Environmental Impact Assessment of Prototype Greenhouse Installation_draft

Adapt2change – LIFE09 ENV/GR/296
“Adapt Agricultural Production to climate change and
limited water supply”
Final Version 2012-07-23
Environmental Impact
Assessment of Prototype
Greenhouse Installation

www.greengears.eu info@greengears.eu
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Disclaimer
This document describes work undertaken as part of the 01/11/2011 tender between the
TEI of Larissa and the Emmanouilides and GreenGears Ltd consortium. All views and opinions
expressed therein remain the sole responsibility of the authors and do not necessarily
represent those of the Institute.

Environmental Impact Assessment of Prototype Greenhouse Installation
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Table of contents
1 Introduction....................................................................................................................... 8
2 Environmental impacts of agriculture............................................................................... 9
2.1 Land and soil.............................................................................................................. 9
2.1.1 Soil erosion ........................................................................................................ 9
2.1.2 Soil structure ................................................................................................... 11
2.1.3 Salinity ............................................................................................................. 12
2.1.4 Soil acidity and alkalinity ................................................................................. 13
2.1.5 Sodicity ............................................................................................................ 14
2.2 Water....................................................................................................................... 14
2.2.1 Inefficient use of resource............................................................................... 15
2.2.2 Efficient irrigation management practices...................................................... 16
2.2.3 Inappropriate water quality ............................................................................ 17
2.2.4 Risk Assessment............................................................................................... 20
2.2.5 Risk Assessment of irrigation water quality .................................................... 20
2.2.6 Risk Assessment of downstream water quality............................................... 22
2.3 Chemicals................................................................................................................. 23
2.3.1 Inappropriate storage of chemicals................................................................. 23
2.3.2 Inappropriate application................................................................................ 25
2.3.3 Inappropriate disposal..................................................................................... 27
2.3.4 Spray drift........................................................................................................ 27
2.3.5 Use of chemicals risk assessment.................................................................... 32
2.3.6 Spray drift risk assessment.............................................................................. 32
2.4 Nutrients - fertilizers ............................................................................................... 33
2.4.1 Nutrient management risk assessment........................................................... 35
2.4.2 Nutrient application risk assessment .............................................................. 36
2.5 Biodiversity.............................................................................................................. 37
2.5.1 Biodiversity risk assessment............................................................................ 38
2.6 Waste....................................................................................................................... 39
2.6.1 Waste risk assessment .................................................................................... 40
2.7 Air ............................................................................................................................ 41
2.7.1 Odor management .......................................................................................... 41
2.7.2 Monitoring and recording ............................................................................... 42
2.7.3 Odour management risk assessment.............................................................. 43

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2.7.4 Dust management risk assessment................................................................. 44
2.7.5 Smoke management risk assessment ............................................................. 45
2.7.6 Noise management risk assessment ............................................................... 46
2.7.7 Greenhouse gases management risk assessment........................................... 47
2.8 Energy...................................................................................................................... 48
2.8.1 Energy management risk assessment ............................................................. 49
3 Environmental impact assessment and control procedures........................................... 50
3.1 Soil - Soil treatment................................................................................................. 50
3.1.1 Rotation........................................................................................................... 50
3.1.2 Objective – to minimize the potential for water to erode soil on the property.
51
3.1.3 Objective – to minimize the potential for wind to erode soil on the property.
52
3.1.4 Objective – soil structure is suitable for root growth, water infiltration,
aeration and drainage needs of the crop........................................................................ 53
3.3 Water....................................................................................................................... 54
3.3.1 Irrigation methods........................................................................................... 55
3.3.2 Objective – water quality is suitable for its intended use on the property and
does not negatively impact downstream water quality.................................................. 57
3.4 Chemicals................................................................................................................. 58
3.4.1 Storage of plant protection products.............................................................. 59
3.4.2 Objective – agricultural chemicals are used in accordance with label or permit
instructions; and all chemicals, including fuels and oils, are stored, handled, applied and
disposed of in a manner that minimizes environmental impacts................................... 59
3.5 Nutrient Management............................................................................................. 61
3.5.1 Instructions of inorganic fertilizer ................................................................... 61
3.5.2 Fertilizer application management tools......................................................... 61
3.5.3 Fertilizer storage.............................................................................................. 62
3.5.4 Objective – to effectively manage nutrient inputs to meet crop requirements
and soil characteristics. ................................................................................................... 62
3.5.5 Objective – to ensure nutrient application methods and timing maximize
benefits to the crop and minimize potential negative environmental impacts.............. 62
3.6 Biodiversity.............................................................................................................. 63
3.6.1 Suggested practices......................................................................................... 63
3.6.2 Soil biodiversity ............................................................................................... 64
3.7 Energy Management ............................................................................................... 65
3.7.1 Irrigation.......................................................................................................... 65

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3.7.2 Vehicles and equipment.................................................................................. 65
3.7.3 Fuel .................................................................................................................. 65
3.7.4 Lighting ............................................................................................................ 65
3.7.5 Renewable resources ...................................................................................... 66
4 Environmental impact of prototype “Adapt2Change” greenhouse................................ 67
4.1 Land and soil............................................................................................................ 67
4.2 Water....................................................................................................................... 67
4.3 Chemicals................................................................................................................. 67
4.4 Nutrients.................................................................................................................. 68
4.5 Biodiversity.............................................................................................................. 68
4.6 Waste....................................................................................................................... 68
4.7 Air ............................................................................................................................ 69
4.8 Energy...................................................................................................................... 69
5 Environmental risk assessment at the prototype “Adapt2Change” greenhouse ........... 70
5.1.1 Water management risk assessment .............................................................. 71
5.1.2 Risk Assessment of irrigation water quality .................................................... 72
5.1.3 Risk Assessment of downstream water quality............................................... 73
5.1.4 Use of chemicals risk assessment.................................................................... 74
5.1.5 Spray drift risk assessment.............................................................................. 76
5.1.6 Nutrient management risk assessment........................................................... 77
5.1.7 Nutrient application risk assessment .............................................................. 78
5.1.8 Biodiversity risk assessment............................................................................ 79
5.1.9 Waste risk assessment .................................................................................... 80
5.1.10 Odour management risk assessment.............................................................. 81
5.1.11 Dust management risk assessment................................................................. 82
5.1.12 Smoke management risk assessment ............................................................. 83
5.1.13 Noise management risk assessment ............................................................... 84
5.1.14 Greenhouse gases management risk assessment........................................... 85
5.1.16 Energy management risk assessment ............................................................. 86
6 Determination of changes in the environmental load at the prototype “Adapt2Change”
greenhouse.............................................................................................................................. 87
6.1 Land – Soil................................................................................................................ 87
6.2 Water....................................................................................................................... 87
6.3 Chemicals................................................................................................................. 87
6.4 Nutrients.................................................................................................................. 87

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6.5 Biodiversity.............................................................................................................. 87
6.6 Waste....................................................................................................................... 88
6.7 Air ............................................................................................................................ 88
6.8 Energy...................................................................................................................... 88
7 Reproducibility and transferability of technology........................................................... 89
7.1 Reproducibility ........................................................................................................ 89
7.2 Transferability of technology .................................................................................. 89
8 Eco friendly procedures and products ............................................................................ 90
8.1 Procedures............................................................................................................... 90
8.1.1 Hydroponics..................................................................................................... 90
8.1.2 Use of geothermal energy............................................................................... 91
8.1.3 Water recycling................................................................................................ 91
8.1.4 Waste reducing and recycling ......................................................................... 97
8.2 Eco friendly Products............................................................................................... 98
8.2.1 Greenhouse organic farming........................................................................... 98
9 Included standards .......................................................................................................... 99
9.1 Good Agricultural Practices..................................................................................... 99
9.2 Good Agricultural Practices (G.A.P.)........................................................................ 99
9.3 Food safety............................................................................................................ 100
9.4 Soil ......................................................................................................................... 100
9.5 Crop protection ..................................................................................................... 100
9.6 Sustainability ......................................................................................................... 101
9.7 Social responsibility............................................................................................... 101
9.8 Economic efficiency............................................................................................... 101
9.9 Hygiene.................................................................................................................. 101
9.10 Record keeping...................................................................................................... 102
10 References..................................................................................................................... 103

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1 Introduction
Recent intensification of agriculture, and the prospects of future intensification, will
have major impacts on the nonagricultural terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems of the
world (Tilman, 1998). The doubling of agricultural food production during the past 35
years was associated with a 6.87-fold increase in nitrogen fertilization, a 3.48-fold
increase in phosphorus fertilization, a 1.68-fold increase in the amount of irrigated
cropland, and a 1.1-fold increase in land cultivation (Tilman, 1998).
Around half the EU's land is farmed. Farming is important for the EU's natural
environment. Farming and nature influence each other (EC, 2012):
 Farming has contributed over the centuries to creating and maintaining a
unique countryside. Agricultural land management has been a positive force
for the development of the rich variety of landscapes and habitats, including
a mosaic of woodlands, wetlands, and extensive tracts of an open
countryside.
 The ecological integrity and the scenic value of landscapes make rural areas
attractive for the establishment of enterprises, for places to live, and for the
tourist and recreation businesses.
The links between the richness of the natural environment and farming practices are
complex (EC, 2012). Many valuable habitats in Europe are maintained by extensive
farming, and a wide range of wild species rely on this for their survival (EC, 2012).
However, inappropriate agricultural practices and land use can also have an adverse
impact on natural resources, such as (EC, 2012):
 pollution of soil, water and air,
 fragmentation of habitats and
 loss of wildlife.
The Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) has identified three priority areas for action to
protect and enhance the EU's rural heritage (EC, 2012):
 Biodiversity and the preservation and development of 'natural' farming and
forestry systems, and traditional agricultural landscapes;
 Water management and use;
 Dealing with climate change.

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2 Environmental impacts of agriculture
2.1 Land and soil
Soil is a composite environment since it is the result of abiotic factors (independent
of human actions), that is to say of alterations to the bedrock (which provides soil's
mineral elements), atmospheric content (oxygen fixation, nitrogen cycle, water
cycle) and biotic factors (linked to the actions of living things) such as the content of
vegetation cover and decomposition of organic matter (GoodPlanet.info, 2009). Soil
analysis shows a superimposition of layers made up of different colors, chemical
compositions and sizes of material (GoodPlanet.info, 2009). Each superimposition of
layers creates a pedological profile (GoodPlanet.info, 2009).
Agriculture plays a large part in soil and land degradation, especially clearing,
irrigation, chemical fertilisers and pesticides, overgrazing and even the passage of
heavy farming equipment (GoodPlanet, 2009). Clearing and deforestation of large
plots of land to increase the agricultural surface area, change humus composition
and soil formation because of varied indigenous vegetation being replaced by
secondary vegetation (monoculture being the extreme) (GoodPlanet, 2009).
Tillage destroys superior layers of soil as well as the layer of humus and can even
cause a plough sole (lower layer of compact land) to form because of ploughs
regularly passing through soil at the same depth (GoodPlanet, 2009). Farming
equipment also contributes to soil compaction especially when it weighs more than
5 tons (GoodPlanet, 2009).
Irrigation and soil drainage can cause soil acidification and salination whilst the use
of chemical fertilisers and pesticides contributes to reducing soil capillarity (runoff)
as well as its consistency (GoodPlanet, 2009).
2.1.1 Soil erosion
Soil is naturally removed by the action of water or wind: such 'background' (or
'geological') soil erosion has been occurring for some 450 million years, since the first
land plants formed the first soil (Favis-Mortlock, 2007). In general, background
erosion removes soil at roughly the same rate as soil is formed but 'accelerated' soil
erosion loss is a far more recent problem stemming from human activities such as
deforestation, overgrazing and unsuitable cultivation practices (Favis-Mortlock,
2007). These activities intensify soil erosion and can lead to desertification especially
in arid Mediterranean areas with major topsoil loss. Furthermore, accelerated soil
erosion can affect both agricultural areas and natural ecosystems either off-site or
on site and it is one of the most widespread environmental problems worldwide
(Favis-Mortlock, 2007). The use of powerful agricultural implements has, in some
parts of the world, led to damaging amounts of soil moving downslope merely under
the action of gravity: the so-called tillage erosion phenomenon (Favis-Mortlock,
2007).

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Despite its global nature, data on soil erosion severity are often limited (Favis-
Mortlock, 2005). The Global Assessment of Human Induced Soil Degradation
(GLASOD) study estimated that around 15% of the Earth's ice-free land surface is
afflicted by all forms of land degradation, of which soil erosion by water is
responsible for about 56% and wind erosion for about 28% (Favis-Mortlock, 2005) as
shown in Figure 2.1. This means that the area affected by water erosion is, very
roughly, around 11 million km2
, and the area affected by wind erosion is around 5.5
million km2
, while the area affected by tillage erosion is currently unknown (Favis-
Mortlock, 2005).
Figure 2.1 The GLASOD estimate of global land degradation: note that this includes all forms of soil
degradation, not just erosion (Favis-Mortlock, 2005)
The Mediterranean region is particularly prone to erosion, as shown in Figure 2.1,
because it is subject to long dry periods followed by heavy bursts of erosive rainfall,
falling on steep slopes with fragile soils, resulting in considerable amounts of erosion
(Van der Knijff et. al., 2000). In parts of the Mediterranean region, erosion has
reached a stage of irreversibility and in some places erosion has practically ceased
because there is no more soil left (Van der Knijff et. al., 2000). With a very slow rate
of soil formation, any soil loss of more than 1 t/ha/yr can be considered as
irreversible within a time span of 50-100 years (Van der Knijff et. al., 2000). Losses of
20 to 40 t/ha in individual storms, that may occur once every two or three years, are
measured regularly in Europe with losses of more than 100 t/ha in extreme events
(Morgan, 1992 in Van der Knijff et. al., 2000). It may take some time before the
effects of such erosion become noticeable, especially in areas with the deepest and
most fertile soils or on heavily fertilised land (Van der Knijff et. al., 2000). However,

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this is all the more dangerous because, once the effects have become obvious, it is
usually too late to do anything about it (Van der Knijff et. al., 2000).
Figure 2.2 Soil erosion risk assessment in the EU (Van der Knijff et. al., 2000)
Because soil is formed slowly, it is essentially a finite resource. Therefore sustainable
agricultural practices, prevention and remediation measures must be further
researched and implemented.
2.1.2 Soil structure
When soil is compacted, its natural porosity is markedly reduced leading to severe
cases of water and air induced erosion and restricted root development (DEFRA,
2011). Factors adding to compaction are (DEFRA, 2011):
 Field operations carried out when the soil is too wet.
 Heavy equipment – the heavier the equipment, the drier the conditions
required unless different tires are used.
 Emphasis on early showing or drilling (particularly in the spring).
 Reducing the number and extent of tillage operations.
 Wheeling in furrow bottoms when plowing.
The effects of cultivation pans and weakly structured layers are: poor germination,
poor response to fertilizers, traffic damage, crop diseases and pests, draughtiness
(DEFRA, 2011).

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2.1.3 Soil salinisation
Soil salinisation is the process that leads to an excessive increase of water-soluble
salts in the soil (EC Joint Research Centre, 2012). Accumulated salts include sodium,
potassium, magnesium and calcium, chloride, sulphate, carbonate and bicarbonate
(mainly sodium chloride and sodium sulphate) (EC Joint Research Centre, 2012). A
distinction can be made between primary and secondary salinisation processes (EC
Joint Research Centre, 2012). Primary salinisation involves salt accumulation through
natural processes due to a high salt content of the parent material or in
groundwater. Secondary salinisation is caused by human interventions such as
inappropriate irrigation practices, e.g. with salt-rich irrigation water and/or
insufficient drainage (EC Joint Research Centre, 2012). More specifically, salinisation
is often associated with irrigated areas where low rainfall, high evapotranspiration
rates or soil textural characteristics impede the washing out of the salts, which
subsequently build-up in the soil surface layers (EC Joint Research Centre, 2012).
Irrigation with high salt content waters dramatically worsens the problem (EC Joint
Research Centre, 2012). In coastal areas, salinisation can be associated with the over
exploitation of groundwater caused by the demands of growing urbanisation,
industry and agriculture (EC Joint Research Centre, 2012). Over extraction of
groundwater can lower the normal water table and lead to the intrusion of marine
water (EC Joint Research Centre, 2012).
Soil salinisation is one of the most widespread soil degradation processes on Earth,
with an estimated 1 to 3 million hectares affected in the enlarged EU and mainly in
the Mediterranean countries, as shown in Figure 2.3 (EC Joint Research Centre, 2012). It is
regarded as a major cause of desertification and therefore is a serious form of soil
degradation (EC Joint Research Centre, 2012).

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Figure 2.3 Saline and Sodic Soils in the EU (EC, 2008)
2.1.4 Soil acidity and alkalinity
Soil acidity and alkalinity depends on various components which determine its
properties (Lake, 2000). These include mineral particles (sand, silt and clay, which
give soil its texture), organic matter (living and dead), air and water (Lake, 2000). Soil
acidity and alkalinity are measured in pH units with a scale of 1 (most acidic) to 14
(most alkaline) and 7 being neutral, though extreme values do not occur in
agricultural soils (FAO, 2000). Values from 7 to 4 are increasingly more acid and from
7 to 10 increasingly alkaline (FAO, 2000).
A main effect of too high or too low pH is that certain nutrients become too available
and toxic to the crop, while others become less available and show up as crop
deficiencies (FAO, 2000). In acid soils aluminium and manganese can become very
soluble and toxic, but additionally, they reduce plant's ability to take up calcium,
phosphorus, magnesium and molybdenum (FAO, 2000). Phosphorus in particular is
unavailable in acid soils and if boron, copper and zinc are present they can become
toxic at low pH (FAO, 2000). In medium alkaline soils boron, copper and zinc become
deficient and phosphorus again becomes unavailable (FAO, 2000). Soil pH has
relatively little effect on nitrogen (FAO, 2000).
Causes of extreme soil pH are (FAO, 2000):

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 The soil is geologically very old and heavily leached, with high levels of
aluminium and iron oxides. These soils are acid.
 Acidifying fertilizers have been applied to the soil for many years. These
include those with ammonium nitrogen and superphosphate.
 Large amounts of organic matter have been added to a very wet soil over
many years with resulting acidification.
 The soil is inherently alkaline being derived from limestone parent materials.
2.1.5 Sodification
Sodification is the process by which the exchangeable sodium (Na+
) content of saline
soil is increased (EC Joint Research Centre, 2012). This process takes place in saline
soils, where much of the chlorine has been washed away, leaving behind sodium
ions attached to tiny clay particles in the soil (Mason, 2003). As a result, these clay
particles lose their tendency to stick together when irrigated – leading to unstable
soils which may erode or become impermeable to both water and roots (Mason,
2003).
Sodicity can occur in the top 30 cm or so of the soil, or further down, but it is in the
top 5 cm where the biggest problems occur (Mason, 2003). If sodicity occurs below
the root zones of plants, its effect on crop productivity may be less apparent but it
can still cause significant problems (AAS, 1999). Sodic topsoils in arid and semi-arid
regions are subject to dust storms, which create major environmental and human
health problems (AAS, 1999). Sodic soils on sloping land are also subject to water
erosion, which means that important fertile topsoil is lost from agricultural land
(AAS, 1999). When water flows in channels or rivulets, soil is washed away along
these lines forming furrows called rills and in some cases, even larger channels of soil
removal, called gullies, develop (AAS, 1999). In other situations where only the
subsoil is sodic on sloping land, subsurface water flowing over this sodic layer will
create tunnels, leaving cavities that eventually collapse to form gullies (AAS, 1999).
Sodic soils that are also saline contain high concentrations of both sodium and
sodium chloride (AAS, 1999). Strangely enough, such soils will usually not exhibit
symptoms of sodicity because the sodium and chloride ions formed by the dissolved
sodium chloride (an electrolyte) in the soil solution prevents clay particles from
dispersing (AAS, 1999).
2.2 Water
Second only to drinking water availability, access to food supply is the greatest
priority (FAO, 1996). Hence, agriculture is a dominant component of the global

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economy (FAO, 1996) inflicting great pressures on both water quantity and quality
especially in the Mediterranean region. Fresh water is a finite resource, widely but
not everywhere available, sensitive to external influences and environmental
degradation, difficult to manage as it is mobile under its own peculiar conditions,
and costly to control and develop (FAO, 1996). On the other hand, population
growth and socio-economic development lead to increasing demands, while climate
change and international geopolitics are increasing uncertainties (FAO, 1996). Thus,
intensifying pressure on vulnerable water and land resources, the task of sustainable
management in agriculture becomes vital and urgent.
2.2.1 Water availability
In recent years, a growing concern has been expressed throughout the EU regarding
water scarcity problems and the significant impacts on water resources by
agricultural activities (EC Environment, 2012). In Europe, agriculture has been
estimated to account for around 24% of total water abstraction, although in parts of
southern Europe, this figure can reach up to 80% (EEA, 2009 in EC Environment,
2012) while in Greece, Spain and Portugal this percentage rises to 90% of total
overall water consumption (Berman et. al., 2012). Irrigation of crops constitutes a
considerable use, especially in southern Member States where irrigation accounts
for almost all agricultural water use and over-abstraction remains a pressing issue as
shown in Figure 2.4 (EC Environment, 2012). Agriculture has also been identified as
the major sustainable water management issue in the implementation of the EU
Water Framework Directive (WFD) (EC Environment, 2012). For this reason, water
use management in agriculture has been identified as one of the key themes relating
to water scarcity and drought (EC Environment, 2012).

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Figure 2.4 Irrigation intensity in Europe (GMIA, Siebert et. al., 2007 in Berman, 2012)
All agricultural aspects of agricultural production require water and are broadly
subdivided in three types of uses: irrigation, animal rearing and on-farming
processing operations (Berman et. al., 2012). It takes approximately 3,500 litres of
water to produce the food a typical European consumes in one day (Berman et. al.,
2012). A large proportion of this comes from rainwater (so called “green water”),
however in southern Europe irrigated crop production may be entirely dependent on
surface and groundwater resources (so called “blue water”), for this there is
increasing competition (Berman et. al., 2012).
Therefore, sustainable water management is essential to maximize yields and
control product quality (Lovell, 2006). Sustainable water management considers
both the crop’s water demand and the amount of water available, while managing
irrigation in order to maximize efficient use of water applied (Lovell, 2006). Irrigation
efficiency is a term that helps define the proportion of irrigation water that is
actually taken up and used by the crop (Lovell, 2006). Improvement in irrigation
efficiency is normally associated with water savings, production gains and better
long-term environmental management (Lovell, 2006). Irrigation efficiency is
determined by factors such as (Lovell, 2006):
 Ensuring irrigation systems are operating to design specification and applying
water as evenly as possible;
 Ability to time, or schedule irrigation, based upon crop water needs;
 Clear understanding of soils’ water holding, infiltration and drainage capacity.
To manage irrigation efficiently, a number of management practices need to be
considered, starting with an understanding of water availability and crop
requirements (Lovell, 2006) as described below.
Efficient irrigation management practices
There are nine basic steps in the efficient management of irrigation (Lovell, 2006):
1. Identify: Define property goals and implications for water management.
2. Plan: Know your soils.
3. Design the most suitable irrigation system.
4. Develop a farm water budget.
5. Know your water supply/ies.
6. Do: Determine a basic irrigation schedule.
7. Implement strategies to manage nutrient input and salinity.
8. Monitoring and recording:
a. Monitor record and evaluate.
9. Check irrigation system performance.

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2.2.2 Water quality
Agricultural practices may also have negative impacts on water quality (Utah State
University, 2012). Pollutants that result from farming include sediment, nutrients,
pathogens, pesticides, metals, and salts (US EPA, 2005). Impacts from agricultural
activities on surface and ground water can be minimized by using management
practices adapted to local conditions (US EPA, 2005). Many practices designed to
reduce pollution also increase productivity and save farmers money in the long run
(US EPA, 2005).
There are two aspects of water quality that need to be considered (Lovell, 2006):
The first involves water quality for agricultural use (e.g. irrigation, agricultural
sprays, packing sheds);
The second aspect involves water quality protection from agricultural
activities, thus ensuring that the quality of water leaving the crop does not
negatively impact on downstream users and the environment (Lovell, 2006).
2.2.2.1 Water quality of irrigation water
If rivers or streams are used as water resources, upstream human activities may
impact agriculture (Lovell, 2006). Possible problems caused from poor quality water
use include (Lovell, 2006):
 Salinity (high total soluble salt content)
 Sodicity (high sodium content)
 Toxicity (high concentration of specific salts in the soil)
 Blue-green algae, which may be toxic
 Clogging of irrigation equipment and
 Corrosion of pipes and other equipment.
2.2.2.2 Water quality impacts from agriculture
Sedimentation. The most prevalent source of agricultural water pollution is soil that
is washed off fields. Rain water carries soil particles (sediment) and dumps them into
nearby lakes or streams (US EPA, 2005). Too much sediment can cloud the water,
reducing the amount of sunlight that reaches aquatic plants. It can also clog the gills
of fish or smother fish larvae (US EPA, 2005). In addition, other pollutants like
fertilizers, pesticides, and heavy metals are often attached to the soil particles and
wash into the water bodies, causing algal blooms and depleted oxygen, which is
deadly to most aquatic life (US EPA, 2005). Farmers and ranchers can reduce erosion
and sedimentation by 20 to 90 percent by applying management practices that
control the volume and flow rate of runoff water, keep the soil in place, and reduce
soil transport (US EPA, 2005).

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Nutrients. Farmers apply nutrients such as phosphorus, nitrogen, and potassium in
the form of chemical fertilizers, manure, and sludge (US EPA, 2005). They may also
grow legumes and leave crop residues to enhance production (US EPA, 2005). When
these sources exceed plant needs, or are applied just before it rains, nutrients can
wash into aquatic ecosystems (US EPA, 2005). There they can cause algae blooms,
which can ruin swimming and boating opportunities, create foul taste and odor in
drinking water, and kill fish by removing oxygen from the water (US EPA, 2005). High
concentrations of nitrate in drinking water can cause methemoglobinemia, a
potentially fatal disease in infants, also known as blue baby syndrome (US EPA,
2005). To combat nutrient losses, farmers can implement nutrient management
plans according to the CAP Directives.
Animal Feeding Operations. Runoff from poorly managed facilities can carry
pathogens such as bacteria and viruses, nutrients, and oxygen-demanding organics
and solids that contaminate shell fishing areas and cause other water quality
problems (US EPA, 2005). Ground water can also be contaminated by waste seepage
(US EPA, 2005). Farmers can limit discharges by storing and managing facility
wastewater and runoff with appropriate waste management systems according to
the CAP Directives.
Livestock Grazing. Overgrazing exposes soils, increases erosion, encourages invasion
by undesirable plants, destroys fish habitat, and may destroy stream banks and
floodplain vegetation necessary for habitat and water quality filtration (US EPA,
2005). To reduce the impacts of grazing on water quality, farmers can adjust grazing
intensity, keep livestock out of sensitive areas, provide alternative sources of water
and shade, and promote re-vegetation of ranges, pastures, and riparian zones (US
EPA, 2005).
Irrigation. Irrigation water is applied to supplement natural precipitation or to
protect crops against freezing or wilting (US EPA, 2005). Inefficient irrigation can
cause water quality problems (US EPA, 2005). In arid areas, for example, where
rainwater does not carry minerals deep into the soil, evaporation of irrigation water
can concentrate salts (US EPA, 2005). Excessive irrigation can affect water quality by
causing erosion, transporting nutrients, pesticides, and heavy metals, or decreasing
the amount of water that flows naturally in streams and rivers (US EPA, 2005). It can
also cause a buildup of selenium, a toxic metal that can harm waterfowl
reproduction (US EPA, 2005). Farmers can reduce pollution from irrigation by
improving water use efficiency (US EPA, 2005). They can measure actual crop needs
and apply only the amount of water required (US EPA, 2005). Farmers may also
choose to convert irrigation systems to higher efficiency equipment (US EPA, 2005).
Pesticides. Insecticides, herbicides, and fungicides are used to kill agricultural pests
(US EPA, 2005). These chemicals can enter and contaminate water through direct

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application, runoff, and atmospheric deposition (US EPA, 2005). They can poison fish
and wildlife, contaminate food sources, and destroy the habitat that animals use for
protective cover (US EPA, 2005). To reduce contamination from pesticides, farmers
should use CAP Directive and EU techniques based on the specific soils, climate, pest
history, and crop conditions for a particular field (US EPA, 2005). The CAP Directives
encourages natural barriers and limits pesticide use and manages necessary
applications to minimize pesticide movement from the field.
2.2.3 Risk Assessment
The following flow charts describe Risk Assessment steps for sustainable water
management implementation in agricultural practices like the proposed prototype
Greenhouses, based on international literature and practice (Lovell, 2006).

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2.2.3.1 Water Use Risk Assessment
Are you aware of the
anticipated water volume
required for planned
production?
NO HIGH RISK
YES
Does water availability meet
this requirement?
NO HIGH RISK
YES
Is your irrigation system
working to design
specifications?
NO HIGH RISK
YES
Is the irrigation scheduling
system in place?
NO HIGH RISK
YES
Are there strategies to manage
nutrient input and salinity?
NO HIGH RISK
YES
LOW RISK

[21]
2.2.3.2 Irrigation Water Quality Risk Assessment
Has your water been
tested for:
pH, nutrient levels,
salinity, dissolved
oxygen, turbidity
NO
Is the irrigation water known to be:
Acid
High in nitrogen or phosphorus
Saline
Low in dissolved oxygen
Turbid
Are these problems occurring in the region?
NO
LOW RISK
YES
HIGH RISK
YES
Did test results meet
national guidelines?
NO
Is the source of irrigation water
known to be affected by any
other potential risk (heavy
metals, agricultural chemicals etc)
etc)?
NO LOW RISK
YESYES
HIGH RISK

[22]
2.2.3.3 Water Quality Impacts Risk Assessment
Has the risk of soil erosion been
assessed and any necessary
control measures
implemented?
NO HIGH RISK
YES
Are waterstreams passing
through the property protected?
NO HIGH RISK
YES
Are fertilizers, agricultural
chemicals and fuels stored so as
to minimize the risk of polluting
surface or ground water?
NO HIGH RISK
YES
Is the risk of contaminating water
resources addressed when
applying and handling fertilizers,
agricultural chemicals, fuels and
releasing used packing shed
water?
NO HIGH RISK
YES
LOW RISK

[23]
2.3 Chemicals
Agricultural chemicals are widely used in farming, pesticides or plant protection
products (EC, 2012). They fight crop pests and reduce competition from weeds, thus
improving yields and protecting the availability, quality, reliability and price of
production to the benefit of farmers and consumers (EC, 2012). However, their use
does involve risk, because most have inherent properties that can endanger health
and the environment if not used properly (EC, 2012). Human and animal health can
be negatively affected through direct exposure (e.g. industrial workers producing
plant protection products and operators applying them) and indirect exposure (e.g.
via their residues in agricultural produce and drinking water, or by exposure of
bystanders or animals to spray drift when they are applied) (EC, 2012).
Soil and water may be polluted via spray drift, dispersal of pesticides into the soil,
and run-off during or after cleaning of equipment, or via uncontrolled storage and
disposal (EC, 2012). In this context the EU seeks to ensure the correct use of
pesticides or plant protection products and to maintain public awareness (EC, 2012).
In this respect, the Common Agricultural Policy includes measures that help
promoting the sustainability in the use of plant protection products (EC, 2012):
decoupling,
cross-compliance,
operational programs of the fruit and vegetables regime,
agri-environmental measures (e.g. support to integrated farming),
training,
the use of farm advisory services.
Moreover, no pesticide can be used in the EU unless it is scientifically proven that it:
(EC, 2012)
Doesn’t harm people's health;
Has no unacceptable effects on the environment;
Is effective against pests.
Today, farmers are increasingly aware of the complex interrelationships between
agricultural practices and environmental quality (Hamilton et. al., 2006). Modern
farmers now consider the timing of agricultural chemical application and irrigation,
the amount and style of pesticide application, specific crop needs, and local weather
conditions in their pesticide and fertilizer use (Hamilton et. al., 2006).
2.3.1 Storage
Poorly stored pesticides and improper mixing/loading practices can present a
potential risk to our health and to the integrity of the environment (Kennedy, 2012).
The quality of surface water, groundwater and soil can be degraded in areas where

[24]
pesticides are stored under inappropriate conditions, improperly mixed and loaded
into application tanks and where equipment is washed and rinsed after application
(Kennedy, 2012). Accidents involving spills or leakages may have serious health and
environmental consequences (Kennedy, 2012).
Safety is the key element in pesticide storage (Kennedy, 2012). The safest approach
to any pesticide problem is to limit the amounts and types of pesticides stored
(Kennedy, 2012). The amounts and types of pesticides stored should be maintained
at the level that is immediately required and should not be stored beyond
immediate needs (Kennedy, 2012).
According to Australian Standards for minor storage (<10 kg or L of fumigants),
pesticides should be stored in a dedicated shed or room and not be used for other
than storage or measuring out pesticides (DPIWE, 2004). More specifically, the
following checklists should be followed while planning pesticide storage in a farming
area (DPIWE, 2004):
Site selection:
The site should be located at least:
 15 m from the property boundary
 10 m from buildings occupied by people or livestock
 5 m from watercourses, dams, drainage or sewage lines
 3 m from stored flammable materials
 well above maximum flood level
The site should preferably be:
 in an open area with low risk to wild-fires
 located to have good air circulation and avoid temperature extremes
 near to the tank mixing and filling area
The site must have access to:
 a clean and reliable water supply for tank filling and emergency use
Storage room structure/construction:
 structurally sound to wind and weather especially good roof with no leaks
 fire resistant structure and internal cladding is preferred
 wall and roof insulation to moderate storage temperature is desirable
 should have clear access and outward opening doors
The floor:
 must be impermeable and preferably graded to aid collection of spills and
wash down
 must be graded or bounded to contain 25% of the total liquid in the store.
Some schemes may require this to be 110% of the possible store contents.
Check that doorways and service entry/exits do not compromise
containment

[25]
 a normally closed pipe feeding an external lime pit for dilute wash down is
acceptable
 should be clear of fixtures and items to aid a total clean up in the event of a
spill
 should be non slip for worker safety.
Ventilation:
 must be adequate to prevent build up of chemical vapors; both lower vents
just above the bund and upper vents in the walls or roof are highly
recommended
Lighting:
 must be adequate to read labels in and to measure out chemicals; natural
light is preferred
Shelving:
 must be sturdy and made of non absorbent materials
 located on the coolest side of store and away from direct sunlight, electrical
and heat sources
 must be sufficient to avoid stacking and allow ease of use
Water supply:
 clean, reliable and capable of 15 minutes continuous flow to wash chemical
off any part of the body
Security:
 the store must be lockable and kept locked to prevent unauthorized entry
 windows and vents must be designed to prevent entry by children or others
 only authorized staff should have access to store keys
2.3.2 Application
Pesticide application refers to the practical way in which pesticides (including
herbicides, fungicides, insecticides, or nematode control agents) are delivered to
their biological targets (e.g. pest organism, crop or other plant) (Bateman, 2003).
Public concern about the use of pesticides has highlighted the need to make this
process as efficient as possible, in order to minimize their release into the
environment and human exposure (including operators, bystanders and consumers
of produce) (Bateman, 2003).
Farmers can adopt “low-input” production methods, although usually they avoid
these methods because they ignore agrichemical use external costs, especially
environmental damage, and because of possible lack of information describing low-
input farming techniques and government support (Fleming, 1987).
Pest control should be initiated only when a pest is causing or is expected to cause
more harm than is reasonable to accept (UK, 2005). Then, each euro spent for pest

[26]
control should return several euros in reduced losses or quality (UK, 2005). Often,
low or moderate pest numbers will not cause damage or economic loss. In these
cases, the cost of control is greater than the amount of damage that the pest would
cause (UK, 2005). When control is justified, an effective strategy should be selected
that is safe for the applicator and poses minimum potential harm to the
environment (UK, 2005).
The use of pesticides can threaten human health, the environment and wildlife; thus,
the decision to use a pesticide should only be taken when all other alternative
control measures have been fully considered (FAO, 2001). The three general pest
control goals are prevention, suppression, or eradication and it is important to select
the most appropriate one for every situation (UK, 2005). Integrated Pest
Management (IPM) is the combination of several appropriate pest control tactics
into a single plan to reduce pests and their damage to an acceptable level (UK,
2005). IPM, as described in the International Code of Conduct on the Distribution
and Use of Pesticides (FAO 1990 in FAO, 2001), offers a pest management system
that combines all appropriate control techniques to effect satisfactory results.
Pesticides are important tools to reduce outbreaks but continued reliance on them
can be very expensive and may lead to resistance to pesticides, outbreaks of other
pests, or harm to non-target or beneficial organisms (UK, 2005). With some pests,
using pesticides alone will not achieve adequate control (UK, 2005). The proposed
steps for the implementation of IPM according to international literature and
practice, include (UK, 2005):
Identify the pest or pests and determine whether or not control is needed.
Determine your pest control goal – suppression, eradication.
Evaluate the alternatives and select one that will be most effective and will
cause the least harm to people and the environment.
Evaluate the results and adjust your strategy as needed.
Pest control can fail for any of a variety of reasons and in the context of an IPM plan,
failures should be reviewed in order to try to determine what went wrong and
implement appropriate remediation and prevention measures (UK, 2005). More
specifically, the following checklist should be take into account (UK, 2005):
 Was the pest identified correctly? Sometimes a pesticide application fails
because the pest was not identified correctly and the wrong pesticide was
chosen or was applied at the wrong time.
 Was the pesticide rate used? Lack of calibration or faulty spray equipment
can cause control failures.
 Was the application timed correctly? Sometimes the pests are too large to be
controlled by a pesticide or in a less susceptible stage. In other cases, the
damage is already done and killing the pest has no impact on the problem.

[27]
 What were weather conditions before and after application? Weather can
impact pest control. Rain may wash off pesticide residues before the product
can work. Poor growing conditions may keep herbicides from being effective.
2.3.3 Disposal
Improper disposal of pesticides, rinsates and containers can cause water and soil
pollution either through surface runoff or through leaching (UK, 2005). Runoff and
leaching may occur when too much liquid pesticide is applied, leaked, or spilled onto
a surface, or too much rainwater, irrigation water, or other water gets onto a surface
containing pesticide residue (UK, 2005).
Runoff water may travel into drainage ditches, streams, ponds, or other surface
water where pesticide residues can be carried great distances offsite, while
pesticides that leach downward through the soil in the sometimes reach ground
water. (UK, 2005). Runoff water in the greenhouse may get into floor drains or other
drains and into the domestic water system (UK, 2005). In a greenhouse, pesticides
may leach through the soil or other planting medium to floors or benches below (UK,
2005).
Apart from water and soil contamination, pesticide runoff may harm fish and other
aquatic animals and plants in ponds, streams and lakes (UK, 2005). Aquatic life also
can be harmed by careless tank filling or draining and by rinsing or discarding used
containers along or in waterways (UK, 2005). Typical pesticide labeling statements
that alert users to these concerns and must be carefully followed, include (UK, 2005):
"Do not apply this product or allow it to drift to blooming crops or weeds if bees are
visiting the treatment area."
"Extremely toxic to aquatic organisms. Do not contaminate water by cleaning of
equipment or waste disposal."
Wildlife exposure to pesticides either directly through feeding and direct exposure or
indirectly through run off, leaching or soil contamination, may lead to accumulation
of certain toxic substances within the food chain (UK, 2005). Therefore, a careful IPM
plan must be implemented and pesticide disposal must follow product instructions
and labeling as well as measures proposed in the CAP Directives and Greek
legislation on pesticide use and dangerous toxic waste disposal.
2.3.4 Spray drift
The drift of spray and dust from pesticide applications can expose people, wildlife,
and the environment to pesticide residues, causing both health and environmental
problems (US EPA, 2009). Therefore, when using an approved pesticide, the
objective is to distribute the correct dose to a defined target with the minimum of

[28]
wastage due to drift using the most appropriate spraying equipment (FAO, 2001).
Pesticides only give acceptable field results if they are delivered safely and precisely
(FAO, 2001). Unlike other field operations, the results from poor spraying may not
become apparent for some time, thus it is essential that those involved in pesticide
selection and use are fully aware of their responsibilities and obligations, and are
trained in pesticide use and application (FAO, 2001).
2.3.4.1 Operator training
Operators of spray equipment must receive suitable training before handling and
applying pesticides (FAO, 2001). Training should be provided by a recognized
provider and courses are frequently offered by local training groups, agricultural
colleges, government extension departments, spray equipment manufacturers and
the chemical industry (FAO, 2001). The satisfactory completion of a course may
result in a recognized certificate of competence to cover:
 safe product handling,
 delivery of the product to the target
 instruction on using the relevant spray equipment.
2.3.4.2 Spray equipment selection
The selection of appropriate and suitable spray equipment is essential safe and
effective pesticide use (FAO, 2001). International and national equipment testing
schemes have been established in many countries where after thorough testing
under laboratory and field situations, sprayers are given certificates of approval
(FAO, 2001). Where testing is not in place equipment manufacturers can be required
to confirm that a sprayer complies with the requirements in countries where testing
is mandatory or the equipment meets the appropriate FAO guidelines (FAO, 2001).
Equally important when selecting spraying equipment is access to spare parts,
service and support facilities (FAO, 2001).m Ideally, equipment selection should not
be based primarily on cost; safety, design, comfort and ease of use must be major
considerations, and ease of maintenance must be a high priority (FAO, 2001).
Knapsack sprayer maintenance should require only simple tools (FAO, 2001). The
combination of operator training to a recognized standard, combined with the
selection of appropriate spray equipment will contribute to improving the accuracy
of pesticide delivery as well as protecting the environment (FAO, 2001).
2.3.4.3 Correct use
Pesticides should only be used if there is an economically important need and all
pesticides must be used strictly in accordance with their label recommendation
(FAO, 2001). Product selection must assess potential exposure hazard of the selected

[29]
formulation and determine what control measures and dose rates the label
recommendations advocate (FAO, 2001).
2.3.4.4 Managing operator exposure
The use of Personnel Protective Equipment (PPE) is essential for protecting operator
health and advice on its use will be found on the product label (FAO, 2001). Effective
health monitoring records will be able to provide early warnings and identify
changes in operator health, which may be attributed to working with pesticides
(FAO, 2001).
The public must be safeguarded as well, both during, and after spraying, for example
where they might have access to a treated area (FAO, 2001). Maybe livestock also
ought to be prevented from re-entering treated areas immediately after spraying
(FAO, 2001).
The following flow charts describe Risk Assessment steps for sustainable pesticide
implementation based on international literature and practice (Lovell, 2006).

[30]
2.3.5 Chemical use risk assessment
Have you investigated
alternatives or environmentally
friendlier options?
NO HIGH RISK
YES
Are chemicals, fuels and soil
stored safely and according to
law, including an appropriate
spill kit?
NO HIGH RISK
YES
Are chemical mixing facilities
designed to contain / prevent
spread of any spillage?
NO HIGH RISK
YES
Are strategies in place to
minimize spray drift?
NO HIGH RISK
YES
Do you use: agricultural,
cleaning, sanitizing chemicals,
fuels, oils?
NO
YES
LOW
RISK

[31]
LOW RISK
Is the personnel working with
chemicals appropriately trained
and are chemicals applied safely
effectively and according to
legislation?
NO HIGH RISK
YES
Are surplus chemicals (spray
and tank washing) and obsolete
chemicals disposed of safely
and according to legislation?
NO HIGH RISK
YES
Are empty chemical containers
(including plastic and metal
drums and paper and plastic
bags) stored and disposed of
safely and according to law?
NO HIGH RISK
YES

[32]
2.3.6 Spray drift risk assessment
Is wind speed between 3
and 15 Km/h?
AND
Is temperature lower than
30o
C?
AND
Is relative humidity
moderate (40-100%)?
NO
Are there neighbors or other
crops nearby?
NO
LOW RISK
YES
HIGH RISK
YES
Are there sensitive
environmental areas
nearby (wetlands,
natura sites, national
park, special habitats))?
NO
YES
HIGH RISK
HIGH RISK

[33]
2.4 Fertilizers - Nutrients
Agricultural production increases in the next three decades are to be no smaller in
absolute terms than those of the past three decades, although growth rates will be
significantly lower (Alexandratos, 2003). These future increases must be achieved
starting from a resource base that is much more stretched than in the past
(Alexandratos, 2003). Given the scarcities of suitable agricultural land in several
developing countries, a good part of the required production will stem from
increasing output per ha cultivated (Alexandratos, 2003). Therefore, agriculture will
become more intensive and the use of fertilizers must be more efficient and
environmentally friendly.
Intensive fertilizer application is linked to nutrient input in runoff and leaching,
which may lead to water body eutrophication, soil acidification and potential soil and
water contamination with nitrates (Alexandratos, 2003). Elements such as nitrogen
and phosphorus found in fertilizers can cause algae blooms and excess plant growth
in water bodies, which in turn can lead to oxygen depletion and toxic conditions in
aquatic habitats (Alexandratos, 2003). Nitrates leaching into ground water resources
is of great concern because they contribute to the "blue baby" syndrome in drinking
water (Alexandratos, 2003).
Any fertilizer in any form, whether organic or synthetic, can harm the environment if
misused. Whether you're using cow manure or commercial fertilizer, you need to
take precautions to protect the environment (EnviroGreen, 2012). There are several
things to keep in mind when using fertilizers, described as follows (EnviroGreen,
2012):
1) Get the soil tested regularly - Soil testing is the only way that will know what
nutrients are in the soil. If there are sufficient amounts of elements such as
phosphorus, then there is no need in applying extra phosphorus.
2) Know the nutrient needs of crop - If the crop only needs 1/2 pound of
nitrogen per thousand square feet, then only apply 1/2 pound of nitrogen per
thousand square feet. Any more than this will not do any good and will most
likely not be used. Unused fertilizer can be washed away into lakes, rivers and
streams or leached into ground water. Study the crop and learn about its
nutrient needs. Use this knowledge plus information from soil test to
determine the amount of fertilizer to apply.
3) Apply at the proper time - Know when the crop needs to be fertilized. There
is no need to apply fertilizer when the crop will not use it. Again, this unused
fertilizer can be washed away or leached before the plant can use it.
4) Take extra precautions on slopes - Applying fertilizers on slopes can lead to
the washing away of nutrients. This is how most of these nutrients wind up
into our surface waters. Take precautions to control runoff from property. Do

[34]
not allow fertilizer to drift onto the streets because this fertilizer will certainly
make its way into the storm drains. Above all, control soil erosion. Elements
that are tightly held by the soil, make their way into the surface waters on
soil that is washed away. Phosphorus is an example of this type of element.
5) If you use organic fertilizer sources, have them tested - Like the soil, the only
way that you can know what is in your organic fertilizer source is to have it
tested and the only way to know how much organic fertilizer to apply is to
know what is in it. The nutrient contents of organic materials vary
considerably, therefore information on average contents of individual
materials are not always reliable.
6) Apply fertilizers only to healthy plants or reduce the amount to unhealthy
plants - An unhealthy plant or in the case of a crop, poor plant stand, is not
going to use as much nutrient as a healthy crop. Applying the same amount
of fertilizer to an unhealthy plant can lead to unused fertilizer and can also
harm the plant. Find out what is causing the problem. Fertilizer may not be
the solution and if applied, could lead to polluting the environment.
7) Store your fertilizer materials properly - Keep fertilizer sources from being
washed away by rains. Keep them under a shelter and off of the ground so
the nutrients want get caught in rain water runoff.
8) Plant debris and compost is a source of nutrients - Remember that crop
residue left over from last year, mulch and compost contain plant nutrients.
These nutrients can also get into the environment as well. When deciding the
amount of fertilizer to apply, take into consideration the nutrients from these
sources and reduce the amount of fertilizer.
9) Break up fertilizer applications on sandy soils - Nutrients leach very readily on
sandy soils. If apply more than the plant can use at the time, one good rain or
irrigation can leach the nutrients down below the plant roots before it can
use them. On sandy soils, break up fertilizer applications into several smaller
applications instead of a few larger applications.
10) Follow up fertilizer applications with a light irrigation - A light irrigation is
good to activate the fertilizer, but a heavy rain or irrigation can leach or wash
away nutrients. Keep this in mind when applying fertilizer.
The following flow charts describe Risk Assessment steps for sustainable nutrient
and fertilizer management based on international literature and practice (Lovell,
2006).

[35]
2.4.1 Nutrient management risk assessment
LOW RISK
RISK
Do you know the type and
quantity of nutrients your crop
needs? NO HIGH RISKYES
Do you know what nutrients are available to
your crop from your soil/substrate? Take into
account:
Major and minor nutrients
Soil texture, ph, salinity, organic matter and
crop residues
Quality of irrigation water
NO HIGH RISK
YES
Are you losing nutrients
through leaching, surface water
runoff, wind erosion?
NO HIGH RISK
YES
Are fertilizer applications/soil amendments causing
other environmental pollution such as heavy metal
contamination or soil acidification? NO
HIGH RISK
YES
Have you developed a nutrient
budget, farm budget nutrition? YES
HIGH RISK NO

[36]
2.4.2 Fertilizer application risk assessment
LOW RISK
RISK
Are fertilizer application
methods and timing chosen to
maximize benefit to the crops
and minimize potential negative
environmental impacts?
Consider: runoff, leaching,
volatilization
NO HIGH RISK
YES
Is fertilizer application equipment:
Calibrated and maintained?
Checked for accuracy of
distribution?
NO HIGH RISK
YES

[37]
2.5 Biodiversity
Despite the fundamental importance of biodiversity and ecosystem services to the
Earth’s functioning and to human society, human activities are driving the loss of
biodiversity at an unprecedented rate, up to 1,000 times the natural rate of species
loss (UNEP, 2008). And despite the specific importance of crop and livestock
diversity, and of associated agricultural biodiversity, advances in agricultural
production over recent decades have been achieved largely without major regard to
the erosion of biodiversity (UNEP, 2008).
The biggest driver of terrestrial biodiversity loss in the past 50 years has been habitat
conversion, in large part due to conversion of natural and semi-natural landscapes to
agriculture (UNEP, 2008). Nutrient loading, particularly of nitrogen and phosphorus,
much of which derived from fertilizers and farm effluent, is one of the biggest drivers
of ecosystem change in terrestrial, freshwater and coastal ecosystems (UNEP, 2008).
Climate change is projected to become a major driver of biodiversity loss as well as a
serious challenge to agriculture, whose response, to adapt, will draw upon the
genetic diversity of crops and livestock and the services provided by other
components of agricultural biodiversity (UNEP, 2008).
Many modern practices and approaches to agriculture intensification aiming at
achieving high yields have led to a simplification of the components of agricultural
systems and biodiversity and to ecologically unstable production systems (UNEP,
2008). These include use of monocultures with reduction in cropping diversity and
elimination of crop succession or rotation; use of high-yielding varieties and hybrids
with the loss of traditional varieties and diversity together with a need for high
inputs of inorganic fertilizer; control of weeds, pests and diseases based on chemical
(herbicides, insecticides, and fungicides) treatments rather than mechanical or
biological methods (UNEP, 2008).
Land and habitat conversion to large-scale agricultural production, including
drainage of land and conversion of wetlands has also caused significant loss of
biodiversity (UNEP, 2008). The homogenization of farming landscape with
elimination of natural areas, including hedgerows, woodlots and wetlands, to
achieve larger scale production units for large-scale mechanized production has also
led to decline in biodiversity and ecological services (UNEP, 2008).
The following flow chart describes Risk Assessment steps for sustainable biodiversity
management in agricultural practices based on international literature and practice
(Lovell, 2006).

[38]
2.5.1 Biodiversity risk assessment
LOW RISK
RISK
Are there areas that are
degraded / overrun with exotic
species like lantana, blackberry,
and willow?
NO
HIGH RISK
Is there any native vegetation in
your farm?
YES HIGH RISK
YES
Are there areas managed to protect the habitat?
Fenced, spray drift minimized, misapplication of
fertilizer minimized, burning/fire risk, exotic pests
NO HIGH RISK
YES
Is there any area where native vegetation could be
established or that includes protected species?
Unsuitable for horticultural production, along access
roads, swappy or waterlogged land, steep slopes
YES
HIGH RISK
NO
NO
LOW RISK
RISK
DON’T KNOW
OR UNSURE

[39]
2.6 Waste
Agricultural waste is any substance or object from premises used for agriculture or
horticulture, which the holder discards, intends to discard or is required to discard. It
is waste specifically generated by agricultural activities (UK EA, 2012). For example,
waste which came from a farm shop or a vegetable packing plant would not be
agricultural waste (UK EA, 2012). Some examples of agricultural waste are: (UK EA,
2012):
 empty pesticide containers
 old silage wrap
 out of date medicines and wormers
 used tires
 surplus milk
 manure
 sewage sludge
 organic
Agricultural waste can be spread on land for many reasons. For example, wastes like
organic compost, digestive and food processing can reduce requirements for
manufactured fertilizers (UK EA, 2008). Other wastes can be used to improve the soil
by increasing organic matter content and soil structure (UK EA, 2008). Although the
use of waste as a fertilizer can provide significant benefits, if done incorrectly severe
impacts could be caused on the food chain, soil health, surface water and
groundwater and to sensitive habitats and species (UK EA, 2008). If waste is used as
as a soil improver or fertilizer it must be spread either in accordance with a
registered waste exemption or in accordance with an environmental permit (UK EA,
2008).
Activities involving waste storage, recycling or disposal generally require an
Environmental Permit, however some waste activities pose less of a risk to the
environment and human health so are exempt from requiring an environmental
permit (UK EA, 2008).
The following flow chart describes Risk Assessment steps for sustainable waste
management in agricultural practices, based on international literature and practice
(Lovell, 2006).

[40]
2.6.1 Waste risk assessment
LOW RISK
Can you identify the waste in
your farm?
NO HIGH RISK
YES
Can any of these products be
avoided? NO HIGH RISK
YES
Change inputs and/or practices
to minimize waste
NO HIGH RISK
YES

[41]
2.7 Air - Noise
Air pollution issues, particularly odors, dust, smoke and noise, can often be of most
significance to immediate residencies (Lovell, 2006). Primary producers need to
recognize that some activities can negatively impact neighbors and that at times it
may be appropriate to adjust activities as far as reasonable to minimize the impact
(Lovell, 2006).
2.7.1 Odor management
Odors can be caused by animal manures, fertilizers and chemicals, waste disposal
sites, composting sites and activities, mulches and waste management equipment
(Lovell, 2006). Therefore cultivation practices must be chose carefully (Lovell, 2006):
 Working soil to fine tilth in dry windy weather should be avoided if possible.
Pre-irrigation to wet dry soil before cultivation will help to reduce dust.
 Use slower cultivation speeds when there is a risk of dust.
 Uncultivated crop stubble provides protection against wind erosion.
 Minimize the amount of time soil is left without vegetation or a cover crop.
 Minimum tillage techniques should be used where practical.
 Inter-row spacing and headlands should have groundcover whenever
possible.
2.7.2 Dust management
Excessive dust can cause annoyance and in some cases health problems to neighbors
and staff (Lovell, 2006). Dust created around packing sheds can also settle on packed
produce, affecting visual quality and potentially having food safety implications
(Lovell, 2006). The combination of soil type, farming system and weather patterns
contributes to the risk of soil erosion by wind (Lovell, 2006).
Applying mulches to the surface of seedbeds after drilling on sandy soils is an
effective control measure (Lovell, 2006). Use of plastic mulch along plant rows will
also contribute to dust control (Lovell, 2006). Wetting down, sealing and use of
‘minimal dust materials’ (for example blue metal or hardstand) for the surfaces of
frequently used traffic ways (transport delivery and pickup areas, harvested produce
delivery points and forklift routes at the packing shed) will dramatically reduce the
dust problem (Lovell, 2006). Do not apply oil to traffic-ways due to the potential for
it to end up in waterways (Lovell, 2006).
2.7.3 Noise management
Noise many not seem like an environmental management issue for growers,
however Greek legislation for environmental protection includes noise as part of the
definition of the environment. For this reason, noise management is included in the
environmental assurance process for horticultural businesses.

[42]
Suggested practices include (Lovell, 2006):
Identify and consider local government regulations.
Buffer zones are useful to reduce noise and are also helpful to mitigate
impacts of off-target spray application.
Where pumps are located close to residential areas, consider changing from
diesel to electric pumps or creating a sound barrier around the pump. Electric
pumps will most likely be run at night time, when electricity tariffs are lower.
Consider muffling equipment where daytime intermittent noise levels are
excessive. Where normal methods are not sufficient to reduce noise to
acceptable levels, equipment that is continuously operated may require
soundproofing or artificial mounds to help absorb and deflect the noise.
Some forms of seasonal activity, or current and accepted industry practice
like harvesting, may require the use of machinery at night. Where sensitive
places are close to noise and night-time activities occur, consider starting
work closer to the sensitive area and moving away as night falls. The
converse applies for early morning activities.
The following flow charts describe Risk Assessment steps for sustainable odor, dust,
smoke, noise and greenhouse gas emissions management in agricultural practices,
based on international literature and practice (Lovell, 2006).

[43]
2.7.4 Odor management risk assessment
LOW RISK
Do you:
Store manure, fertilizers,
chemical?
Have a produced waste site?
Have other unpleasant odor
producing activities?
NOYES
Could the activity cause concern
to family, employees, neighbors
or community?
NO
YES
HIGH RISK
LOW RISK

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2.7.5 Dust management risk assessment
LOW RISK
YES
Do any of the following apply to the site?
Soil type is lite to erosion,
Cropping/harvesting activity will leave soil
exposed during windy weather
Site is particularly exposed
NO
HIGH RISK

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2.7.6 Smoke management risk assessment
LOW RISK
YES
Do you burn your waste?
NO
HIGH RISK
Are there disposal options other
than burning?
YES
NO
HIGH RISK

[46]
2.7.7 Noise management risk assessment
LOW RISK
Does the operation generate
excessive noise?
NOYES
Are there neighbors close to the
operation? NO
YES
Is the operation running during
sensitive times (e.g. between 10
am and 6 pm, or on weekends)? NO HIGH RISK
YES
LOW RISK
Are there sensitive environmental
areas, particularly with are or
endangered fauna, close to the
operation?
NO
NO

[47]
2.7.8 Greenhouse gases management risk assessment
LOW RISK
YES
Do you:
Undertake regular maintenance of all
equipment, particularly that requiring fossil
fuels and CFCs?
Regularly check insulation?
Strategically apply nitrogenous fertilizers?
Minimize unnecessary journeys and
cultivation passes
NO HIGH RISK

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2.8 Energy
Agricultural and horticultural businesses carry out a wide range of different activities
but there are many common areas where energy is wasted (Lichfield District Council,
2012). There are several low and no-cost measures, as well as those requiring
investment, that farming businesses can put into place to lower energy consumption
and save money (Lichfield District Council, 2012).
Across all farming businesses, the major areas of energy consumption are lighting,
heating, ventilation, air circulation and refrigeration (Lichfield District Council, 2012).
The main areas of energy consumption by broad agricultural activity are (Lichfield
District Council, 2012):
 horticulture heating typically accounts for 90 per cent of the energy used in a
greenhouse
 pig farming - energy is used in a number of pig farming processes, including
welfare and feeding systems, building services and environmental protection,
waste management and emissions control
 poultry farming - most energy is used for maintaining good environmental
conditions for housing the flock
 dairy - cooling milk and heating water account for as much as 65 per cent of
the energy used, with lighting and pumping also significant consumers
 crop stores - the amount of energy required by a crop store is closely linked
to the thickness of the insulation and the difference between the storage
temperature and the temperature outside
 combinable crops - energy is often wasted in storing and drying these crops

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2.8.1 Energy management risk assessment
LOW RISK
Do you monitor the amount of
electricity and fuel you use and
the use to which it is put? NOYES
Are you using the most efficient
and practical energy source? NO
YES
Are these things you can do to
minimize the energy usage of
your operation? YES HIGH RISK
NO
HIGH RISK
HIGH RISK

[50]
3 Environmental impact assessment and control
procedures
3.1 Soil treatment
Tillage is a means to an end and not an end in itself. It prepares the field for the next
crop, for seeding, to destroy and cover unwanted plants, to ensure proper aoil
drainage and aeration. Bare cultivated soil is vulnerable to wind and water erosion.
Therefore, soil treatment must be as limited as possible with the necessary
interventions. Excessive tillage increases required energy, inducing large and
unnecessary fuel consumption, and also has negative impacts on the soil. In order to
maximize tillage benefits and minimize its negative impacts, the following measure
will be followed:
The type of crop, soil and agricultural machinery available should be taken
into account before tillage. Provision should be taken, for fewer
interventions.
Process should take place when the soil is in the "right state for cultivation",
i.e. after the first autumn rains. It is desirable to avoid summer plowing,
unless it is necessary for perennial weed Control.
Avoid deep tillage below 40 cm, unless it is needed for weed eradication and
breaking deep-root impenetrable soil horizon. In the case of deep tillage, due
to breakage the reversal soil should not be impenetrable.
Where there is danger of flooding a special method will be used that assures
leveling plots using reversible plows.
When slopes are greater than 10%, plowing must be either parallel to the
contours or diagonal. Embankments created during contour plowing should
be diagonal (uncultivated areas with vegetative cover) with a range of 1-2 m.
Uncultivated soil between parcels and hedges, as well as the natural
vegetation of gullies and neighboring forests must be preserved.
Interventions involving water stream rerouting must be implemented only
when needed and after appropriate authorization by government authorities.
3.1.1 Crop rotation
Crop rotation is the process of growing different types of crops in the same field in
sequential seasons. It is one of the oldest and most effective cultural control
strategies (PAN Germany, 2012). The succeeding crop belongs to a different family
than the previous one (PAN Germany, 2012). Planned rotation may vary from 2 or 3
year or longer period (PAN Germany, 2012). Some insect pests and disease-causing
organisms are hosts’ specific, therefore crop rotation can contribute significantly to
pest control. Moreover, crop rotation (PAN Germany, 2012):
1. Prevents soil depletion.
2. Maintains soil fertility.

[51]
3. Reduces soil erosion.
4. Controls insect/mite pests. The process is most effective when pests present
before the crop is planted with no wide range of host crops; attack only
annual/biennial crops; and do not have the ability to fly from one field to
another.
5. Reduces reliance on synthetic chemicals.
6. Reduces the pests' build-up.
7. Prevents diseases.
8. Helps weed control.
3.1.2 Objective – to minimize the potential for water to erode soil
Maintaining soil cover: Soil cover protects the soil from erosion by reducing
the displacement (movement) of soil particles caused by rain or overhead
irrigation droplets, and by slowing the movement of water across the site.
Types of soil cover include:
 grassed waterways on drainage and sump areas;
 inter-row groundcovers in orchards, vineyards and ground crops;
 green manure/cover crops planted between (in space and time)
commercial crops;
 organic mulches, plastic, slashed inter-row material or crop residues
spread over the exposed soil; and
 products such as PAM (polyacrylamide), PVA (polyvinyl acetate) or
molasses which bind soil together.
Managing soil cover:
 avoiding soil tillage (where possible) during times of the year when
heavy rainfall events are likely, especially in tropical areas;
 avoiding cultivation of light sandy soils subject to regular flooding;
 using minimum tillage systems that minimize mechanical disturbance
of the soil;
 using permanent bed systems that improve soil structure and soil
stability through maintaining or improving soil organic matter levels;
 planting green manure or cover crops during the period between
commercial crops to cover the soil and increase soil organic matter
levels for improved soil structure, stability and fertility;
 under sowing or planting in the inter-row area at the same time as
commercial crops;
 leaving crop residues (where possible) on site until the site is next
required;
 minimizing the time soil is left exposed between harvest and planting
of the next crop; and
 establishing permanent grass or vegetation cover on areas that are
not cropped.

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Controlling run-off water: Controlling the direction of flow, volume and speed
of run-off water on site can minimize soil erosion. Long, gentle slopes are just
as prone as short, steep slopes. Good planning and drainage design before
planting can prevent problems later.
Improving soil structure: Adding organic matter increases soil resistance to
erosion. Organic matter can either be left on the soil surface as a mulch or
incorporated into the soil to improve soil organic matter levels and soil
structure.
Establishing sediment traps: Sediment traps or ponds (also called silt traps or
ponds/sediment retention basins) aim to hold run-off water long enough to
allow soil particles to settle. They can be small ponds or weirs, or large dams
that capture and re-use run-off water. Artificially constructed wetland
systems may be established to capture sediment and remove the nutrient in
run-off waters.
Monitoring and recording - Visual inspection: Immediately after a rainfall
event, go and have a look at how run-off is flowing across the farm. Is erosion
occurring? How dirty (turbid) is the water?
 Assessing water turbidity: In addition to a visual inspection of water
leaving the property or returning to farm dams, a turbidity tube can
be made and used to gauge basic changes in water turbidity. Turbidity
meters are also available for more precise assessments.
 Assessing soil erosion losses: Place a piece of 100x50 mm timber, or
similar, on the ground and, over time, look at the amount of soil that
accumulates behind it.
3.1.3 Objective – to minimize the potential for wind to erode soil
Maintaining soil cover: Soil cover protects the soil from erosion by minimizing
soil exposure to the physical force of the wind.
Managing soil cover.
Moderating wind speed.
Improving soil structure.
o Plenty of organic matter in the soil will strengthen soil structure and
make it less prone to wind erosion.
Monitoring and recording – Visual inspection: Wind erosion can be visually
assessed – have a look at an exposed site with light soils on a windy day.
However, the effects of erosion are often subtle and require an extended
period of time to become obvious. In this case it may not be possible to
clearly distinguish between the causes of erosion, but an understanding of
your own property, soil type and weather patterns should help you
determine the most significant influences so that appropriate control
measures can be instigated.
Assessing soil erosion losses: Measuring wind erosion can be difficult because
of its patchy nature.

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Irrigation can be applied immediately prior to, or during, wind events to
increase the cohesion between soil particles, thereby reducing erosion
(Lovell, 2006). Cultivating so as to leave a rough, raised and very uneven
surface.
Planning when setting up new sites, particularly where major ground works
are concerned, should include consideration of the likelihood of wind
extremes and managing or avoiding the periods when they are likely to occur.
Using remnant vegetation or shelter belts within or adjacent to the new site
can minimize soil erosion.
3.1.4 Objective – soil structure suitable for root growth, water infiltration,
aeration and drainage needs of the crop.
Cultivation method: Most tillage for fruit and vegetable crops occurs prior to
planting to enable suitable contact between the soil and the planted
material. This primary tillage is an important part of initial land preparation
and cannot really be avoided. Secondary tillage operations should be
minimized where possible.
Cultivation timing: The soil moisture content during tillage has an important
effect on soil structure. Where the water content is too great, the soil acts
like plasticine, smearing and compacting with tillage and traffic. Don’t go
onto paddocks with machinery when the soil is wet. Similarly, soils can be too
dry to work, requiring excessive amounts of energy to produce a seed bed.
Remedial action: If a hard pan or compaction layer is present, then additional
cultivation may be needed depending on whether the cause is cultural or due
to sodicity. If the condition is not due to sodicity, cross-ripping under the
correct soil moisture levels will help to shatter the pan, loosening and
breaking clods that will break down further when exposed to the weather.
 Increasing organic matter: Increasing organic matter through use of
crop rotations and green manure crops promotes good soil structure.
Stubbles and crop residues can also be returned to the soil.
 Crop rotation: Using rotations and green manure crops will provide
short-term soil structure benefits through better soil aggregation. This
helps optimize the soil’s water-holding capacity, ability to hold
nutrients, workability and water infiltration.
Monitoring and recording: Soil compaction can be assessed by determining
how difficult it is to dig. The assessment should bear in mind any short-term
tillage and effects of soil moisture.
Penetrometer (screwdriver) test: A simple test of compaction is to see how
far you can push a screwdriver into the soil using reasonable. It is a way of
simulating the difficulty that roots have pushing through the soil. Try it after
decent rainfall or irrigation.
Visual assessment: Soil compaction affects the ability of plant roots to
penetrate the soil and root systems are often stunted. Dig up some plants
and assess their root systems and also assess the overall vigor of the plants.

[54]
Stunted or sharply-bent roots mean small, feeble, low-yielding plants that are
prone to drought. It can be useful to compare roots from different areas,
such as under fence lines where compaction may be less. Take a closer look
at the clods and aggregates. Many large clods mean the soil will need to be
kept wetter to allow roots to penetrate. Sharp angular aggregates with
smooth faces indicate poor structure. Well-structured soils have a range of
aggregate sizes (2-10 mm), with irregular or rounded shapes and porous
faces.
3.2 Water
Water resources are now considered essential for developing any kind of activity and
the maintenance of ecological balance and life in general. In recent decades the
rapid development of agriculture, resulted in increasing water demands, which
combined with reckless use and pollution have caused serious problems for future
development and sustainability. Future development depends both on the quality
and quantity of irrigation water. As a minimum contribution farmers must
implement and follow all necessary precautions for water resources protection and
efficient management.
Water management considers both the crop’s water demand and the amount of
water available. It also involves management of irrigation to maximize efficient use
of water applied (Lovell, 2006). Drainage water and run-off also need to be managed
to avoid any impact, such as nutrient pollution, on groundwater or waterways and
wetlands (Lovell, 2006). Irrigation efficiency is a term that helps define the
proportion of irrigation water that is actually taken up and used by the crop.
Improvement in irrigation efficiency is normally associated with water savings,
production gains and better long term environmental management. (Lovell, 2006).
Irrigation efficiency is determined by irrigation management factors such as (Lovell,
2006):
ensuring irrigation systems are operating to design specification and applying
water as evenly as possible;
ability to time, or schedule irrigation, based upon crop water needs; and
clear understanding of soils’ water holding, infiltration and drainage capacity.
In order to manage irrigation efficiently, a number of management practices need to
be considered, starting with an understanding of water availability and crop
requirements (Lovell, 2006). There are nine basic steps involved in the efficient
management of irrigation:
Identify: define property goals and implications for water management
Plan
 Know your soils

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 Design the most suitable irrigation system
 Develop a farm water budget
 Know your water supply/ies
Do
 Determine a basic irrigation schedule
 Implement strategies to manage nutrient input and salinity
Monitoring and recording
 Monitor, record and evaluate
 Check irrigation system performance
3.2.1 Irrigation methods
Surface irrigation with ditches: This method is used for crops such as cotton, maize
vegetables and others. For the success of this type of irrigation the crops must be
sown linearly. This method has significant disadvantages:
 high water consumption
 nutrient leaching
 uneven watering
The aforementioned disadvantages appear more intense in sandy soils, where field
slopes are greater than 2-3% increasing surface runoff.
Artificial rain: With this system, water is applied on the field evenly. The rate of
irrigation should be the same as the rate at which the soil absorbs water in order to
prevent surface runoff. For this purpose, the choice of nozzle and provision of
sprinklers should be done in such a way that the intensity of rain is equal to the soil
infiltration rate and the average hourly rainfall is proportional to height, which
corresponds to the soil type of the field. The timing of irrigation should be such as to
prevent leaching into deeper soil layers.
With this system losses may occur because of wrong timing (noon 11 am-3 pm) due
to evaporation, or uneven watering due to weather conditions (strong wind). With
these conditions it is advisable to avoid irrigation. Artificial rain drops break the
structure of the surface soil with high pressure launchers. This system should be
avoided when irrigation water quality is not good because salts and other residues
can collect on plant leaves and shoots.
Drip Irrigation: This method is applied to a part of the soil and specifically in the area
of the root system. Water injections require very small amounts of water, 2-3 liters
per hour and the water is filtered through the soil without surface runoff. Since
irrigation is repeated daily for 2-3 hours to replace evapotranspiration, deep leaching
is avoided.

[56]
This system ensures: full irrigation control, almost zero nutrient loss, functioning on
sloping lands and where water quality is marginally tolerated. Finally, it allows a
gradual, in proper doses, fertigation application. The only drawbacks is the high
initial purchase cost and the high level expertise required for operation and
maintenance.
3.2.2 Objectives - uniform water application to match crop needs and drainage
impacts managed in accordance with environmental, community and
regulatory standards.
Identify your goals: Your goals will largely depend on the crop(s) you are
growing and desired yield and quality. The property goal can be made up of a
series of block or paddock goals.
Know your soils: A soil survey is a fairly comprehensive analysis of soil types
and their distribution across your property. Soil surveys establish a better
understanding of your soil’s ability to hold water and any potential physical
and chemical limitations to growing your crops in that soil.
Design irrigation systems: Crop production will suffer if the irrigation design
or the irrigation method does not suit your property goals or the soil type.
One of the key aspects of design is to match irrigation delivery with water
demand.
Developing a farm water budget: A farm water budget is about making sure
you have enough water to meet the property goals. Water budgeting helps
determine the amount of water you expect to use over the season and
attempts to match this with intended irrigated crop area so that the
horticultural business can check that planned irrigation needs are within
water entitlements.
Know your water supply: Understanding your water requirements and
reliability of water supply is crucial.
Determine a basic irrigation schedule: Irrigation scheduling includes
determining when and how much to irrigate. Growers have traditionally
relied on their knowledge and experience to schedule irrigation. However
many growers are now using other measures such as soil moisture
monitoring, to fine-tune their irrigation scheduling. Irrigation scheduling can
be done by indirect or direct means.
Implement strategies to manage nutrient input and salinity.
 Manage nutrient inputs: For nutrients to reach the crop roots and to
avoid losses from over irrigation, fertilizer should be applied when soils
are close to field capacity, i.e. late in the irrigation run. Over-irrigation
or application of a leaching fraction will wash the nutrients past the
root zone.

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 Manage salinity: Soil salinity can potentially reduce production by up to
100% due to reduced plant growth. This is because soil salinity makes it
difficult for crops to obtain water and nutrients from the soil. Affected
plants show similar symptoms to under-watering or can show visual
symptoms such as burning on leaves. Soil salinity can also affect the
biological health of the soil which can have serious long-term effects on
soil fertility. Soil salinity testing should be done regularly to monitor
root-zone salinity.
Monitoring and recording - Monitor, record and evaluate: Monitoring,
measuring and recording activities are essential for the overall management
of the property. A range of factors should be monitored and evaluated but
the following are important:
 Monitor crop performance: Keeping records of crop productivity is
important to understand the effects of different irrigation practices.
Measuring and recording yield, quality and maturity for each crop
allows yearly comparisons and evolution against the goal of the
property, and helps to refine management decisions.
 Document water budget: Record irrigation schedules, amount of water
applied, rainfall, soil moisture and crop evapotranspiration.
 Assessment of economic yield: One measure of irrigation efficiency is
through assessment of economic yield. This can be expressed in gross
income per megalitre ($/ML) and/or production water use efficiency
(tones of produce/ML). While no definitive figures exist for these
criteria, historical on-farm or district comparisons will provide useful
benchmarks.
 Monitor water quality: Monitoring the quality of your drainage water
can give an indication of nutrient loss.
Check irrigation system performance: You need to regularly check and
maintain your irrigation system to make sure it is operating correctly and
delivering what it should. If the system is not operating at maximum
efficiency, irrigation scheduling and management strategies, such as
controlling salinity, will not be effective.
3.2.3 Objective – water quality is suitable for its intended use on the property
and does not negatively impact downstream water quality.
Check water source quality: This should be a priority when considering new
enterprises. Good data is often available from your water supply
authority/company/State government agency.

[58]
Check quality of water leaving the farm: It is also worth checking the drainage
and run-off water leaving your own property. How does it compare with the
water upstream or your neighbors? If the water is high in nutrients and
turbidity (water cloudiness) then you should consider how fertilizer
management, soil erosion, protecting watercourses and agricultural chemical
management could be improved.
Protect water quality: Water quality is impacted by activities both on and off
farm. It is important to be aware of on-farm activities that can negatively
affect water quality as this may impact the suitability of the water for use on
the farm as well as having significant environmental impacts. Farm activities
may affect water quality by increasing levels of salts, nutrients, suspended
sediment, chemicals or organic matter.
Protect watercourses: Watercourses such as rivers, creeks and streams as
well as their riparian areas (areas on or near creek and river banks) should be
protected. Areas that have significant protected riparian zones have the
ability to capture and filter soil sediment and soluble nutrients, improving
water quality before it leaves the farm. A strip of undisturbed vegetation
should be left to protect waterways.
Soil erosion: Soil erosion is an important issue for both soil protection and
water quality protection. High turbidity of run-off indicates soil loss is
occurring.
Nutrient management: Nutrient management is important to ensure that the
nutrients applied are either used by the crop (some of which will be exported
off-farm in the harvested product) or safely stored in the soil for the next
crop.
Agricultural chemical management: Agricultural chemicals can contaminate
waterways through inappropriate application and storage.
3.3 Chemicals
Plant protection products use must be justified by the existence of an
infestation/disease/pest/weed and the calculated economic losses it might instigate.
it must follow current legislation). Appropriate product selection must abide with
(CAP Directives), the type of crops infested and the type and size of infestation, or
weed existence. Before implementing an IPM, the following prevention measures
must be followed:
 Biological control applied before chemical use
 Using resistant to disease or reproductive material disease-free material.
 Destruction of overwintering forms of pests and diseases in winter.
 Implementation of appropriate crop rotations.

[59]
 Monitoring of pests, weeds and diseases in the area, to allow timely pesticide
application.
3.3.1 Storage
Plant protection products must be stored in a special cool and well ventilated and
insulated storage room away from water resources. Furthermore, users should
adhere to the labeling instructions, as well as national legislation incorporating
Directive 91/414/EEC.
3.3.2 Application
In order to prevent environmental impacts from chemical application, the following
measures should be taken:
 Application should be as well calculated and as accurate as possible with an
even spray distribution for optimum results with minimum environmental
impacts.
 Application should be conducted in such a way as to avoid the emergence of
resistance.
 Application of granular formulations, by incorporating grains in the ground to
avoid the risk taken grains from birds, unless the integration reduces
effectiveness.
 Maintaining appropriate security zones during application ensuring
protection of adjacent hedges, bird nests, aquatic vegetation, surface waters
and other important environmental data.
 Application should be conducted during appropriate periods in order to avoid
impacts on beneficial insects.
 Prohibiting the use of toxic substances to bees when plants are blooming.
 The spray equipment must be in good condition, well regulated and
monitored at regular intervals.
3.3.3 Objective – agricultural chemicals are used in accordance with labeling or
permit instructions; and all chemicals, including fuels and oils, are stored,
handled, applied and disposed of in a manner that minimizes
environmental impacts.
Suggested practices include:
Minimize application and apply appropriate IPM plan.
Safe storage: Agricultural chemicals can contaminate watercourses if not
stored appropriately. Any new chemical storage should meet the highest
standards of design and construction. Existing chemical sheds may need to be
improved.

[60]
Safe transport: Ensure chemical containers are leak-proof and adequately
secured when transporting on farm or between farms.
Dealing with spills: It is a good idea to have an emergency plan in place to
deal with spills of different chemical groups, in order to be prepared if it ever
happens.
Mixing and application: Responsible use of pesticides and chemicals. Ensure
at least one person in the business has completed an accredited chemical
user’s training course and ensure all staff that apply pesticides have adequate
training.
Minimizing spray drift: There are many strategies to minimize or prevent the
chances of spray drift, starting with how you establish new horticultural sites.
Weather conditions: Wind speed in the spray release zone is an important
factor in determining spray drift. Meteorological measurement of wind speed
is taken 10 m above ground, so care is needed in interpreting weather advice
and actual wind speed at nozzle height.
Protecting water supplies: Ensure pesticide cannot be back-siphoned into the
water supply when filling spray tanks by installing an anti backflow device or
pumping from a separate tank filled from the main water source.
Consider community relations: Disputes involving environmental nuisance
(for example issues related to application of agricultural chemicals, noise or
dust) can lead to a breakdown of good neighborly relations.
Disposal of pesticide containers: Under various State regulations, businesses
are required to dispose of empty chemical containers safely. When
purchasing, ask if used pesticide containers can be reused, returned, refilled
or recycled.
Disposal of surplus spray and washings: Avoid leftover pesticide by carefully
calculating how much is needed for the area to be sprayed.
Disposal of old, de-registered or unwanted pesticide concentrates: Unwanted
chemicals, such as those that are no longer registered for use, should not be
stored on farm for longer than is necessary to arrange for their disposal.
Use and disposal of other chemical products: If rat and mouse baits are used,
ensure they are enclosed in bait stations to prevent native birds and animals
eating them. Dispose of used rodenticides or other pesticide baits, as well as
carcases, in accordance with the product label. If carcases are being buried
and the label does not give any special instructions, take care to bury them so
that there is no risk of polluting surface or groundwater, and where dogs or
native animals will not dig them up. Some bait have been developed that do
not cause secondary poisoning.
Storing and handling fuels and oils: Take reasonable steps to secure
vulnerable tanks against interference; this may be as simple as locking pumps
or taps. Bund above-ground fuel tanks and provide some form of leakage

[61]
protection for underground tanks. Materials for soaking up any spillages
should be available at the storage area.
3.4 Nutrient Management
The frequency of nutrient enrichment operations should be chosen according to the
following factors:
1) Soil texture: Light texture soils require more frequent fertilization than clay
heavy soils.
2) Soil moisture: Irrigated olive trees require more frequent fertilization than
naturally irrigated olive groves.
3.4.1 Instructions for inorganic fertilizer use
When choosing the day for application, the following factors should be considered:
1) Wind speed: Do not fertilize during strong wind blowing.
2) Relative humidity: The application of hygroscopic fertilizer is recommended
during dry days, with low relative humidity.
3) Air temperature: The application of nitrogen fertilizers should be avoided in
hot, dry days, but particularly in calcareous soils.
4) Fertilizer should not be applied at a distance < 5 m from river the banks and
lakes and 0.5 m from irrigation canals, drainage, wells.
3.4.2 Fertilizer application management tools
Fertilizer application is achieved through spraying machines and irrigation.
Fertilizer: The choice of fertilizer is recommended based on their suitability
for a particular use. It should also be kept in good condition with regular
maintenance and control (regulation) uniform application of fertilizer at least
once a year.
Sprayers: The application of foliar fertilizer spraying is done using machines
similar to those used for spraying pesticides.
Irrigation system: The application of water-soluble or liquid fertilizer can be
done through the irrigation system wherever possible.
During fertigation the following measures should be taken in order to minimize
environmental impacts:
Install appropriate filters to prevent the network from blocking due to
insoluble particles of fertilizer, any sediment etc.

[62]
Installation of appropriate check valves to prevent the contamination of
source water from fertilizer.
Diversion of clean water (no fertilizer) at the end of the irrigation system
cleaning.
3.4.3 Fertilizer storage
Fertilizer storage shed should be clean, dry and separate from pesticides and general
agricultural products or food. However, if this is not practical, they should be stored
in a separate area within the shed, distinctively marked for fertilizers. Also, fertilizers
should be stored in bags and storage must be secluded from water sources keeping
minimum distance of 5 m from water bodies, streams, boreholes and wells.
Additionally, especially for liquid fertilizers, measures must be taken outside the
store and the packaging and transportation.
3.4.4 Objective – to effectively manage nutrient inputs to meet crop
requirements and soil characteristics.
Selecting nutrient types and amounts: Objective methods such as soil testing,
plant tissue testing and sap testing, combined with yield data and visual
assessments of crop or tree health, provide the basis for good fertilizer
management. Fertilizers should be applied efficiently, taking seasonal
conditions into account. This means applying just enough nutrients for good
crop growth without providing excess nutrients which may be lost off farm
into groundwater and surface waterways.
Soil and sap testing: Soil testing is a useful way to objectively measure the
nutrient status of your soil. It is a particularly valuable nutrient management
tool before planting a crop or orchard. Ongoing soil testing (say every one to
three years) also provides valuable insights into longer-term trends in soil
properties that may alert managers to developing sustainability problems.
Soil organic carbon decline or the build-up of high available phosphorus levels
are examples of this.
Nutrient budgeting: Nutrient budgeting can help growers better understand
the whole nutrient cycling and transformation system. This can lead to the
design of more sustainable, integrated nutrition strategies.
3.4.5 Objective – to ensure nutrient application methods and timing maximize
benefits to the crop and minimize potential negative environmental
impacts.

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Type, timing and rates of application. Fertilizers need to be applied when
they are most beneficial to the crop. As a general rule, applying small
amounts regularly is less likely to cause off-site losses from leaching and run-
off. Schedule fertilizer applications according to seasonal conditions, cropping
cycle and periods of greatest use by the crop. For instance, young vegetable
crops require small amounts of nutrients until they begin to grow rapidly.
Fertilizer application: Accurate placement of fertilizers helps plants access to
nutrients required. Choose the right equipment and adjust it correctly to
make sure the fertilizer is applied to the area where it will most effective and
it will have the least impact on the environment.
Equipment care and calibration: Brand new spreaders can have poor
spreading patterns, and with use and ‘wear and tear’ even a well-setup
spreader can become inaccurate. Therefore, fertilizer application equipment
needs to be carefully calibrated and maintained to make sure it is capable of
spreading fertilizer evenly at the correct rate.
Storage: All fertilizers including animal manures should be stored in such a
way that nutrient leaching into surface waterways and groundwater is
prevented. Inorganic fertilizers should be stored in a covered area away from
waterways. Manure heaps should also be covered to reduce leaching through
rain.
Disposal of packaging: Used fertilizer packaging should be stored in a manner
that prevents contamination and environmental harm and meets
government waste disposal regulations.
3.5 Biodiversity
3.5.1 Objective – native vegetation, wildlife and ecosystems are appropriately
maintained, managed and where possible and practical, contribute to
regional biodiversity priorities.
Identify native vegetation on your property: An initial assessment should try
to identify any local native vegetation (including naturally occurring trees,
shrubs, herbs and grasses) still left on the farm (exclude plantations and
vegetation established for commercial purposes). Dead trees should be
included as important components as they provide habitat for native animals
and insects. Create an inventory/file of this information.
Consider surrounding properties: No farm works in isolation of its neighbors.
Just because you haven’t found any native vegetation on your property
doesn’t necessarily mean there is no native biodiversity, or that you can

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ignore the impacts your farm operations may have on surrounding
properties. Look for native birds and listen for frogs – chances are both are
present, indicating that suitable habitat is located in surrounding areas.
 Assess special importance: Check for plants that are considered
important because of their rarity, they are particularly subject to
threats, or may support other significant features (e.g. as a drought
refuge for native animals).
 Check biodiversity laws and regulations.
 Assess off-farm impacts and threats: Site development or
redevelopment works need to be assessed for their potential
impacts on the existing environment.
Risk management: The suggested practices for managing biodiversity on
growers’ properties help growers balance production requirements with the
existence of native animals on their land.
Practical management of native vegetation: Once you have found out which
native plants are on your property (including their significance) you will have
some idea about how to priorities your actions to protect them. These
actions may include:
 fencing off areas to exclude vehicles, people and stock. Select fence
types that enable native animals to have access to natural drinking
water sources and to move between habitats;
 leaving dead trees standing and logs, branches, twigs and rocks on
the ground as homes for birds, insects and other animals; and
 not cleaning up places with native vegetation. By not tidying up
understory grasses, shrubs and fallen trees, birds and beneficial
native animals will have places to hide from introduced predators or
competitors or as a food source.
Consider options for increasing on-farm native vegetation: Think about
planting windbreaks and shelterbelts using local native species. Shelterbelts
and windbreaks may be best placed on the property boundaries and
developed with consideration of establishing interconnecting wildlife
corridors.
Soil biodiversity: Soils contain many living organisms ranging from
microscopic bacteria and fungi to burrowing animals. All play a part in
maintaining natural soil processes, which are vital for maintaining the
chemical and physical fertility of soil. Biodiversity can be improved in
production areas by strategies such as inter-cropping or alley cropping
(growing two or more crops in the same area), rotations with a range of crops
and cover crops, or by simply being more tolerant of weeds.

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3.6 Energy Management
3.6.1 Objective – energy inputs are known and reduced wherever feasible in the
production system.
3.6.1.1 Irrigation
Pumping water for irrigation is one of the main ways energy is used in horticultural
production.
Growers can use less energy and save costs by carefully choosing the type of
irrigation equipment they use. Keeping irrigation equipment in good condition can
also save energy. Irrigation pump engines should be serviced and well-tuned.
3.6.1.2 Vehicles and equipment
Maintain and service vehicles and equipment regularly to ensure efficient operation.
Well-maintained equipment operates better and costs less to run. This is good both
for business and the environment. Keeping engines tuned can cut greenhouse gas
emissions by up to 15%. It is a good idea to have a regular maintenance program for
all the equipment, machinery and vehicles used on your farm. Maintenance intervals
will vary to suit levels and conditions of use for each vehicle and piece of equipment.
3.6.1.3 Fuel
Try to save fuel. Every liter of petrol or diesel saved greatly lowers greenhouse
emissions and reduces production costs. Keep track of fuel use and set targets for
saving fuel. Another good idea is to switch from diesel/petrol to LPG or compressed
natural gas in cars, trucks and motor bikes. This can cut greenhouse gas emissions by
10 to 15%. Use a percentage of bio fuels, which come from renewable resources.
3.6.1.4 Lighting
By using energy-efficient lighting you can save money and help the environment at
the same time. For example, energy efficient compact fluorescent bulbs have about
one-quarter lower wattage and about eight times the life of standard incandescent
bulbs. This saves energy and lowers maintenance costs. Replacing mercury vapor
yard lights with energy-efficient, high-pressure sodium lights can sometimes greatly
cut electricity usage and costs.

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3.6.1.5 Renewable resources
The efficient use of renewable energy resources such as hydro-electricity, solar or
wind power should be targeted since the use of non-renewable sources, such as
fossil fuel, is not sustainable in the long term.
Minimize use of fossil fuel for power generation, for example:
 optimize field operations, including transportation from field to
packhouse,
 carefully select equipment, and
 ensure proper and timely maintenance of equipment.
Minimize the input of synthetic fertilizers and consider alternative organic
and renewable fertilizer technologies taking into account crop needs,
fertilizer cost and comparative costs (including fuel use) of delivery and
spreading.
Review practicality of best current waste re-use, recycling and disposal
technologies available.

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4 Environmental impact assessment of prototype
“Adapt2Change” greenhouse
4.1 Land and soil
Impacts on soil can be divided into direct and indirect:
 Direct: Land occupation from the greenhouse facilities. These impacts are
permanent but of a small scale considering the structures’ dimensions and
light structure. Furthermore, soil quality characteristics will not be altered in
any way, since all agrochemicals and fertilizers will be specially stored and
handled in an appropriately insulated area.
 Indirect: According to calculations, production output of a hydroponic system
is 65% higher than regular traditional ground crop production. This might
have an indirect long term impact in reducing pressure for intensive
agricultural production in the surrounding area by setting a good example for
local farmers.
4.2 Water
The proposed project includes a water recycling subsystem, which collects
condensed water vapors from the climate conditioning subsystems and uses them
for irrigation. This innovative approach will reduce water demands significantly and
therefore the greenhouses’ impacts on the area’s water resources quantity will be
minimized.
Moreover, as mentioned before, all agrochemicals and fertilizers will be carefully
stored and therefore water bodies will not in any way be affected.
4.3 Chemicals
Hydroponic cultivation developed in this project will use organic farming products
for crop protection and lubrication, minimizing the use of chemicals. Also, given that
the greenhouse is a closed "ecosystem" separated from the outside environment
and that irrigation water is recycled, any chemicals used will not in any way affect
the surrounding environment.

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4.4 Nutrients
The proposed Adapt2Change project will use fertigation for lubrication. With this
process, all necessary nutrients will be applied through irrigation, with an automatic
hydroponics control system. In this way nutrients cannot be transferred through run
off or leaching, preventing soil or water contamination.
4.5 Biodiversity
The prototype greenhouse is a closed organic hydroponic cultivation system
separated from the surrounding environment, with zero impacts on biodiversity.
Increased production of the proposed hydroponic system can become a good
example for farmers in the area and indirectly decreasing pressures for intensive
farming.
4.6 Waste
Waste produced by a hydroponic production unit include:
 crop residues (at end of season),
 plastic and paper packaging of pesticides and fertilizers,
 culture media,
 plastic greenhouse cover.
Crop residues will be led to a composting plant located close to the standard glass.
Composting crop residues will minimize greenhouse waste volume, while producing
organic soil conditioner that can be used in conventional or organic crops. This waste
management system will contribute significantly in the reduction of greenhouse crop
residuals waste, while indirectly benefiting traditional crops in the surrounding area
by applying compost material and minimizing fertilizer use.
Plastic and paper packing: Special bins for temporary storage of plastic and paper
waste will be placed inside and outside the greenhouses. At regular intervals, the
bins will be emptied and the waste transferred to the nearest municipality recycling
bin. Therefore, this type of solid waste will not in any way pollute the environment
but it will be recycled.
Culture media: Inert substrates will be used to support plants, always in accordance
with the instructions given by the respective supplier. At the end of their life cycle,
they will be stored in a designated area within the greenhouse and then delivered to
the manufacturer for recycling.

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Plastic greenhouse cover: Greenhouse plastic covering has a life span of 5 to 10 years
depending on the manufacturer. Every time it is replaced, the old one will be driven
to a solid waste collection station and final disposal will be at the plastic recycling
factories.
4.7 Air
The proposed greenhouses will have no significant effect on air quality, because they
lack sources of air pollutants (dust, smoke etc). Noise generated from the machinery,
though not intense, should be monitored during operation in order to check if noise
legislation requirements are met.
Increased agricultural production from the proposed hydroponic system may
indirectly contribute to a reduction in the demand for intensive farming in the
surrounding area, which is a source of dust, noise and exhaust from agricultural
machinery.
4.8 Energy
The highest greenhouse energy requirements stem mainly from heating. Thus,
greenhouse heating in the proposed project will be primarily powered by shallow
geothermal energy. The use of shallow geothermal energy provides low cost energy
for climate control with the use of a renewable resource. Therefore, conventional
energy sources will be only required for the hydroponics equipment operation
(pumps, etc).

[70]
5 Environmental risk assessment for the prototype
“Adapt2Change” greenhouse
The following risk assessment flow charts include steps that have not been
implemented yet in the project (grey boxes). The prototype greenhouse has fewer
environmental impacts than common horticulture.

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5.1.1 Water management risk assessment
Are you aware of the
anticipated water volume
required for planned
production?
NO HIGH RISK
YES
Does water availability in the
area meet this requirement?
NO HIGH RISK
YES
Is your irrigation system
working to design
specifications?
NO HIGH RISK
YES
Is the irrigation scheduling
system in place?
NO HIGH RISK
YES
Are there strategies to manage
nutrient input and salinity?
NO HIGH RISK
YES
LOW RISK

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5.1.2 Risk assessment of irrigation water quality
Has your water been
tested for:
pH, nutrient levels,
salinity, dissolved
oxygen, turbidity
NO
Is the irrigation water known to be:
Acid
High in nitrogen or phosphorus content
Saline
Low in dissolved oxygen
Turbid
Are these problems occurring in the region?
NO
LOW RISK
YES
HIGH RISK
YES
Did test results meet
national guidelines?
NO
Is the source of irrigation water
known to be affected by any
other potential risk (heavy
metals, agricultural chemicals?)
NO LOW RISK
YESYES
HIGH RISK

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5.1.3 Risk assessment of downstream water quality
Are watercourses passing through
the property protected?
Are fertilizers, agricultural
chemicals and fuels stored so as
to minimize the risk of polluting
surface or ground water?
NO HIGH RISK
YES
Is the risk of contaminating
watercourses addressed when
applying and handling fertilizers,
agricultural chemicals, fuels and
releasing used packing shed
water?
NO HIGH RISK
YES
LOW RISK
Has the risk of soil erosion been
assessed and any necessary
control measures
implemented?

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5.1.4 Chemical use risk assessment
Have you investigated
alternatives or environmentally
friendlier options to agricultural
chemicals?
NO HIGH RISK
YES
Are chemicals, fuels and soils
stored safely and according to
law, including an appropriate
spill kit?
NO HIGH RISK
YES
Are chemical mixing facilities
designed to contain / prevent
spread of any spillage?
NO HIGH RISK
YES
Are strategies in place to
minimize spray drift?
NO HIGH RISK
YES
Do you use: agricultural,
cleaning, sanitizing chemicals,
fuels, oils?
NO
YES
LOW
RISK

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LOW RISK
Is personnel working with
chemicals appropriately trained
and are chemicals applied safely
effectively and according to
law?
NO HIGH RISK
YES
Are surplus chemicals (spray
and tank washing) and obsolete
chemicals disposed of safely
and according to law?
NO HIGH RISK
YES
Are empty chemical containers
(including plastic and metal
drums and paper and plastic
bags) stored and disposed of
safely and according to law?
NO HIGH RISK
YES

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5.1.5 Spray drift risk assessment
Is the wind speed between
3 and 15 Km/h?
AND
Is the temperature lower
than 30o
C?
AND
Is relative humidity
moderate (40-100%)?
NO
Are there neighbors or other
crops nearby?
NO
LOW RISK
YES
HIGH RISK
YES
Are there sensitive
environmental areas
nearby (wetlands,
national park, special
habitat)?
NO
YES
HIGH RISK
HIGH RISK

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5.1.6 Nutrient management risk assessment
LOW RISK
RISK
Do you know the type and
quantity of nutrients your crop
needs? NO HIGH RISKYES
Do you know what nutrients are available to
your crop from your soil/substrate? Take
into account:
Major and minor nutrients
Soil texture, ph, salinity, organic matter and
crop residues
Quality of irrigation water
NO HIGH RISK
YES
Are you losing nutrients
through leaching, surface water
run off, wind erosion?
NO HIGH RISK
YES
Are fertilizer applications/soil amendments causing
other environmental pollution such as heavy metal
contamination or soil acidification? NO
HIGH RISK
YES
Have you developed a nutrient
budget, farm budget nutrition? YES
HIGH RISK NO

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5.1.7 Nutrient application risk assessment
LOW RISK
RISK
Are fertilizer application
methods and timing chosen to
maximize benefit to the crops
and minimize potential negative
environmental impacts?
Consider : run-off, leaching,
volatilization
NO HIGH RISKYES
Is fertilizer application equipment:
Calibrated and maintained?
Checked for accuracy of distribution? NO HIGH RISK
YES

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5.1.8 Biodiversity risk assessment
LOW RISK
RISK
Are there areas that are
degraded / overrun with exotic
species like lantana, blackberry,
willow?
NO
HIGH RISK
Is there any native vegetation in
your farm?
YES HIGH RISK
YES
Are there areas managed to protect the habitat?
Fenced, spray drift minimized, misapplication of
fertilizer minimized, burning/fire risk, exotic pests
NO HIGH RISK
YES
Is there any area where native vegetation could be
established or that includes protected species?
Unsuitable for horticultural production, along access
roads, swampy or waterlogged land, steep slopes
YES
HIGH RISK
NO
NO
LOW RISK
RISK
DON’T KNOW
OR UNSURE

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5.1.9 Waste risk assessment
LOW RISK
Can you identify the waste in
your farm?
NO HIGH RISK
YES
Can any of these products be
avoided? NO HIGH RISK
YES
Change inputs and/or practices
to minimize waste
NO HIGH RISK
YES

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5.1.10 Odor management risk assessment
LOW RISK
Do you:
Store manure, fertilizers,
chemicals?
Have a waste site?
Have other unpleasant odor
producing activities?
NOYES
Could the activity cause concern
to family, employees, neighbors
or community?
NO
YES
HIGH RISK
LOW RISK

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5.1.11 Dust management risk assessment
LOW RISK
YES
Do any of the following apply to the site?
Soil type is lite to erosion,
Cropping/harvesting activity will leave soil
exposed during windy weather
Site is particularly exposed
NO
HIGH RISK

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5.1.12 Smoke management risk assessment
LOW RISK
YES
Do you burn your waste?
NO
HIGH RISK
Are there disposal options other
than burning?
YES
NO
HIGH RISK

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5.1.13 Noise management risk assessment
LOW RISK
Does the operation generate
excessive noise?
NOYES
Are there neighbors close to the
operation? NO
YES
Is the operation running during
sensitive times (eg. Between 10
am and 6 pm, or on weekends)? NO HIGH RISK
YES
LOW RISK
Are there sensitive environmental
areas, particularly with
endangered fauna, close to the
operation?
NO
NO

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5.1.14 Greenhouse gases management risk assessment
LOW RISK
YES
Do you:
Undertake regular maintenance of all
equipment, particularly requiring fossil fuels
and CFCs?
Regularly check insulation?
Strategically apply nitrogenous fertilizers?
Minimize unnecessary trips and cultivation
passes
NO HIGH RISK

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5.1.16 Energy management risk assessment
LOW RISK
Do you monitor the amount of
electricity and fuel you use and
the use to which it is put? NO
YES
Are you using the most efficient
and practical energy source? NO
YES
Are these things you can do to
minimize the energy usage of
your operation? YES HIGH RISK
NO
HIGH RISK
HIGH RISK

[87]
6 Determination of changes in environmental
pressures from the prototype “Adapt2Change”
greenhouse operation
6.1 Land – Soil
Positive result: Land occupation minimization. The installation of hydroponic
greenhouse crops can result in a reduction of environmental pressures on soil and
land use because less area is used to produce the same amount of product
compared to conventional culture.
Negative result: Soil compaction. With land coverage by a structure such as
hydroponic greenhouse, the soil is compressed significantly. If ever will be used
again in conventional farming will have a serious problem of compression.
6.2 Water
Positive result: The use of the innovative water recycling system will result in
significant reduction in water use, compared to a conventional crop. This will save
many cubic meters of water each growing season to produce the same quantity of
goods.
6.3 Chemicals
Positive result: Cultivation in the “Adapt2change” greenhouse will be organic. Thus,
no chemical methods for attacking diseases of plants. It will be made utilization only
of biological enemies. In this way, the reduction of the environmental load will be
significant.
6.4 Nutrients
Positive result: In hydroponics, the plants fertilized according to their real needs
through modern systems of automatic irrigation - fertilization. Thus, it is no wasting
fertilizer and there is absolutely no pollution of groundwater. Therefore, provide a
significant reduction of environmental load.
6.5 Biodiversity
Positive result: The greenhouse is a closed system without any influence on the
surrounding environment. Therefore has no effect on biodiversity of the area in
which it is installed.

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6.6 Waste
Negative effect: Hydroponic culture produces a large volume of solid waste
consisting of organic material (greens), substrates, packaging, plastic covers. This
volume is much larger than that of a conventional crop and organic waste produced
should be composted while other material (plastic, metal, paper etc) should be
recycled.
6.7 Air
The greenhouse facility does not have any air pollutant emissions. Noise generated
by ventilation fans, is perceived only from a very small distance (<20 m) with minimal
environmental impact on noise levels.
Considering emissions and noise produced from conventional crop operations for
the same production output, the “Adapt2change” project contributes to a significant
alleviation of environmental impacts on the areas atmosphere.
6.8 Energy
Energy consumption required for the greenhouse operation is greater than that of a
conventional crop, largely due to its heating needs. Certainly the use of shallow
geothermal energy reduces these pressures and the proposed use of the U-shaped
heat pipe can achieve an additional 75% reduction in heating requirements.

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7 Reproducibility and transferability of technology
7.1 Reproducibility
The proposed construction can be used in other areas that meet the following
criteria:
 Limited water resources.
 Lack of productive land.
 Winter climate conditions allow greenhouse operation with no excessive
energy requirements.
 Possibility of geothermal energy exploitation.
7.2 Transferability of technology
In order to use the same construction in other areas, there is a need for innovative
technology, which can be easily diffused through this project and this includes:
 Geothermic technology
 Hydroponics
 Water recycling
 Greenhouse biological cultivation
Of course, if someone wants to establish a construction like the “Adapt2change”
project, one must have thorough knowledge of the aforementioned technology and
the ability to integrate it into a fully functional – productive greenhouse bio-
cultivation.

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8 Eco friendly procedures and products
8.1 Procedures
8.1.1 Hydroponics
Hydroponics is an eco friendly cultivation method with the following positive
environmental impacts:
 Maximum utilization of the genetic potential of plants.
 Optimum fertilizer control.
 Visible improvement in crop quantity and quality.
 Significant time reduction between growt, flowering and fruiting for a great
variety of plants.
 Efficient partitioning of space.
 Maximum success rate for propagation.
 Huge savings on fertilizers, and more importantly, water in a time of
increasing water scarcity.
 Total absence of herbicides.
In contrast, problems inherited from conventional cultivation methods include:
 Sterile or depleted soils due to intensive cultivation (fatigue monoculture,
low fertility, salinity, etc).
 Soil transmitted diseases are extremely harmful and difficult to deal with.
 Salt or pesticide accumulation in intensively cultivated areas.
Why grow with Hydroponics:
 Impressively greater productivity compared to conventional crops.
 Excellent product quality.
 Environmentally friendly farming.
 Lower cost per kg of product.
Hydroponic growing achieves:
 Ideal ratio of nutrients adjusted according to plant growth.
 Ideal plant nutrition resulting in high productivity and excellent quality.
 Isolation from dangerous soil pathogens, since the cultivation is isolated from
the ground with plastic sheets.
 Avoiding damaging and costly chemical treatments. Cultivation in bags
(growbags) has no soil preparation requirements (plowing, chemical
disinfectants fungicides application, herbicides and pesticides) especially in
areas with high salt content (electrical conductivity > 1,5 dS / m).

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 With the upcoming environmental crisis and water scarcity, closed
hydroponic systems can certainly be a solution .
 Common agriculture is the biggest water consumer. Hydroponics with water
recycling can fully exploit the available water balance with minimum
environmental impacts on water resources.
 Heating costs are reduced. Water evaporation is always accompanied by
energy consumption for heating in a greenhouse. With hydroponics, water
evaporation is negligible because soil is isolated and thus heating needs are
reduced.
8.1.2 Geothermal energy use
Geothermal reservoirs of low to moderate temperature are used for heating homes,
offices and greenhouses, aquaculture and food-processing plants and other
applications (US DOE, 1998). These applications provide energy cost savings for the
consumer and produce only a very small percentage of the air pollutants emitted by
burning fossil fuels (US DOE, 1998).
Geothermal energy does not depend on climate conditions (Babi et. al., 2007)
because it exploits ground heat capacity. Since there are no fuel expenses,
geothermal energy does not depend on the international energy markets either
(Babi et. al. 2007). Because of its special character, geothermal energy is an
appropriate source for power generation, heat supply, cooling, energy storage,
agricultural uses, fish farming, water desalination, tourism and health purposes (Babi
et. al., 2007). Geothermal energy involves the lowest specific investment cost for gas
reduction in comparison to other renewable energy sources.
Geothermal energy is available for the consumer anytime, whenever there is need
for it: 24 hours a day irrespective of the time of day or night, independent of
weather and climate conditions (Babi et. al., 2007). It offers the basis for general
energy supply from renewable sources.
8.1.3 Water recycling
The project’s water recycling system can save up to 90% of greenhouse irrigation
needs. Recycling water reduces pressures on water resources, while providing high
quality greenhouse agricultural products. Water recycling as a process is also linked
to the control of environmental conditions within a greenhouse by balancing
temperature and humidity.
8.1.3.1 Water recycling expected results
Greenhouses are used as solar heat collectors, where water can be found in both
vapor and liquid state. In its liquid state, water can be found in the hydroponic
system and in the cooling pad and pad reservoir. Liquid water can be easily handled

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and recycled with standard equipment and procedures. The Adapt2Change project
provides an innovative approach to water vapor recycling and reuse. Unlike
traditional greenhouse units, the prototype Adapt2Change project provides the
alternative to reuse – recycle water in its vapor state. The process is based on the
humidification – dehumidification system operations. There are two main sources of
water vapor within the greenhouse unit:
 Water vapors from the cooling pad.
 Water vapors from plant transpiration.
Traditional dehumidification-humidification methods
Excess humidity is usually more problematic in the spring and fall seasons when the
weather is cool and moist (BC MAFF, 1994). High humidity is not likely to occur
during freezing weather, since the relative humidity of the outside air is very low (BC
MAFF, 1994). The traditional method to battle high humidity was based on a
combination strategy of venting to exchange moist air with drier outside air, and
heating to reduce relative humidity levels, raise plant surface temperature and warm
the incoming air (BC MAFF, 1994). Glass panes and other cold surfaces in the
greenhouse serve as natural dehumidifiers when the outside air is colder, but this, of
course, can cause problems with dripping (BC MAFF, 1994).
Although dehumidification is sometimes expensive, it is usually easier to reduce
humidity levels than to increase them (BC MAFF, 1994). Raising humidity levels
without using excessive water requires some sort of evaporative device such as
misters, fog units, or roof sprinklers, all of which add water vapors to the air, or
screens that help hold in the water that is being evaporated from the plant canopy
(BC MAFF, 1994). Traditionally evaporative cooling and screening are often used
together (BC MAFF, 1994).
Adapt2Change innovative water vapor recycling and reuse
Condensed water production estimation: Humidity is a potential water source for
modern greenhouse horticulture. Unlike other sources, humidity found within the
unit needs to be converted from vapor to liquid. Humidity within any greenhouse
unit acts as a thermal energy carrier. Thus energy is the limiting factor for recycling –
reusing total available humidity.
The project’s introduced method uses shallow geothermal energy to dehumidify air
and retrieve water. The amount of water produced by this process can be calculated
using the following criteria:
 Set minimum humidity level within the greenhouse unit:
o The minimum humidity level is set to 60%.
 Set the maximum humidity level within the greenhouse unit:

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o The maximum humidity level is set to 90%.
 Define the maximum cooling power available for vapor condensation:
o In winter time available nominal power for vapor condensing is 35
KW.
o In summer time available nominal power for vapor condensing is 70
KW.
 Define the internal temperature of the greenhouse unit:
o Range of temperature is set from 12 – 24Co
.
 The limiting factor in water recycling is energy, thus only a percentage of
humidity may be condensed into water.
o The maximum available energy is:
 In winter time available nominal power for vapor condensing
is 35 KW.
 In summer time available nominal power for vapor condensing
is 70 KW.
 Specific latent heat (L) expresses the amount of energy in form of heat (Q)
required to completely affect a phase change of a unit of mass (m), usually 1
kg of a substance as an intensive property (Wikipedia, 2012):
From this definition, the latent heat for a given mass of a substance is
calculated by
Where (Wikipedia, 2012):
Q is the amount of energy released or absorbed during the
change of phase of the substance (in kJ or in BTU),
m is the mass of the substance (in kg or in lb), and
L is the specific latent heat for a particular substance (kJ-
kgm−1 or in BTU-lbm−1), either Lf for fusion, or Lv for
vaporization.
 Latent heat for water condensation in the temperature range of −40°C to
40°C is approximated with the following empirical cubic function:
Lwater(T) = (2500.8 – 2.36T + 0.0016T2
– 0.00006T3
)J/g
o where temperature is taken to be the numerical value in °C.
The maximum amount of condensed water produced will be 300 Liters per day and
the average daily production is expected to be 150 Liters per day.

[94]
8.1.3.2 Water recycling economics
General description of prototype Greenhouse units: The prototype greenhouse
units are complex systems. Humid air – water circuit in the closed greenhouse is
powered by solar thermal energy and water is the basic means of thermal load
transfer. The energy and water cycle in the closed greenhouse follows the next steps
(Figure 2-1):
An air recycling cooling duct around the greenhouse is installed containing two air-
to-water heat exchangers, which cool and/or heat the air. The process begins with
the increase of air temperature inside the greenhouse, triggering plant transpiration
and the addition of cool air through the installed cooling system as shown in Figure
2-1, while increasing humidity.
Summer operation
 The cooling system’s aim is to absorb excess greenhouse thermal load and
trap heat into humid air.
 On the surface of each heat exchanger, the cooling of humid air creates
condensation, releasing additional thermal energy and distilled water.
 The cool and dry air falls back into the greenhouse in two stages in order to
protect plants.
o In the first stage cool and dry air enters the anteroom. In the
anteroom, air is mixed with hot and humid air.
o In the second stage, mixed air enters the greenhouse, where it is
heated and humidified triggering the cycle again.
The proposed shallow geothermal system provides the necessary energy for the
proposed cooling and condensation system air. The heat pump also provides
additional cooling energy in order to successfully condense vapors and produce
distilled water.
Winter operation
 During winter, the shallow geothermal subsystem provides the necessary
energy for heating in the greenhouse.
 The dehumidification process takes place even during winter time and it uses
a U-shaped heat pipe.
 Heated dry air flows back into the greenhouse in two stages in order to
protect plants.

[95]
o In the first stage hot dry air enters the anteroom. In the anteroom, it
is mixed with cold humid air.
o In the second stage, mixed air enters the greenhouse, where it is
cooled and humidified triggering the cycle once again.
This concept has significant advantages compared to standard greenhouse water –
energy management systems. On one hand, humid air allows excess thermal energy
storage at a given temperature, because of the use of latent heat in addition to
sensible heat. This higher energy density of humid air means that the same amount
of energy can be transported by much lower air volume flow, which can be sustained
by forced buoyancy. On the other hand, the evaporation and condensation
processes increase the efficiency of the heat transfer.
Separation of the greenhouse and the heat exchanger (placed outside the
greenhouse and into the duct) allows more room for both elements and further cost
reduction. Additionally, the evaporation and condensation processes open the
possibility for water purification as part of the water recycling system. Moreover, the
energy collected in the heat exchanger is transferred to the soil through the shallow
geothermal system, thus achieving even greater energy saving.
Figure 8.1 Block diagram of the main system
In order to estimate the cost of water recycling, it is necessary to distinguish the
parts of the unit that correspond only to the water recycling function. Thus it is
crucial to identify the infrastructure that is dedicated to vapor condensation.

[96]
According to energy calculations for greenhouse heating, the required heating load is
35 KW. The remaining installed 35 KW is dedicated to vapor condensation and water
recycling. Air duct, sensors, cooling pad, central monitoring, hydroponic system etc
are standard greenhouse infrastructure. The water recycling unit requires the
following additional parts and infrastructure:
 35 KW of shallow geothermal field.
o 350 m of boreholes and geo-exchanger (4 boreholes of 120 m depth
each)
o One additional heat pump on 35 KW nominal power.
 Humidity sensors, temperature and water level measurements.
 Software module for water recycling unit management.
The total amount of water expected to be recycled is 60 tons per year.
The following example investigates three scenarios comparing three different types
of greenhouses. For simplicity, all types refer to the same greenhouse structure with
different heating – cooling and water recycling functions. All types use the same
closed greenhouse structure.
 TYPE 1: Standard
o Heating with fossil fuels.
o Water for irrigation.
 TYPE 2: Geothermal powered
o Heating from shallow geothermal field.
o Water for irrigation.
 TYPE 3: Geothermal powered with water Recycling like the Adapt2Change
project
o Heating – cooling from shallow geothermal field.
o Water recycling unit
Table 8.1 shows relative costs for each type.
Table 8.1 Relative costs
Greenhouse Type Relative Costs
TYPE 1:
Standard
TYPE 2:
Geothermal powered
TYPE 3:
Geothermal powered with
water recycling
Greenhouse A A A
Heating B 8B 16B
Heating
operation
C C/5 C/4
Water
management
D D 3D
Water costs E E E/5

[97]
Where:
 A = Cost of closed standard greenhouse unit.
 B = Cost of fossil fuel Heating installation (yearly)
 C = Cost of fossil fuel Heating operation (yearly)
 D = Cost of water management installation
 E = Cost of irrigation water (yearly)
With a 10 year period for equipment depreciation, the yearly costs for every type of
greenhouse unit can be estimated with the following formulas:
 Type 1:
CostType1
 Type 2:
CostType2
 Type 3:
CostType3
8.1.4 Waste reduction and recycling
An agricultural establishment produces many types of solid waste in its daily
operations (US EPA, 2012). It is important that these wastes are identified and
managed properly to protect the environment (US EPA, 2012). Waste hierarchy is
the key to good waste management practice and will help reduce costs (US EPA,
2012). The hierarchy promotes a logical process to consider in turn (US EPA, 2012):
 Avoid - Is the product or service that produced the waste needed and can it
be avoided?
 Reduce – consider ways of minimizing waste.
 Re-use – is there a way of making use of waste.
 Recycle – recycling waste is a preferred option compared to disposal.
 Recover – waste to energy may be an option.
 Dispose – this should be the last option considered.
The following recommendations cover how best to store agricultural waste products
(ADAS Ltd, 2007):

[98]
 Store Agricultural waste products together at one site to ease
collection/loading.
 Segregate by product type and packaging/ non-packaging.
 Store Agricultural waste products in a suitable container, where possible, to
protect the material from rain and wind, e.g. use a fertilizer bag liner or a
dedicated bin.
 Store Agricultural waste products in a sheltered location protected from rain
and wind, preferably undercover.
 Secure Agricultural waste products to avoid it blowing away.
 Compact Agricultural waste products where possible to aid with collection
and to reduce space required on site (e.g. in a bin or a bag liner).
 Squash and fl at pack packaging e.g. sacks and fertilizer bag outers, and tie
into manageable bundles.
 All bags/liners should be labeled with their contents (and any contract
number provided by a collector).
 Store on a firm surface, preferably on concrete. This reduces the likelihood of
bagged waste ripping and slipping, as well as keeping the plastic cleaner.
 Keep storage time to a reasonable minimum (The Waste Regulations
stipulate a maximum of 12 months except for small quantities intended for
recycling).
8.2 Eco friendly Products
8.2.1 Greenhouse organic farming
Organic farming is a system that excludes the use of synthetic fertilizers, pesticides,
and growth regulators (Greer and Diver, 2000). Organic greenhouse vegetable
production has potential as a niche market for out-of-season production and as a
sustainable method of production (Greer and Diver, 2000). Soil-based systems are
readily adaptable to certified organic production, but special care must be taken for
soil-borne disease control, while soilless systems can also be adapted to organic
culture, and systems like bag culture are easy to get into (Greer and Diver, 2000).

[99]
9 Included standards
9.1 Good Agricultural Practices (G.A.P.)
Horticulture involves a wide range of different production systems for different crop
plants in a very wide range of environments (Nichols, 2006). As such, there is no
doubt that one model will not fit all, particularly when a social component is also
incorporated into the equation (Nichols, 2006).
Good Agricultural Practices (GAP) involve the integrating of four major pillars,
namely
 environmental sustainability,
 social responsibility,
 economic efficiency,
 food safety.
Unfortunately, in many GAP scenarios (e.g. in the USA, Europe, and Japan) food
safety has taken a major role and other pillars have been either disregarded or
considered less important (Nichols, 2006). This is not to suggest that food safety is
unimportant; in fact, it should be considered an absolute necessity, but not at the
expense of the other three pillars (Nichols, 2006).
The key in GAP is to develop a process based on Hazard Analysis Critical Control
Points (HACCP) to establish the critical control points (also called critical failure
points) in the production process, where compliance is mandatory (Nichols, 2006).
Good examples of this is traceability down to the specific crop (Nichols, 2006):
 record keeping,
 site history and management,
 crop protection,
 harvesting, etc.
In EurepGAP there are 12 compliance criteria, and in the UK Assured Produce GAP 13
criteria, which essentially follow the afore mentioned topics (Nichols, 2006).
Currently, GAP is a consumer-driven (supermarket-driven) program, and there is an
urgent need for farmers to take title to some of this system, if only to ensure that
they are not locked out of important export markets (Nichols, 2006).
9.2



[100]






9.3 Soil
In greenhouse production, soil-based systems have a greater number of constraints
because there are many more risks involved in growing in soil compared to growing
in soilless media (hydroponically) (Nichols, 2006). For example, the use of animal
manure (to improve soil structure) may have some potential microbiological risks,
while the requirement to fumigate the soil with chemicals (such as methyl bromide
or chloropicrin) pose their own hazards(Nichols, 2006).
The use of hydroponic systems such as rockwool or coir, or entirely liquid-based
systems such as aeroponics, deep flow or NFT, reduce such risks.
9.4 Crop protection
Crop protection is not currently a major concern in temperate climate greenhouse
operations (Nichols, 2006). Major diseases can be controlled by reducing air
humidity (easily achieved by a combination of judicious heating and ventilation)
while soil-borne pathogens are controlled by sound hydroponic practices combined,
if necessary, with the use of grafting onto resistant rootstocks (Nichols, 2006). Pests
are now controlled by means of either biological control systems (e.g., Encarsia for
white fly) or by the use of “soft pesticides” (Nichols, 2006).

[101]
9.5 Sustainability
At this time, standard greenhouse production in temperate climates must be
considered to be non-sustainable (Nichols, 2006). Large quantities of energy are
used not only to keep the crop warm in the winter, but also to control humidity (and,
thus, reduce disease levels) and to provide supplementary carbon dioxides to
enhance crop growth and productivity (Nichols, 2006).
The energy used to provide heating is not sustainable, and the use of natural gas to
provide carbon dioxide to improve crop growth, even when the ventilators are open,
is a gross misuse of a non-renewable resource (Nichols, 2006). In fact the only really
sustainable component in standard greenhouse crop production in temperate
climates is the efficient use of water and fertilizer (Nichols, 2006). Greenhouses are
major users of fertilizer, and there is a very real danger of ground-water
contamination when growing in the soil or using hydroponic systems that “water to
waste”.
By using recirculation systems as introduced in the Adapt2Change project, the level
of ground-water contamination can be minimized. Recirculation hydroponic systems
are also five times more efficient (in water and nutrients use) in producing crops
than furrow irrigated field-grown crops (Nichols, 2006). For every cubic meter (1.3
cubic yard) of water, tomatoes in the field produce about 18 kg (~40 lb.) of fruit,
whereas in an environmentally controlled greenhouse with recirculation nutrient
solutions the figure is about 65 kg (~143 lb.) of fruit (Nichols, 2006).
9.6 Social responsibility
A key component in GAP is ensuring that crops are produced in a socially responsible
manner. This means that there is no exploitation of labor and if children assist in
producing the crop, this must not be at the expense of their education.
9.7 Economic efficiency
It should be axiomatic that any enterprise is profitable. However, this is not always
the case, and it is a GAP requirement that the enterprise is profitable, at least in the
long term.
9.8 Hygiene
Good hygiene is an essential component of GAP, in order to reduce the risk of
microbiological contamination of the product. This includes the provision of clean
toilets and washing facilities and personnel training in personal hygiene.

[102]
9.9 Record keeping
GAP involves record keeping allowing auditors to evaluate procedures and
traceability of any product

[103]
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