Contingency Theories, Situational Leadership, Issues in L

Contingency Theories, Situational Leadership, Issues
in Leadership
© 2016 South University
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Organizational Behavior
©2016 South University
2 Contingency Theories, Situational Leadership, Issues in
Leadership
MGT3002 W4 L2
Taking into account the situational factor, Fred Fiedler's studies
led
to what are referred to as the Contingency Theories of
Leadership. In his initial studies, Fiedler allocated simple tasks

to
small groups of children with a designated leader. The leaders
in
different groups were told to behave in specific ways and
conditions for each group were varied. To his surprise, Fiedler
found that the children performed tasks well under a people-
oriented leadership style only when conditions were moderately
favorable or unfavorable. However, when conditions were
highly
favorable or highly unfavorable, performance was high under
autocratic leadership.
This conclusion led Fiedler to experiment further with adults.
From
these studies he developed the contingency model, which
assumes that the appropriate leadership style will be contingent
upon situational factors. This is in contrast with the behavioral
theories that implicitly assume that the same leadership
behavior
will generate the same kinds of outcomes, regardless of the
situation.
Situational Leadership Theory
Inspired by the contingency approach, Paul Hersey and Ken
Blanchard developed a model called the Situational Leadership
Theory which has become very popular. This theory focuses on
employees as well as management. Hersey and Blanchard
looked
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Leadership
MGT3002 W4 L2
at two factors, employee skills and attitude. They identified
four
kinds of leadership behaviors or styles that are dependent upon
these two factors.
Hersey and Blanchard believed that if the employees are both
willing and have the required skills and abilities then
management
could take a more passive role. They referred to this leadership
style as the delegating style in which minimal supervision and
control are necessary.
If the employees are willing but unable the leader needs to
focus
on both employee and task orientation. In this situation the
employees need help with their abilities and skills, and the
leader
must respond with the selling style—providing a lot of
instructional
information on how to perform tasks, while also being very
supportive. An example would be where an employee has joined
a
new organization or has been promoted. Even though the

employee is willing he or she may be unable to perform a task
because he or she lacks knowledge or skill.
If the employees are unwilling but able, the leader needs a
strong
people-oriented style that emphasizes participation. With proper
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Leadership
MGT3002 W4 L2
support and the opportunity to participate in decision-making,
employees would be more willing to participate in the process
of
goal attainment. Hersey and Blanchard have referred to this as
the participating style—the effort being to use a participative
process to persuade unwilling employees to accept the goals and
tasks set for them.
Finally, if the employees are both unwilling and unable, the
leader
has to continually provide clear and specific instructions to
compensate for their lack of skills and motivation. Hersey and
Blanchard have termed this the telling style, where the manager

must constantly tell employees what to do and how to do it.
Because different situations may require a variety of leadership
styles, management needs to be flexible in their approach to
every
situation. Without this flexibility both employee and
management
performance will suffer, and in extreme cases, the results can be
disastrous for a company.
For example, if your company suddenly receives a large order
with
a very tight delivery schedule, you may need to temporarily
adopt a
telling or selling style, or a mix of these styles, even with
employees who are willing and able. You would incorporate this
style to meet the delivery schedule and then revert to your
regular
management style once the order is complete.
Contemporary Issues in Leadership
Recently people have begun to express a need for strong
leadership that inspires trust, faith, and a sense of security—
physical, emotional, and economic. These needs have arisen as a
consequence of the events of September 11, 2001, and their
impact on the economy, as well as some high-profile cases of
fraudulent and illegal activities by some large corporations.
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Leadership
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To many people New York City mayor, Rudolph Giuliani has
emerged as a strong and charismatic leader through his handling
of post-September 11 events. According to opinion polls,
President
Bush was also perceived as a strong and charismatic leader as a
result of these events. However, because trust in corporate and
political leadership has diminished as a result of continuing
scandals, this has become a major concern for both
organizations
and employees.
As a result the issue of trust has become a priority for
Americans
as well as for employees and management. This issue becomes
even more important during an election year and managers need
to understand the emotional and theoretical nature of this issue.
Part 1: Educator Code of Ethics
Criteria Exemplary: 8 pts. Proficient: 6 pts. Developing: 4 pts.
Novice: 0 -2 pts.

Identification of
Behavior
TAC 228.35 (b) (2)
(H) meeting expectations
for attendance,
professional appearance,
decorum, procedural,
ethical, legal, and
statutory responsibilities;
Behavior that is or could be
an issue is explicitly
identified from both
scenarios.
an issue is generally
identified from both
scenarios.
Behavior that is or could be an
issue is too vague or not
correctly identified for both
scenarios.
an issue not correctly
identified for either scenario.
Standard(s) Cited and
Justification
Standard 6: Professional
Practices and

Responsibilities
(D) Teachers model
ethical and respectful
behavior and
demonstrate integrity in
all situations.
(i) Teachers adhere to the
educators' code of ethics
in §247.2 of this title
(relating to Code of Ethics
and Standard Practices
for Texas Educators),
including following
policies and procedures
at their specific school
placement(s).
Standards are explicitly cited
by number and letter.
A coherent and cogent
statement is provided that
explicitly and clearly aligns and
connects the behavior to the
standard believed to be
violated.
Standards are cited by a
general description.
Justification is provided
but it doesn’t explicitly align
and connect the behavior to
the standard believed to be

violated.
Standards are not correctly cited
for one of the scenarios.
Justification is not provided, or it
doesn’t align and connect the
behavior to the standard believed
to be violated for one of the
scenarios.
Standards are not correctly
cited for either of the
scenarios.
Justification is not provided,
or it doesn’t align and
connect the behavior to the
standard believed to be
violated for either of the
scenarios.
Alternative behavior
Practices and
Responsibilities
(D) Teachers model
behavior and
all situations.

(i) Teachers adhere to the
educators' code of ethics
in §247.2 of this title
(relating to Code of Ethics
and Standard Practices
for Texas Educators),
including following
policies and procedures
at their specific school
placement(s).
Intern provides a detailed and
appropriate approach that
could be taken by the teachers
in the scenario, so no
standards are violated.
Intern provides a general
description of an alternative
approach that could be taken
by the teachers in the scenario,
so no standards are violated.
Intern does not provide a
different approach that could be
taken by the teachers so that no
standards are violated in one of
the scenarios.
Intern does not provide a
different approach that could
be taken by the teachers so
that no standards are
violated in either of the
scenarios.

Part 2: Effective Communication with Parents
Novice: 0 -2 pts.
Effective
communication
TAC 228.35 (b) (2)
(J) effectively
communicating with
students, families,
colleagues, and
community members.
Response consistently and
thoroughly utilizes effective
communication skills and calm
tone.
Response utilizes effective
communication skills and has
calm tone.
Response utilizes some effective
communication skills but may
include some phrases or
language that are not conducive
to professional communication.
Response lacks evidence of
effective communication
skills, and/or includes

unprofessional language.
Concerns Addressed
Practices and
Responsibilities
(D) Teachers model
behavior and
all situations.
(ii) Teachers
communicate
consistently, clearly, and
respectfully with all
members of the campus
community, including
students, parents and
families, colleagues,
administrators, and staff.
The concerns are fully
addressed in a manner that
blends respect with
assertiveness.
The concerns are addressed in
a respectful manner.
Concerns are partially
addressed. Manner may need
improvement.

Concerns are not addressed
or are done so in a
derogatory manner.
Part 3: Relations with Colleagues
Novice: 0 -2 pts.
Identification of
inappropriate
behavior and
alternatives
Inappropriate behavior and any
alternate behavior needed
correctly identified and fully
explained.
Inappropriate behavior and any
alternate behavior needed
correctly identified and
explained.
Explanation of inappropriate
behavior and any alternate
behaviors lacking detail.
Inadequate or incorrect
explanation of inappropriate
behavior and any alternate
behaviors.
Explanation of next

steps
Practices and
Responsibilities
(D) Teachers model
behavior and
all situations.
(ii) Teachers
communicate
consistently, clearly, and
respectfully with all
members of the campus
community, including
students, parents and
families, colleagues,
administrators, and staff.
Next steps are explained and
explicitly include elements of
effective communication.
Next steps are explained and
include elements of effective
communication.
Explanation of next steps is
vague and may not include
elements of effective
communication.
Explanation of next steps is
missing or incorrect and
may not include elements of

effective communication.
Professional
Language, Spelling
and Grammar
Writing is professional quality,
with fewer than 2 spelling or
grammar mistakes.
There are 2 - 3 issues with
grammar and spelling, but the
writing is still up to an
adequate professional
standard.
There are 4 - 5 issues with
spelling and/or grammar, or the
quality of the writing is not up
to a professional standard.
There are more than 5
issues with spelling and/or
grammar and the quality of
the writing is not up to a
professional standard.
<<Prev Rule Texas Administrative Code Next Rule>>
TITLE 19 EDUCATION
PART 7 STATE BOARD FOR EDUCATOR CERTIFICATION
CHAPTER 247 EDUCATORS' CODE OF ETHICS
RULE §247.2 Code of Ethics and Standard Practices for Texas
Educators

Enforceable Standards.
(1) Professional Ethical Conduct, Practices and Performance.
(A) Standard 1.1. The educator shall not intentionally,
knowingly, or recklessly engage in deceptive
practices regarding official policies of the school district,
educational institution, educator preparation
program, the Texas Education Agency, or the State Board for
Educator Certification (SBEC) and its
certification process.
(B) Standard 1.2. The educator shall not knowingly
misappropriate, divert, or use monies, personnel,
property, or equipment committed to his or her charge for
personal gain or advantage.
(C) Standard 1.3. The educator shall not submit fraudulent
requests for reimbursement, expenses, or
pay.
(D) Standard 1.4. The educator shall not use institutional or
professional privileges for personal or
partisan advantage.
(E) Standard 1.5. The educator shall neither accept nor offer
gratuities, gifts, or favors that impair
professional judgment or to obtain special advantage. This
standard shall not restrict the acceptance of
gifts or tokens offered and accepted openly from students,
parents of students, or other persons or
organizations in recognition or appreciation of service.
(F) Standard 1.6. The educator shall not falsify records, or
direct or coerce others to do so.

(G) Standard 1.7. The educator shall comply with state
regulations, written local school board
policies, and other state and federal laws.
(H) Standard 1.8. The educator shall apply for, accept, offer,
or assign a position or a responsibility
on the basis of professional qualifications.
(I) Standard 1.9. The educator shall not make threats of
violence against school district employees,
school board members, students, or parents of students.
(J) Standard 1.10. The educator shall be of good moral
character and be worthy to instruct or
supervise the youth of this state.
(K) Standard 1.11. The educator shall not intentionally or
knowingly misrepresent his or her
employment history, criminal history, and/or disciplinary record
when applying for subsequent
employment.
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(L) Standard 1.12. The educator shall refrain from the illegal
use or distribution of controlled
substances and/or abuse of prescription drugs and toxic
inhalants.
(M) Standard 1.13. The educator shall not consume alcoholic

beverages on school property or during
school activities when students are present.
(2) Ethical Conduct Toward Professional Colleagues.
(A) Standard 2.1. The educator shall not reveal confidential
health or personnel information
concerning colleagues unless disclosure serves lawful
professional purposes or is required by law.
(B) Standard 2.2. The educator shall not harm others by
knowingly making false statements about a
colleague or the school system.
(C) Standard 2.3. The educator shall adhere to written local
school board policies and state and
federal laws regarding the hiring, evaluation, and dismissal of
personnel.
(D) Standard 2.4. The educator shall not interfere with a
colleague's exercise of political,
professional, or citizenship rights and responsibilities.
(E) Standard 2.5. The educator shall not discriminate against
or coerce a colleague on the basis of
race, color, religion, national origin, age, gender, disability,
family status, or sexual orientation.
(F) Standard 2.6. The educator shall not use coercive means
or promise of special treatment in order
to influence professional decisions or colleagues.
(G) Standard 2.7. The educator shall not retaliate against any
individual who has filed a complaint
with the SBEC or who provides information for a disciplinary
investigation or proceeding under this

chapter.
(3) Ethical Conduct Toward Students.
(A) Standard 3.1. The educator shall not reveal confidential
information concerning students unless
disclosure serves lawful professional purposes or is required by
law.
(B) Standard 3.2. The educator shall not intentionally,
knowingly, or recklessly treat a student or
minor in a manner that adversely affects or endangers the
learning, physical health, mental health, or
safety of the student or minor.
(C) Standard 3.3. The educator shall not intentionally,
knowingly, or recklessly misrepresent facts
regarding a student.
(D) Standard 3.4. The educator shall not exclude a student
from participation in a program, deny
benefits to a student, or grant an advantage to a student on the
basis of race, color, gender, disability,
national origin, religion, family status, or sexual orientation.
(E) Standard 3.5. The educator shall not intentionally,
knowingly, or recklessly engage in physical
mistreatment, neglect, or abuse of a student or minor.

Next Page Previous Page
(F) Standard 3.6. The educator shall not solicit or engage in
sexual conduct or a romantic relationship
with a student or minor.
(G) Standard 3.7. The educator shall not furnish alcohol or
illegal/unauthorized drugs to any person
under 21 years of age unless the educator is a parent or guardian
of that child or knowingly allow any
person under 21 years of age unless the educator is a parent or
guardian of that child to consume
alcohol or illegal/unauthorized drugs in the presence of the
educator.
(H) Standard 3.8. The educator shall maintain appropriate
professional educator-student relationships
and boundaries based on a reasonably prudent educator
standard.
(I) Standard 3.9. The educator shall refrain from
inappropriate communication with a student or
minor, including, but not limited to, electronic communication
such as cell phone, text messaging,
email, instant messaging, blogging, or other social network
communication. Factors that may be
considered in assessing whether the communication is
inappropriate include, but are not limited to:
(i) the nature, purpose, timing, and amount of the
communication;
(ii) the subject matter of the communication;

(iii) whether the communication was made openly or the
educator attempted to conceal the
communication;
(iv) whether the communication could be reasonably
interpreted as soliciting sexual contact or a
romantic relationship;
(v) whether the communication was sexually explicit; and
(vi) whether the communication involved discussion(s) of
the physical or sexual attractiveness or
the sexual history, activities, preferences, or fantasies of either
the educator or the student.
Source Note: The provisions of this §247.2 adopted to be
effective March 1, 1998, 23 TexReg 1022;
amended to be effective August 22, 2002, 27 TexReg 7530;
amended to be effective December 26,
2010, 35 TexReg 11242
List of Titles Back to List
purp CODE OF ETHICS.pdfCODE OF ETHICS.pdf
TNT 700.1P PERFORMANCE BASED ASSESSMENT
RESPONSE GUIDE

TASK 1 -- The Texas Educator Code of Ethics: Read the
instructions and both scenarios and write a paragraph of at
least 1/2 page for each scenario, responding to the prompts.
Answer the three questions at the end of each scenario, in which
you*identify the behavior(s), if any, that you believe violate
standards in the Educator Code of Ethics. You must cite the
standard from the Code of Ethics, using the letter, number and
exact language of the standard. * Explain your reasoning in the
selection of the standard(s) or your reasoning if you believe no
standards were violated. Additionally, *describe an alternate
behavior that is detailed and appropriate to take in that
situation. Use professional language, spelling and grammar in
your response.
1. Scenario 1 Response:

2. Scenario 2 Response:
TASK 2 – Effective Communication with Parents: Read the
scenario in part 2 regarding the parent communication. Respond
to the parent in a paragraph or two. Your response should
reflect effective communication skills such as setting aside
judgement and remaining calm. Address the parent’s concerns
and assert yourself through your values. Use professional
language, spelling and grammar.

TASK 3 – Effective Relations with Colleagues: Read the
scenario provided and in a paragraph or two, describe how Ms.
Jeffries should handle the situation. Read the questions
following the scenario and incorporate your responses to the
questions in the paragraph. Your response must be in the form
of a professionally written paragraph.
700.1P The Teacher: Performance-based
Assessment
Part 1: Educator Code of Ethics
As you have learned in this course, teachers serve as role
models and your conduct, both on
and off the job, can significantly impact your professional
image. In this project, you are to
read each scenario and answer the questions that follow.

Your Task:
For each scenario (2), you are to write a paragraph of at least
1/2 page in length that will:
• Identify the ethical behavior/dilemma,
• Cite the standard of professional behavior from the Code of
Ethics the action violates
using the number and letter and exact language of the standard.
• Provide justification for your selection of the standard, and
• Describe an alternate behavior that is detailed and appropriate
to take in that situation.
You are expected to use professional language, spelling, and
grammar.
Scenario 1
The Life Skills classroom at Hasting High provides Community
Based Instruction to its small
group of students with severe disabilities. The district provides
some funds for transportation
and community outings, but it isn’t usually enough to keep the
students busy throughout the
school year. To help with the funds, the principal allows the
students, with the support of the
teachers, to sell breakfast items to the school three days a week.
This fundraiser becomes very
popular with the rest of the student body because the breakfast
items are inexpensive,

delivered straight to their 1st period classes, and they get to feel
good about helping the Life
Skills classroom in a positive way. Ever since the Life Skills
fundraising began, the Student
Council sponsor, Mrs. Sumner, has noticed that support for their
daily candy fundraiser has
declined, and she believes it is due to the popularity of the
breakfast items being sold. One day
she notices a Life Skills student and one of the teachers, Mr.
Moore, out making deliveries and
collecting money. The student is clearly struggling with
handling the money, so Mr. Moore helps
her by taking some of the money and putting it into his own
pocket. Mrs. Sumner sees only this
small interaction and has no other context for the exchange.
Later that day, when speaking to a
group of other teachers she mentions seeing Mr. Moore putting
some of the breakfast
fundraiser money into his pocket. Over the next several days,
this comment makes its way
through the faculty, and when she is questioned by other faculty
members, Mrs. Sumner’s
response is that she did see Mr. Moore pocket the money, but
she doesn’t know what he did

with it after that. In the same conversations, she also casually
mentions the expensive new car
Mr. Moore recently started driving.
Questions:
1. Identify the behaviors (if any) that you believe violate
standards in the Educator Code
of Ethics.
2. Which standards do you think were violated? Explain your
reasoning. If you feel that
no standards were violated, explain your reasoning.
3. Should Mr. Moore and/or Mrs. Sumner have handled this
situation differently so as
not to violate the Code of Ethics, or (if you feel that there was
no violation) to avoid
their actions being called into question?
Scenario 2
Mrs. Nelson is a 5th grade teacher at Xander Elementary
School. Mrs. Nelson is very tech-savvy
and uses many forms of social media to communicate with her
parents and students. At the

beginning of the year she asks parents to follow her on a
communication app, Remind, so that
they can receive important text reminders about upcoming
events. Remind is typically used for
group communication. For example, Mrs. Nelson might send out
a reminder to the class that
they have a field trip and will need to remember to bring their
lunch. After receiving a group
text, parents then have the option to respond individually to
Mrs. Nelson and they can then
carry on a conversation in a private environment if they need to
discuss more student-specific
information. Many of her students have their own cell phones
and have also begun following
Mrs. Nelson on the Remind app. While Mrs. Nelson does not
encourage this, she doesn’t
remove them when they do. It has never been an issue in the
past, and she assumes it might
help them to know about upcoming and important events too.
Mrs. Nelson is a very loved and
respected teacher, and she is known for providing a very safe
and nurturing environment in her
classroom. Whenever a student is struggling with an issue, he or
she knows that Mrs. Nelson

will listen and support them. Because of the precarious nature
of 5th grade, students often
come to Mrs. Nelson with all kinds of problems. After sending
out a Remind text about the
upcoming early dismissal day, a student, Maddie, responded
with a private message to Mrs.
Nelson telling her that she needed to talk to her about a
problem. Mrs. Nelson tells her to come
to her first thing in the morning, so they can talk before class
begins. The next morning, Maddie
shows up early to class as instructed and tells Mrs. Nelson that
she thinks something is wrong
with her because she doesn’t like boys the way her friends do,
but she really doesn’t want to be
gay. She is afraid of what her parents and friends would say if
she never likes boys the way she
thinks she is supposed to. Though she was a little taken aback
by this confession, Mrs. Nelson
assures her that she will be ok, and that it is ok that she doesn’t
have the answers to those
questions right now. Thinking about it later that evening, Mrs.
Nelson was concerned that she
hadn’t been supportive enough in talking with Maddie, so she
sends her a private Remind text

saying, “I want you to know that you are a very smart and
beautiful young lady, and that won’t
change if you like boys or girls. I won’t say anything to anyone
about our conversation.”
Questions:
1. Identify the behaviors (if any) that you believe violate
standards in the Educator Code
of Ethics.
2. Which standards do you think were violated? Explain your
reasoning. If you feel that
no standards were violated, explain your reasoning.
3. Should Mrs. Nelson have handled this situation differently so
as not to violate the
Code of Ethics, or (if you feel that there was no violation) to
avoid her actions being
called into question?
Part 2: Effective Communication with Parents
The Situation
Brandon, a student in Ms. Jennings 7th grade science class, had
his phone out during a major
exam. Ms. Jennings established testing procedures at the
beginning of the year. Phones are to

be put away during tests and quizzes. All students are to place
their phones in their backpacks.
Students know that – if they do not follow this rule – Ms.
Jennings will take up their phone for
the duration of the class. If a student violates this rule twice,
Ms. Jennings takes up the
phone, notifies the parent, and assigns a detention.
When Ms. Jennings calls Brandon’s mother, she explains the
situation and that, when she
questioned him, he indicated to her that he knew he wasn’t
supposed to have his phone out but
kept it anyway so he could check the time. The mother became
upset that Brandon had
received a detention for this and sent the following email after
the conversation.
I am highly disappointed in how this issue was handled with my
son. I really believe the
teachers at this school are out to get him. It is evident by how
you seemed happy to tell me
that Brandon was going to have a detention. It is obvious he
does not understand the
seriousness of this. However, you all are so quick to punish
him. Did anyone triple check if he

understood the penalties of having a phone? He did not engage
in taking pictures or use it for
cheating. However, he was treated like he did. I disagree with
after school detention.
Mrs. Jackson
Your Task
Respond to Mrs. Jackson in a paragraph or two. Your response
should reflect effective
communication skills such as setting aside judgement and
remaining calm. You should address
her concerns and assert yourself through the values of the
district.
You are expected to use professional language, spelling, and
grammar.
Part 3: Relations with Colleagues
The Situation
In order to illustrate the importance of early trade in her world
history class, Ms. Jeffries asks students
to bring snacks the next day of class to use in a simulation
activity. Several students forget and Ms.
Jeffries sends them to the vending machine in the cafeteria at
the very beginning of class to purchase
some. A short time later, Mrs. Daniels, an assistant principal,

escorts them back to Ms. Jeffries room.
While still about 100 feet from the classroom Mrs. Daniels yells
“Did you send these kids to the
cafeteria?” Ms. Jeffries acknowledges that she did and starts to
explain when Mrs. Daniels remarks,
“Don’t you know that you aren’t supposed to send students out
of the classroom for snacks? Don’t ever
do that again!” Ms. Jeffries’ students try to explain but Mrs.
Daniels cuts them off. Once the students
are inside the classroom, Ms. Jeffries starts to give instructions
for the activity, but she is fuming. She
was just reprimanded in front of her students.
Your Task
In a paragraph or two explain how Ms. Jeffries should handle
the situation. Be sure to consider the
following:
1. Did Ms. Jeffries do anything inappropriate? If so, what
should she have done instead?
2. Did Mrs. Daniels do anything inappropriate? If so, what
should she have done instead?
3. According to guidelines of effective communication, w hat
should Ms. Jeffries do next? Be

specific in how she should approach the situation and Mrs.
Daniels.
SCORING CRITERIA
Code of Ethics portion:
• Identification of behavior
• Standard(s) cited and justification
• Identification of alternative, ethical behavior
• Professional Writing
Communication with Parents
• Effective Communication
• Concerns Addressed
Relations with Colleagues
• Identification of inappropriate behavior and alternatives
• Explanation of Next Steps

Leadership, Traits and Behavior, Leadership Styles
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2 Leadership, Traits and Behaviors, Leadership Styles
MGT3002 W4 L1
The four fundamental factors of production are land, labor,
capital
and entrepreneurship. The final factor belies the vital
importance of
leadership in business settings. Leadership acts as the catalyst
that makes all other elements work together; without leadership,
all

other business resources lie dormant. Savvy business leaders are
in tune with the needs and issues of their subordinates, and keep
up to date on new developments in leadership theory and
methodology to maximize their effectiveness.
"What makes a good leader?" Until the 1940s, researchers tried
to
answer this question by identifying the qualities and
characteristics
that are necessary for effective leadership. These findings and
conclusions are referred to as the trait theories of leadership.
According to these theories, personality, social status, physical
characteristics, and intelligence are all factors that contribute to
good leadership. In addition, some studies of physical
characteristics actually focused on physical size to determine
whether this was an important factor.
Ultimately, these studies yielded inconclusive results. Many
researchers began to recognize that there are no universal traits
that can define and describe leadership. This led to a focus on
Page 3 of 2
MGT3002 W4 L1

leadership behavior to explain effective leadership rather than
traits. The first behavioral studies were conducted at The Ohio
State University in the late 1940s. The researchers examined a
wide range of leadership behaviors and came to the conclusion
that Initiating structure and Consideration were two key
elements
that defined good leadership.
Initiating structure refers to the degree to which the leader
structures various roles in order to achieve group goals. This
involves the organization and allocation of work, defining
schedules and establishing norms and work boundaries.
Consideration on the other hand, concerns relationship issues,
including levels of trust, respect for employees, and
consideration
of employees' feelings and expectations.
The Ohio State researchers concluded that leadership behavior
that was characterized by both initiating
structure and consideration was the most successful in terms of
goal attainment and was therefore indicative of the most
effective
leadership.
Around the same time, similar studies were being conducted at
Michigan State University. The researchers hypothesized that
leadership consisted of either production-oriented or employee-
oriented behavior.

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MGT3002 W4 L1
The researchers concluded that employee-oriented leadership
behavior was associated with higher productivity and job
satisfaction, and thus more productive and effective leadership.
From the findings and conclusions of the Ohio State University
and
Michigan State University studies, Robert Blake and Jane
Mouton
developed the well-known "Managerial Grid" to show the
relationship between two leadership styles. They called these
styles "Concern for People" and "Concern for Production."
Each of these leadership styles can be measured on a nine-point
scale (from low to high), as shown in the diagram below.
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Blake and Mouton suggested that the 9,9 leadership style (high
concern for both people and production) delivers the best
performance, while the 1,1 style results in poor performance.
They
described the 9,1 style as autocratic leadership behavior, and
the
1,9 style as a laissez-faire style (A French term meaning "to
leave
alone").
For example, before September 11, 2001, New York City's
mayor,
Rudolph Giuliani, exhibited behavior leadership that was
perceived
to be of the 9,1 style—he was seen as a hard task master with
little
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MGT3002 W4 L1
consideration or concern for others, and most people felt that he
was arrogant. However, after September 11, his leadership
behavior was perceived as a very strong 9,9 style, and he had
earned the respect and admiration of New Yorkers.
The laissez-faire style (1,9) is genial and noninterfering, and
some
employees are more productive under this style because they
can
be self-directed. This style can be an effective one when the
employees are committed, honest, and hard working.
Leadership, Traits and Styles
Many people equate leadership with management. Some even
use the two terms "manager" and
"leader" interchangeably.
However, leadership actually deals with developing strategies
of change and creating new systems and
organizations as well as instituting revolutionary change within
existing systems and
organizations. Management deals with the day-to-day, month-
to-month, and year-to-year functioning
of systems and organizations.

"What makes a good leader?" Until the 1940s, researchers tried
to answer this question by identifying
the qualities and characteristics that are necessary for effective
leadership. These �ndings and
conclusions are referred to as the trait theories of leadership.
According to these theories,
personality, social status, physical characteristics, and
intelligence are all factors that contribute to
good leadership. In addition, some studies of physical
characteristics actually focused on physical size
to determine whether this was an important factor.
From the �ndings and conclusions of the Ohio State University
and Michigan State University studies,
Robert Blake and Jane Mouton developed the well-known
"Managerial Grid" to show the relationship
between two leadership styles. They called these styles
"Concern for People" and "Concern for
Production."
The four fundamental factors of production are land, labor,
capital and entrepreneurship. The �nal
factor belies the vital importance of leadership in business
settings. Leadership acts as the catalyst
that makes all other elements work together; without leadership,
all other business resources lie

dormant. Savvy business leaders are in tune with the needs and
issues of their subordinates, and keep
up to date on new developments in leadership theory and
methodology to maximize their
effectiveness.
Additional Materials
Leadership, Traits and Behavior, Leadership Styles
(media/week4/SUO_MGT3002%20W4%20L1.pdf?
_&d2lSessionVal=hYlm1UjgTwcKXFD7Nm0nCa1Zv&ou=8969
2)
https://myclasses.southuniversity.edu/content/enforced/89692-
17104265/media/week4/SUO_MGT3002%20W4%20L1.pdf?_&d
2lSessionVal=hYlm1UjgTwcKXFD7Nm0nCa1Zv&ou=89692
Trust, Charismatic Leadership, Emotional Intelligence,
and Power

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2 Trust, Charismatic Leadership, Emotional Intelligence, and
Power
MGT3002 W4 L3
Trust can be defined as confidence that a person or group will
not
act against your interests. For example, companies such as
Enron
have acted against the interests of stockholders, employees,
customers, and the government, while acting in the best
interests
of a handful of top executives and investors. Enron's former
chief
financial officer, Andrew Fastow admitted to orchestrating
partnerships and financial schemes to hide Enron debt and
inflate
profits while pocketing millions for himself and others.
Thousands
of Enron employees lost their jobs and the stock fell from a
high of
$90 in August 2000 to just pennies, wiping out many employees'
retirement savings. Jeffrey Skilling, the former CEO of Enron,
has
been charged with more than 30 counts of fraud and other

crimes.
His predecessor, Kenneth Lay, has also been indicted for similar
crimes.
Trust is often based on the awareness that there may be some
penalty or loss if that trust is violated—this is called deterrent-
based trust. For example, laws try to ensure trust primarily
through
deterrence. Within social groups deterrence is used to sustain
the
norms that have developed in the group. For example, there is a
common norm in many groups against being a "snitch," even
when
serious violations of law or ethics are involved. You may be
caught
in a dilemma when you should report on a colleague, yet are
apprehensive of the social repercussions from other members of
the group. If you do report on the colleague, you may be
violating
the trust of other group members. But if you do not report the
violation, your boss has no reason to trust you.
The highest level of trust is based on identification with another
person. This form of trust occurs between people who are
emotionally close, or between a person, such as a charismatic
leader, and those who admire him or her. You identify with the
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other person, and therefore, you have confidence that he or she
would act in your best interest.
Whatever the basis of trust, five key factors characterize it:
integrity, competence, consistency, loyalty, and openness.
These
factors determine how leaders can establish and sustain trust,
and
also how they can restore trust once it has been broken.
For example, when trust in the leadership of an organization has
been seriously broken, management needs to exhibit a high
degree of openness in order to restore that trust. Defensiveness
and denials may lead to negative consequences for the
organization, such as valuable people leaving.
Most people can become good leaders but very few peopl e who
become leaders can also be thought of as "charismatic." For
example, many would agree that Franklin D. Roosevelt, John F.
Kennedy, and Lee Iacocca were charismatic leaders. There is no
dearth of charismatic leaders in the field of business either .
Donald
Trump, Martha Stewart, Dave Thomas—the founder of Wendy's,
David O. Selznick—the flamboyant producer of Gone with the
Wind and other big Hollywood productions, Steve Jobs—
founder of

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Apple Computers, and Paul Newman—An Academy Award-
winning actor-turned-entrepreneur are all excellent examples of
people who were charismatic leaders. However, it is difficult to
describe the qualities that made these leaders charismatic.
For example, some would say that the ability to inspire and
motivate people through public speaking is a defining quality of
a
charismatic leader; for example John. F. Kennedy and Martin
Luther King Jr. However, Gandhi was a charismatic leader, even
though he was not a particularly good public speaker. Also,
while
some believe that you can learn to become a charismatic leader,
others believe that you must be born with those qualities.
Many charismatic leaders have the ability to mold the thinking
of
those who are inspired by them. A leader who doesn't just
inspire
people to do things but goes a step beyond and induces in them
a

willingness to change their personalities is known a
transformational leader.
Transformational Leader
A leader who has a profound impact on employees can inspire
them to focus mainly on the interests of the organization. This
is an
example of a transformational leader. As transformational
leaders
are able to inspire people not just to change their behavior but
also
their personalities, these leaders are able to help their followers
recognize and hone their leadership abilities. In other words
transformational leaders create great leaders.
Visionary Leader
A visionary leader is one whose vision or foresight generates
energy within an organization to create positive change. For
example, when Jack Welch took control of General Electric
(GE),
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MGT3002 W4 L3
he envisioned that GE should only be involved in businesses
that
were first or second in their industry. Based on this vision, he
developed a strategy to strengthen existing top businesses, buy
new businesses, and sell off those that did not meet these
criteria.
As a result, GE grew to dominate several industries.
Like other forms of leadership visionary leadership needs to be
combined with ethics and morality. Great leaders have
sometimes
taken advantage of their influence and power to lead people and
organizations in questionable directions. For example, many
attribute charismatic qualities to people like Rush Limbaugh
and
Louis Farrakhan, but they have also been seen to use their
power
and influence for personal advancement or the advancement of
ideas that many would consider extreme and controversial.
John Mayer of the University of New Hampshire, and Peter
Salovey of Yale University, developed the concept of emotional
intelligence (EI), which they perceived as the ability to process
emotional information. They define emotional information as
involving perception, assimilation, understanding, and
management of emotion. Evidence shows that effective
leadership
is very closely linked with emotional intelligence.
In spite of the evidence supporting EI as a necessary trait for
effective leadership, traditional notions of organizational
leadership
make it difficult for many people to accept the validity of this

concept. For example there are many people who still believe
that
emotions and feelings are best left out of the workplace because
business should not be personal.
The concept of power is central to any discussion on leadership.
Basically power is the ability to influence the behavior of
others.
Leaders often use power to influence the behavior of their
subordinates in order to accomplish goals.
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Like politics the concept of power is sometimes associated with
a
degree of negativity. However, power is necessary to
accomplish
organizational goals. Power comes from a variety of sources and
in
organizations it can be formal or personal. Formal power comes
from the organization and is delegated to individuals. There are
four recognizable types of formal power as described below.

Reward power is the ability to distribute rewards in a variety of
forms, such as financial. Its corollary is coercive power which
is
based on fear of punishment or some kind of loss. There is
nothing
good or bad, right or wrong about reward and coercive power —
they simply exist in organizations. However ethical or moral
issues
may exist in connection with how this power is used.
Legitimate power includes all of the authority that is delegated
by
an organization to an individual to control and use the resources
of
the organization. It includes reward and coercive power as well
as
the power to give instructions to allocate jobs, to recruit
personnel,
and to approve proposals. Information power relates to the
control over and access to an organization's information. Having
this power allows you to influence the behavior of subordinates.
At the personal level expert and referent power are extremely
important to managers and leaders. With expert power a person
who is known to have greater expertise on a particular subject is
able to influence the behavior of others significantly. Expert
power
is one of the most powerful sources of influence in
organizations. Referent power is the influence derived from
qualities that evoke admiration in others. People identify with a
person's strong desirable qualities and want to emulate and
please
that person. In other words, referent power is based on
identification.

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Through formal delegation and personal power, inequalities
exist in
all organizations. These power inequalities lead to two
significant
phenomena: the use of power over others to engage in unethical
or
illegal acts, and efforts to influence the distribution of
advantages
and disadvantages in the organization (office politics). Neither
of
these phenomena is required in a person's formal role in the
organization, but both do happen.
In many cases of corporate crime that are investigated today one
consistent pattern has emerged: the pressure exerted by some
top
executives on junior managers who have felt compelled to act
illegally or against their own moral code in order to carry out
orders. In most cases implicit threats of loss of position or job
have

been experienced. For example, sexual harassment is the most
common type of workplace abuse over others. It is estimated
that
only about 10% to 20% of actual incidents of sexual harassment
are reported or become public. There is adequate data to suggest
that these acts lower morale and productivity, influence
employee
turnover rates and encourage others to act similarly. Whether
from
a pragmatic point of view or from a moral point of view, this,
like
any abuse of power, is an unacceptable practice within an
organization.
Political behavior needs to be looked at from a slightly different
perspective. Organizations have developed a certain tolerance
level to some kinds of political behavior. This may be an
acknowledgement that while political behavior is not actually
required for the goals and purposes of the organization, it has
now
become an integral part of today's business environment.
In the future a consensus should hopefully emerge regarding
whether or not certain political behaviors are legitimate.
Presently
there are many different opinions about what constitutes
legitimate
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MGT3002 W4 L3
and illegitimate political behavior. For example, some people
believe that whistle blowing is an example of illegitimate
political
behavior, while others believe that it is neither political nor
illegitimate, but actually essential role behavior.
An effective manager should try to determine why some people
engage in political behavior and others do not. For example,
there
is some evidence to suggest that people with a high Need for
Power (nPow) are more likely to engage in political behavior.
High
nPow is also associated with feelings of inadequacy. Efforts to
reduce perceptions of inadequacy through empowerment,
counseling, involvement, and participation may offer a solution.
Situational Leadership
Considering the situational factor, Fred Fiedler's studies led to
what are referred to as
the Contingency Theories of Leadership. In his initial studies,
Fiedler allocated simple tasks to small

groups of children with a designated leader. The leaders in
different groups were told to behave in
speci�c ways and conditions for each group were varied. To his
surprise, Fiedler found that the
children performed tasks well under a people-oriented
leadership style only when conditions were
moderately favorable or unfavorable. However, when conditions
were highly favorable or highly
unfavorable, performance was high under autocratic leadership.
Inspired by the contingency approach, Paul Hersey and Ken
Blanchard developed a model called
the Situational Leadership Theory which has become very
popular. This theory focuses on employees
as well as management. Hersey and Blanchard looked at two
factors, employee skills and attitude.
They identi�ed four kinds of leadership behaviors or styles that
are dependent upon the skill and
attitude factors:
Delegating
Selling
Participating
Telling
Contemporary Issues in Leadership - Recently people have

begun to express a need for strong
leadership that inspires trust, faith, and a sense of security—
physical, emotional, and economic. These
needs have arisen as a consequence of the events of September
11, 2001, and their impact on the
economy, as well as some high-pro�le cases of fraudulent and
illegal activities by some large
corporations. As a result, the issue of trust has become a
priority for Americans as well as for
employees and management. This issue becomes even more
important during an election year and
managers need to understand the emotional and theoretical
nature of this issue.
Leaders of today's corporations must cope with a unique set of
challenges. Technological, social, and
economic forces compel leaders to address these issues in order
to stay ahead of the competition.
Some of these challenges include:
Globalization of business leading to
cross cultural competency requirements
greater demands of travel
Geographic shifts in economic power
Growth of strategic alliances

An accelerating avalanche of information and democratization
of access to information
Daily innovations in technology
Changing demographics and a changing workforce
Changing expectations of a more educated workforce
Flattening of organizations, increased workloads and expanding
skill requirements
Contingency Theories, Situational Leadership, Issues in
Leadership
2)
Week 4 Discussion $6.00
· Support your answers with examples and research and cite
your research using the APA format.
· Start reviewing and responding to the postings of your

classmates as early in the week as possible.
Respond to one of the following questions:
· Research transactional and transformational leadership. What
are the differences between the two styles? Analyze whether a
leader can be both.
· Trust is one of the most important variables for organizational
performance. What is the responsibility of leaders to build trust
in the culture of the organization? What are the most important
factors for building trust?
· One of the factors driving change in organizations is
globalization. How has globalization affected the way leaders
must lead? What are the most important qualities a leader must
possess (or things she or he must do) to lead in a global or
multi-cultural environment?
Trust, Charismatic Leadership, and Power
Trust is based on the awareness that there may be some penalty
or loss if that trust is violated—this is
called deterrent-based trust. For example, laws try to ensure
trust primarily through deterrence.
Within social groups deterrence is used to sustain the norms
that have developed in the group. You
may be caught in a dilemma when you should report on a
colleague, yet are apprehensive of the social
repercussions from other members of the group. If you do report
on the colleague, you may be
violating the trust of other group members. But if you do not

report the violation, your boss has no
reason to trust you.
Most people can become good leaders but few people who
become leaders can also be thought of as
"charismatic." Many would agree that Franklin D. Roosevelt,
John F. Kennedy, and Lee Iacocca were
charismatic leaders. There is no dearth of charismatic leaders in
the �eld of business either. Donald
Trump, Martha Stewart, Dave Thomas—the founder of Wendy's,
David O. Selznick—the �amboyant
producer of Gone with the Wind and other big Hollywood
productions, Steve Jobs—founder of Apple
Computers, are all excellent examples of people who were
charismatic leaders. However, it is dif�cult
to describe the qualities that made these leaders charismatic.
Lastly, the concept of power is central to any discussion on
leadership. Power is the ability to in�uence
the behavior of others. Leaders often use power to in�uence the
behavior of their subordinates in
order to accomplish goals. Like politics, the concept of power is
sometimes associated with a degree of
negativity. However, power is necessary to accomplish
organizational goals. Power comes from a
variety of sources and in organizations it can be formal or
personal. Formal power comes from the

organization and is delegated to individuals.
Not long ago, most discussions of leadership were about leaders
– their personality traits, how to
identify and groom those with ‘leadership potential,’ and what
were the skills that leaders employed.
Leadership theorists nowadays stress authenticity, EQ and
relationships. This makes intuitive sense.
But it isn’t just a fad; there is a solid reason behind the shift. It
is driven by changes in the world. Above
all, it re�ects the growing importance of trust.
Trust, Charismatic Leadership, Emotional Intelligence, and
Power
2)

Contingency Theories, Situational Leadership, Issues in L

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