is often very
successfully employed in producing ridicule or contempt. When
applied to the tribes of animals, or to inorganic objects, their
meaning, however, is, very nearly, limited to an inferiority in size or
age. Thus, in the above examples, pizhik-ees, signifies a calf, omim-
ees, a young pigeon, and ossin-ees, a pebble &c. But inin-ees, and
ogim-âs, are connected with the idea of mental or conventional as
well as bodily inferiority.
1. I saw a little chief, standing upon a small island, with an inferior
medal about his neck.
Ogimâs n’gi wâbumâ nibowid minnisainsing onâbikowân
shoniâsun.

2. Yamoyden threw at a young pigeon.
Ogi pukkitalwun omimeesun Yamoyden.
3. A buffalo calf stood in a small stream.
Pizhikees ki nibowi sibeesing.
4. The little man fired at a young moose.
Ininees ogi pâshkizwân môzôsun.
5. Several diminutive looking bass were lying in a small bowl, upon
a small table.
Addôpowinaising attai onâgâns abbiwâd ogâsug.
Some of these sentences afford instances of the use, at the same
time, of both the local and diminutive inflections. Thus the word
minnisainsing, signifies literally, in the little island; seebees ing, in
the little stream; addôpowinais ing, on the small table.
3. The preceeding forms are not the only ones by which adjective
qualities are conferred upon the substantive. The syllable ish when
added to a noun indicates a bad or dreaded quality, or conveys the
idea of imperfection or decay. The sound of this inflection is
sometimes changed to eesh oosh, or aush. Thus, Chimân, a canoe,
becomes Chimânish, a bad canoe; Ekwai, a woman, Ekwaiwish, a
bad woman; nibi, water, becomes nibeesh, turbid or strong water;
mittig, a tree, becomes mittigoosh, a decayed tree; akkik, a kettle,
akkikoosh, a worn-out kettle. By a further change, wibid, a tooth,
becomes wibidâsh, a decayed or aching tooth, &c. Throughout these
changes the final sound of sh is retained, so that this sound alone,
at the end of a word, is indicative of a faulty quality.
In a language in which the expressions bad-dog, and faint-heart
are the superlative terms of reproach, and in which there are few
words to indicate the modifications between positively good, and
positively bad, it must appear evident, that adjective inflections of
this kind, must be convenient, and sometimes necessary modes of
expression. They furnish a means of conveying censure and dislike,

which though often mild, is sometimes severe. Thus if one person
has had occasion to refuse the offered hand of another—for it must
be borne in mind, that the Indians are a hand-shaking people, as
well as the Europeans—the implacable party has it at his option in
referring to the circumstance, to use the adjective form of hand, not
onindj, but oninjeesh, which would be deemed contemptuous in a
high degree. So also, instead of odâwai winini, a trader, or man who
sells, the word may be changed to odâwai winini-wish, implying a
bad or dishonest trader. It is seldom that a more pointed, or positive
mode of expressing personal disapprobation or dislike is required,
for, generally speaking, more is implied by these modes than is
actually expressed.
The following examples are drawn from the inorganic as well as
organic creation, embracing the two classes of nouns that the
operation of these forms may be fully perceived.
Simple form. Adjective form.
—ish— A bowl Onâgun Onâgun-ish.
A house Wakyigun Wakyigun-ish.
A pipe Opwâgun Opwâgun-ish.
A boy Kweewizais Kweewizais-ish.
A man Inini Ininiw-ish.
Water Neebi Neeb-ish.
—eesh— A stone Ossin Ossin-eesh.
A potatoe Opin Opin-eesh.
A fly Ojee Oj-eesh.
A bow Mittigwâb Mittigwâb-eesh.
—oosh
—
An otter Neegik Neegik-oosh.
A beaver Ahmik Ahmik-oosh.
A reindeer Addik Addik-oosh.
A kettle Akkeek Akkeek-oosh.
An axe Wagâkwut Wagâkwut-oosh.
—aush— A foot Ozid Ozid-âsh.

An arm Onik Onik-âsh.
An ear Otowug Otowug-âsh.
A hoof Wunnussid Wunnussid-âsh.
A rush mat Appukwa Appukw-âsh.
These forms cannot be said, strictly, to be without analogy in the
English, in which the limited number of words terminating in ish, as
saltish, blackish, furnish a correspondence in sound, with the first
adjective form.
It may subserve the purposes of generalization to add, as the
result of the foregoing inquiries, that substantives have a diminutive
form, made in ais, ees, ôs, or âs; a derogative form, made in ish,
eesh, oosh, or âsh; and a local form, made in aing, eeng, ing, or
oong. By a principle of accretion, the second, or third, may be added
to the first form, and the third to the second.
Example.
Serpent, s. Kinai´bik.
——s. diminutive ——ôns, implying Little serpent.
——s. derogative ——ish, “ Bad serpent.
——s. local ——ing, “ In (the) serpent.
——s. dim. & der. ——ônsish “ Little bad serpent.
——s. dim. & lo. ——ônsing “ In (the) little serpent.
——s. dim. der. &
lo.
——ônsishing, “ In (the) little bad
serpent.
4. More attention has, perhaps, been bestowed upon these points,
than their importance demanded, but in giving anything like a
comprehensive sketch of the substantive, they could not be omitted;
and if mentioned at all, it became necessary to pursue them through
their various changes and limitations. Another reason has presented
itself. In treating of an unwritten language of which others are to
judge chiefly from examples, it appeared desirable that the positions
advanced should be accompanied by the data upon which they
respectively rest—at least, by so much of the data employed, as to
enable philologists to appreciate the justice or detect the fallacy of

our conclusions. To the few, who take any interest in the subject at
all, minuteness will not seem tedious, and the examples will be
regarded with deep interest.
As much of our time as we have already devoted to these lesser
points of inquiry, it will be necessary, at this place, to point out other
inflections and modifications of the substantive, to clear it from
obscurities, that we may go into the discussion of the other parts of
speech, unencumbered.
Of these remaining forms, none is more interesting than that,
which enables the speaker by a simple inflection, to denote that the
individual named has ceased to exist. This delicate mode of
conveying melancholy intelligence, or alluding to the dead, is
effected by placing the object in the past tense.
Aiekid-ôpun aieko Garrangula-bun.
So the deceased Garrangula spoke.
The syllable bun, in this sentence, added to the noun, and ôpun
added to the verb, place both in the past tense. And although the
death of the Indian orator is not mentioned, that fact would be
invariably inferred.
Names which do not terminate in a vowel sound, require a vowel
prefixed to the tensal inflection, rendering it ôbun, or ebun.
Inanimate, as well as animate nouns take these inflections.
Present. Past Form.
Tecumseh, Tecumsi-bun.
Tammany, Tamani-bun.
Skenandoah, Skenandoa-bun.
Nôs, (my father) Nos-êbun.
Pontiac, Pontiac-ibun.
Waub Ojeeg, Waub Ojeeg-ibun.
Tarhe, Tarhi-bun.
Mittig, (a tree) Mittig-ôbun.
Akkik, (a kettle) Akkik-ôbun.

Present. Past Form.
Môz, (a moose) Môz-ôbun.
By prefixing the particle Tah to these words, and changing the
inflection of the animate nouns to iwi, and the inanimates to iwun,
they are rendered future. Thus Tah Pontiac-iwi: Tah Mittig-iwun, &c.
The names for the seasons only come under the operation of
these rules, when the year before the last, or the year after the
next, is referred to. The last, and the ensuing season, are indicated
as follows.
Present. Last. Next.
Spring, Seegwun, Seegwun-oong, Segwun.
Summer, Neebin, Neebin-oong, Neebing.
Autumn, Tahgwâgi, Tahgwâg-oong, Tahgwâgig.
Winter, Peebôn, Peebônoong, Peebông.
I spent last winter in hunting.
Ning`i nunda-wainjigai peebônoong.
I shall go to Detroit next spring.
Ninjah izhâ Wâwiâ´tunong seegwung.
5. Sexual nouns. The mode of indicating the masculine and
feminine, having been omitted in the preceding lecture, as not being
essential to any concordance with the verb or adjective, is
nevertheless connected with a striking peculiarity of the language—
the exclusive use of certain words by one or the other sex. After
having appeared to the founders of the language, a distinction not
necessary to be engrafted in the syntax, there are yet a limited
number of words, to which the idea of sex, so strongly attaches, that
it would be deemed the height of impropriety in a female to use the
masculine, and in male to use the feminine expressions.
Of this nature are the words Neeji, and Nindongwai, both
signifying my friend, but the former is appropriated to males, and
the latter to females. A Chippewa cannot therefore say to a female
my friend, nor a Chippewa woman to a male, my friend. Such an
interchange of the terms would imply arrogance or indelicacy. Nearly

the whole of their interjections—and they are numerous—are also
thus exclusively appropriated; and no greater breach of propriety in
speech could be committed, than a woman’s uttering the masculine
exclamation of surprise Tyâ! or a man’s descending to the
corresponding female interjection N’yâ!
The word neenimoshai, my cousin, on the contrary, can only be
applied, like husband and wife, by a male to a female, or a female to
a male. If a male wishes to express this relation of a male, the term
is Neetowis: and the corresponding female term Neendongwooshai.
The terms for uncle and aunt, are also of a two-fold character,
though not restricted like the preceding in their use. Neemishomai is
my uncle by the father’s side: Neezhishai, my uncle by the mother’s
side. Neezigwoos is my paternal aunt, neewishai my maternal aunt.
There are also exclusive words to designate elder brother, and
younger brother: But what would not be expected after the
foregoing examples, they are indiscriminately applied to younger
brothers and sisters. Neesgai, is my elder brother, and neemissai my
elder sister. Neeshemai, my younger brother, or younger sister, and
may be applied to any brother or sister except the eldest.
The number of words to which the idea of sex is attached, in the
usual acceptation, is limited. The following may be enumerated.
Masculine. Feminine.
Irin´i, A man. Ekwai´, A woman.
Kwee´wizais, A boy. Ekwa´zais, A girl.
Oskinahwai, A young man. Oskineegakwai, A young woman.
Akiwaizi, An old man. Mindimô´ed, An old woman.
Nôsai, My father. Nin Gah, My mother.
Ningwisis, My son. Nin dânis, My daughter.
Ni ningwun, My son-in-law. Nis sim,
My daughter-in-
law.
Ni nâbaim, My husband.
Nimindimôimish
,
My wife.

Masculine. Feminine.
Nimieshomiss
,
My
grandfather.
Nôkômiss, My grandmother.
Ogimâ, A chief. Ogemâkwâ, A chiefess.
Addik, A reindeer. Neetshâni, A doe.
Annimoosh, A dog. Kiskisshâi, A bitch.
The sex of the brute creation is most commonly denoted by
prefixing the words Iâbai, male; and nôzhai, female.
6. Reciprocal changes of the noun. The pronominal particles with
which verbs as well as substantives, are generally encumbered and
the habit of using them in particular and restricted senses, leaves
but little occasion for the employment of either the present or past
infinitive. Most verbs are transitives. A Chippewa does not say, I
love, without indicating, by an inflection of the verb, the object
beloved; and thus the expression is constantly, I love him, or her,
&c. Neither does the infinitive appear to be generally the ultimate
form of the verb.
In changing their nouns into verbs, it will not therefore be
expected, that the change should uniformly result in the infinitive,
for which there is so little use; but in such of the personal forms of
the various moods as circumstances may require. Most commonly
the third person singular of the indicative, and the second person
singular of the imperative, are the simplest aspects under which the
verb appears; and hence these forms have been sometimes
mistaken for, and reported as the present infinitive. There are some
instances, in which the infinitive is employed. Thus, although an
Indian cannot say, I love, thou lovest, &c. without employing the
objective forms of the verb to love: yet he can say I laugh, I cry, &c.
expressions in which the action being confined to the speaker
himself, there is no transition demanded. And in all similar instances
the present infinitive, with the proper pronoun prefixed, is employed.
There are several modes of transforming a substantive into a verb.
The following examples will supply the rules, so far as known, which

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