Includes content of my C programming book , includes , introduction , chapters and other details

1. Data Structures
Using C
Also Covers Topics Like
 SOFTWARE PROCESSES AND PROGRAMMING PARADIGMS
 DEBUGGING STRATEGIES AND TACTICS
 BASICS OF C PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE
 C INTERVIEW QUESTIONS (GENERAL AND TECHNICAL)
 HOW TO BECOME HIGHLY PAID PROFESSIONAL
 LEARNING MAP AND REMEMBERING TECHNIQUES
 COMPANY ETIQUETTE
 WAYS TO DEVELOP CREATIVE THINKING
 HOW TO MAKE PROFESSIONAL RESUME
 TESTING CONCEPTS
By
Dr. Patanjali Kashyap
Ph.D ( Physics ),Ph.D (Computer Science,Persuing)
M.Phil ( Computer Science ) , M.Sc ( Physics ) ,
M.Sc.( Bio- Informatics), MCA, PGDCA , B. Sc. ( Physics )
M.Sc.(Pschology , Persuing),

2. ii
Arctech Publishers Pvt. Limited.
A Unit of Arctech Microelectronics Pvt. Limited.
Offices
Delhi, Kolkata, Mumbai, Patna
E-Mail : info@amesesystems.net
Distributed By
Arctech Publishers Limited.
Office Address
Arctech Publishers Pvt. Limited, Delhi.
© Arctech Publishers Pvt. Limited, 2009.
First Published, 2009.
ISBN : 10 81-8333-257-9
ISBN : 13 978-81-8333-257-6
Cover and book design.
© Arctech Publishers Pvt. Limited, 2009.
Printed at
Arctech Publishers Pvt. Limited, Delhi.
Published by
Arctech Publishers Pvt. Limited, Delhi.
LIMITS OF LIBILITY AND DISCLAAIMER OF WARRANTY
The Author and publisher of this book have tried their best to ensure that the programmes, procedures and functions described in this book are correct. However, the author and the publishers make no warrant of any kind, expressed or implied, with regard to these programmes or the documentation contained in the book. The author and publisher shall not be libel in any event of any damages, incidental or consequential, in connection with or arising out of the furnishing, performance or use of these programmes, procedures or functions. Product name mentioned are used for the identification purposes only and may be the trademark of their respective companies.
All trademarks referred to in the book are acknowledged as the properties of their respective owners.

3. iii
To the memory of my father and a great critic of my intellectual works,
Who did not live to realize his greatest ambition--
That of witnessing his son will get a job at least.

4. iv
Special Thanks to
Mr. N R Narayana Murthy and Mr Nandan M Nilekani, Co- Chairman, of INFOSYS TECHNOLOGIES LTD, Whose vision help me to plan and write this book.
AND
My mamajee Dr. Hulas Narayana Singh for his unconditional support during my problematic days while finalizing the manuscript for the book.

5. v
FROM THE SAME AUTHOR
1. Data Structures Using C++
2. The Spiritual Universe: A Journey from Black Hole to Time Machine.
3. My Struggle: An Untold Story of Every Indian.
4. The Cheater Society: My Last One Year Experience with the Society, In Special Reference To Developing And Developed Countries (A SocioPschological Synthesis)
5. Srimad Bhagavad Gita : A Book of Pschology and Management.
6. Vadic Revaluation : Few Steps Away.
7. Indology: A Review of Vades, Upnishad, Purana and Astaawarkra Mahagita in Modern Perspective.
8. Software Engineering : A Text Book
Science and Philosophy of Sports Series
1. Science and Philosophy of Sports : A Inside Story of Football
Upcoming titles
1. The Restless Corporation: A Synthesis of Brain and Medical Science, Psychology, Sociology, Management Theories with the flavor of Newtonian and Quantum Physics.
2. A Test Book of C #
3. Beyond Physics : Journey from Spirituality to Nanotechnology with the Backdrop of Bio-technology , Bioinformatics, Psychology and Vedant
4. Physics
Trilogy On Information Technology And New Science
1. Change : A technical history of Computer From Abacus To Nano-Quantum Computer
2. The Future Perfect : Evolution of DNA and Pantaflop compution.
3. Here We Are : Birth of Spinelectronics And Deth of Silicon

6. vi
About The Author
Patanjali Kashyap has compleated his Ph.D thesis in Electronics, Radio, Quantum and Atomic computation, and is doing his Ph.D in Computer Science and Applications on Big data, DWH, Devops, CG and BI integration. His academic achievements include huge list of degrees, certificates and diplomas, some of them are MCA, M.Phil (Data Mining, Knowledge Management, and SOA), M.Sc (Electronics and Radio Physics), M.Sc.(Bio-Informatics) and PGDCA in computer applications. His various research papers (around 25 in numbers) are published in national and international journals of repute on topics like Indology, Nanotechnology, Quantum Computer, Optical Computer, Photonic Crystal, and DNA (Bio) chips, Organizational Structure, Human Behavior, Evolution and Psychology. He conducted several workshops and delivered lectures on new generation motivation techniques of emotional, spiritual and social intelligence. He developed a unique Mind Mapping Techniques with association of ancient Tao, kundalini and Vadic methodology, which proves to be very effective for the increasing / maintaining memory and effectiveness of the organization.
Patanjali write extensively for the news papers, magazines, web-sites and for the blogs, he is also associated with the career and psychological counseling. Apart from all these boring stuffs he dance well (specialist in Salsa, bollywood dance), plays cricket, badminton and table tennis. He is a good bathroom singer  and thought some time he will get best playback singer award for his performance (!!!!..... Tooo… Optimistic …!!!)
Patanjali also has extensive experience in software industry. Presently, he is working as a Project Manager in INFOSYS TECHNOLOGIES LTD, Bangalore, and has, in past led and manage projects in banking, travel, financial sector and of Mortgage, in his spare times he loves to play with the latest technologies from Microsoft Corporation specially technologies revolves around .NET, now a days he also make his hands dirty with Unix and other open source products. He enjoys writings research papers for journal and presenting them in the conferences.

7. vii
Acknowledgements
First and foremost, I thank my maa and maa-see-maa, for their unfaltering support and confidence in all my endeavors – even the sensible ones. I thank also my sisters and brother in law Dr. S.K. Chaudahary for giving me unconditional support in my difficult time. I thank also to my colleagues Srjeeth Janardanan, Vijayant Jha and Kaku for their emotional support and confident hand , which gives me feeling that I am not alone. I want to thank INFOSYS TECHNOLOGIES LTD in totality for their policies to stand behind their employee, when they need their support at most. I want to thank Dr. H. C. Rai for his support. During preparation of this acknowledgement memory of Dr. R Panday become refresh in my soul , he was my mentor and guide for intellectual life, giving me valuable insight about cosmology, physics and religion. He was the one who gave me the real test of writing, and thinking big in interdisplineary way. I also want to thank Shaunak for her suggestions while giving final touch to manuscript, getting feedback from her was unbelievable for me because she provide all this in the age of 10 only. I also want to thank my brother and best friend Sumukh for standing always with me, unaffected to the situation he always tries to bring smile on my face by any cost. I want to give special thanks to my mamajee Dr. Bhuthi Narayan Singh for his sober communication.
While writing this book, I lead almost a hermit life, totally out of touch of the society and so called friends and relatives, no access to refrigerator, even restricted access to TV. My mother, sisters, brother and musa called me at times for making sure that I am leaving a normal life, some times my frustration come in words, I told them what I am not supposed to tell, I really feel sorry for all those moments. I love and enjoy eating fast food and having a can of coke with that,but due to health reasons, I make it sure that I always away from all types of junck foods during last seven months. I lived almost alone while writing this book by lot of reasons. I was very productive during those period, I planned for six book and a trilogy on computers, completed four of them ( almost 2500 pages, apart form the time involved in research). I need healthy diet during the times for getting extra energy to fulfill my commitment to my self, I thank Raju for preparing food for me without oil and spice, also for taking care of my minute details. I want to thanks Dr. S.N.Tewari, HOD of my time from department of Physics, Bihar University, Muzaffarpur who make me realize about nuts and bolts of physics, especially new physics.I want to give special thanks to my musa Sri. Nagaswar Pd. Sharma for his emotional support.
I want to give special thanks to Dr. Prasana for all of his empathy and cooperation towards me, he actually goes beyond from the role of doctor for supporting me. I am also thankful to the Dr.sandeep, Dr. Ready, Dr. Deeraj and the support staff of hospitals where I was treated.Finally my thanks goes to Golu for his encouraging words on telephone while writing the book.
Patanjali Kashyap
Muzaffarpur, Bihar
Mother’s Day, 10-05-2009

8. viii
Preface
C is a flexible, powerful programming language with hundreds of thousands of applications. However, the knowledge of how to take advantage of its full potential comes only with time and experience. That’s where this book comes in. Think of it as a “cookbook” for solving your programming problems, much as The Joy of Cooking is a guide to solving your dinner dilemmas. Data structure using c is a book for the beginning- to-advanced C programmer who needs immediate answers to the problems that crop up in the professional software-development world. I assume that you have prior programming experience, as well as experience specifically with the C programming language. “Fluff” — like discussions of looping structures or defining variables, or the basics of compiling applications — is kept to a minimum here. Instead, I offer quick, step- by-step instructions for solving specific problems in C.
Each technique includes example code which you are welcome to use in your own applications, or modify as you see fit. This is literally a case of “steal this code, please.” C is a language that lends itself well to component-based design and implementation. This means that you can take a piece from here and a piece from there to implement the solution that you have in mind.Data Structure using C is not an operating-system specific (or even compiler-specific) book. The techniques and code that you find here should work on all compilers that support the standard C language, and on all operating systems for which a standard compiler exists. This book is intended to be as useful to the UNIX programmer as to the Microsoft Windows programmer and just as useful for programming with X-windows as it is for .Net.
I included some utility and general purpose chapters in this book which will be beneficial for the user of the book , these chapters covers minute details and important aspect of professional and academic life , topic like “ How to become highly paid professional “, Learning Maps and Memory techniques “ solves difficulties of real life. Chapter on Interview “C interview question ( General and Technical)” gives a glimpse of the important interview questions asked in the interviews , my personal experience says , if you prepared with sample question before going to face interview it will gives you confidence.One chepter on software process and on debugging techniques are also included.
My goal in writing this book is to empower you with some of the stronger features of C and using them in data structure, as well as some great tips and methods to solve everyday problems, without the headaches and lost time that go with trying to figure out how to use those tools. C provides simple, fast, powerful solutions to meet the demands of day-to-day programming my goal is to save you time while making the tools clear and easy to use and finding solutions as a when required.
Patanjali Kashyap
Muzaffarpur, Bihar
Mother’s Day, 10-05-2009

9. ix
A Note on Creative Thinking and their practical use
Writing good computer programme and developing efficient algorithms are all about creative thinking, so just before stating our journey to Data Structures, I try to present some rules and tips for developing Creative Thinking. These rules are totally based on my personal experience and research. I provide a formula for achieving greater creativity for managing your time and apply that to solve your problems.
Here We Go >>>>>>>>> BIRBAL >>>> Says……
B: Begin by short-listing the problem you want to solve, out of many that may confronting you.
I: Investigate the cause, circumstances and all available facts, listing these out on a sheet of paper. These are the various components of your problem.
R: Relate these components of your problems to the available resources, it may be in the form of books, case studies, previous experience.
B: Balance and weigh the various options available to you. Here are some option- generators you can use to come up with possible solutions:
1. Can you make one of the components of your problem bigger than others? What does the problem look like now?
2. Can you make another component smaller and check the result?
3. Can you combine two or more of them into a single component? Will that change the nature of your problem?
Just list out the possible solutions, however outlandish they may appear first. Don’t be critical at this stage. Look for unexpected angles.When you have done this, list the solutions you think are most likely to succeed. If necessary, modify them to suit your needs. Select the solution that appear most appealing to you. May be you combine two of your activities to reduce expenditure of time.Do your planning or some other work in the train or bus on your way to work. Instead of allocating an hour to jogging, walk bristly at least part of the way to office. What would happen if dropped some of your activities or delegated them to someone else in thee family or workplace?
A: Apply the solution to your problem and check the results Does it have any unfavorable side effects? Until you apply it, you will not know. (Perhaps some activity is not being accomplished adequately. You may have to either delegate it to someone else or drop some other activity.
L: Link the other short-listed solutions as well to your problem. Do any of them fit it better than the one you selected first? Usually the first solution is not the best solution. Select your final solution. Perhaps you did end up saving a lot of time . That doesn’t mean you can’t save even more time. Try other options at different times till you feel you can no longer improve the outcome.
Above exercise should enable you to refine and fine tune the best solution. This process makes you more creative and intelligent problem solver.

10. x
CONTENTS
About The Author
vi
Acknowledgement
vii
Preface
viii
A Note on Creative Thinking and their practical use
ix
1 . Software Processes and Programming paradigms
1.1
Introduction
01
1.1.1 Functional decomposition
01
1.1.2 Programming paradigms
03
1.1.2.1 Gear-Oriented Programming
03
1.1.2.2 Switch-Oriented Programming
03
1.1.2.3 Procedure-Oriented Programming
03
1.1.2.4 Object-Oriented Programming
03
1.1.2.5 Aspect-Oriented Programming
04
1.1.2.6 Component-Oriented Programming
04
1.2
Software engineering and development : A tight bond
04
1.2.1 Characteristics of software development strategies
06
1.3
The waterfall model
06
1.4
V-shape development model
07
1.4a
Incremental and Iterative models
08
1.5
Risk reduction models
08
1.6
The prototyping model
09
1.7
The spiral model
09
1.8
The Cleanroom model
10
1.9
Capability maturity mdoel (CMM)
11
1.10
Extreme Programming (XP)
12
1.11
Software project life cycle for XP
12
2 . Debugging strategies and tactics
2.1
Introduction
13
2.2
Evaluation Mechanism
13
2.3
Binary search strategy
13
2.3.1 Binary search assumptions
13
2.3.2 Binary search control structure
14
2.4
Greedy search strategy
14
2.4.1 Greedy search assumptions
14
2.4.2 Greedy search control structure
14
2.5
Breadth-first search strategy
15
2.5.1 Breadth-first search assumptions
15
2.5.2 Breadth-first search control structure
15
2.6
Depth-first search strategy
16
2.6.1 Depth-first search assumptions
16
2.6.1 Depth-first search control structure
17
2.7
Program slice strategy
17
2.7.1 Program slice assumptions
17
2.7.2 Program slice control structure
18

11. xi
2.8
Deductive-analysis strategy
18
2.8.1 Deductive-analysis assumptions
18
2.8.2 Deductive-analysis control structure
18
2.9
Inductive-analysis strategy
19
2.9.1 Inductive-analysis assumptions
19
2.9.2 Inductive-analysis control structure
19
2.10
Choosing a strategy
19
2.11
Debugging Tactics
21
2.11a Introduction
22
2.11.1 Read the source code
22
2.11.2 Write a unit test
24
2.11.3 Display variable values
24
2.11.4 Display execution messages
26
2.11.5 Questions answered
27
2.11.6 Display procedure arguments
28
2.11.7 Generate a flow trace
30
2.11.8 Generate a variables snapshot
31
2.11.9 Generate memory dump
32
2.11.10 Choosing tactics
33
2.11.11 Force variable value
33
2.11.12 Check data structures
33
2.11.13 Display data structures
34
2.11.14 Execute on a different platform
36
2.11.15 Use runtime subscipt checking
36
2.11.16 Use runtime stack checking
36
2.11.17 Use runtime heap checking
36
2.11.18 Initialize local variables
36
2.11.19 Change storage class
36
2.11.20 Use a different compiler
36
2.11.21 Compile to assembly code
36
2.12
Important points
36
3. Basics of C programming language
3.1
The built-in data types in C
37
3.2
Various data types in C
38
3.3
The Control Statement (if statement)
39
3.4
The iteration loop (for Loop)
40
3.5
The do.... while loop
41
3.6
The switch statement
42
3.7
Preprocessor
44
3.8
Function
45
3.9
Address
46
3.9.1 Accessing a value through a pointer
49
3.9.2 Using pointer
51
3.9.3 Testing for NULL pointer
54
3.9.4 Pointers to Constants
54
3.9.5 Constant Pointers
55
3.10
Parameter Passing
56
3.10.1 Introduction
56
3.10.2 Call by reference
56

12. xii
3.10.3 The concept of Global variables
58
3.10.4 Calling functions
59
3.11
Recursion
60
3.11.1 Writing a recursive function
61
3.12
Arrays
63
3.12.1 Address of each element in an array
64
3.12.2 Arrays and Pointers
65
3.12.3 Accessing an array using pointers
67
3.12.4 Manipulating arrays using pointers
68
3.12.5 Two-dimentional array
70
3.12.5 Three-dimentional array
71
3.12.6 Pointer array
73
3.13
Dynamic memory allocations
74
3.13.1 Using memory
75
3.13.2 Dynamic memory allocation : the malloc() function
75
3.13.3 Memory allocation with the calloc() function
76
3.13.4 Releasing dynamically allocated memory
77
3.13.5 Reallocating memory
78
4. Storage of variables
4.1
Storage
80
4.2
External references
81
4.3
Register variables
82
4.4
Scope of variables
83
4.5
Further scope of variables
84
5. Performance analysis and design of algorithm
5.1
Intoduction
85
5.2
Some important point about algorithm
86
5.3
Standard ways of manipulation
87
5.3.1 Manipulation, the amerian way
87
5.4
Definition of algorithm
88
5.5
Definition of design
88
5.6
Model of computation
88
5.7
Algorithm's performance
88
5.8
Notations
88
5.8.1 -Notation (Same order)
88
5.8.2 O-Notation (Upper bound)
89
5.8.3 -Notation (Lower bound)
89
5.9
Algorithm analysis
90
5.10
Worst-case complexity
90
5.11
Average-case complexity
90
5.12
Optimality
90
5.13
Reduction
91
5.14
Algorithm performance analysis
91
5.15
Most algorithms fall into one of the following types
92
5.16
Important points
92
5.16.1 O-Notation
92
5.16.2 -Notation
93

13. xiii
5.16.3 -Notation
93
5.16.4 O-Notation (example)
93
5.16.5 -Notation
93
5.17
Time complexity of an algorithm
94
5.18
Time complexity of a problem
94
6. Arrays, Searching, and Sorting
6.1
Arrays
95
6.2
Memory representation
95
6.3
Representation of Two-dimensional Array
96
6.4
Application of arrays
97
6.4.1 Implementation of a static contiguous list
97
6.4.2 Manipulations of the list implemented using an array
99
6.4.3 Alternative method
101
6.4.4 Inverse of the list
103
6.4.5 Merging of two sorted lists
106
6.4.6 Transpose of a matrix
109
6.4.7 Alternative version of the program
112
6.5
Implementation of the heaps
114
6.6
Sorting and Searching
114
6.7
Quick sort
117
6.7.1 Choice of the key
117
6.8
Merge sort
122
6.9
Heap sort
126
6.10
Searching techniques : linear or sequential search
129
6.10.1 Binary search
132
6.11
Hashing
134
6.11.1 Hashing functions
138
7. Stacks and Queues
7.1
Stacks
143
7.1.1 Array implementation of a stack
143
7.1.2 Implementation of a stack using linked representation
146
7.2
Applications of stacks
149
7.3
Queues
154
7.3.1 Implementation of queues
154
7.3.2 Array implementation of a queues
155
7.4
Circular queues
158
7.4.1 Implementation of a queue using linked representation
161
7.5
Applications of queues
165
8. Linked Lists
8.1
Linked list
170
8.2
Inserting a node by using recursive programs
173
8.3
Sorting and reversing a linked list
175
8.4
Deleting the specified node in a singly linked list
180
8.5
Inserting a node after the specified node in a singly linked list
184
8.6
Counting the number of nodes of a linked list
191
8.7
Counting the number of nodes of a linked list
193

14. xiv
8.8
Merging of two sorted lists
195
8.9
Erasing a linked list
200
8.10
Polynomial representation
203
8.11
Circular linked lists
208
8.12
Splitting a list with 2n nodes into two separate and equal lists
211
8.13
Merging of two circular lists
214
8.14
Reversing the direction of links in a singly linked circular list
217
8.15
Doubly linked lists
221
8.16
Insertion of a node in a doubly linked list
225
8.17
Deleting a node from a doubly linked list
228
8.18
Application of doubly linked lists to memory management
231
9. Trees
9.1
Introduction
234
9.1.1 Definition of a tree
234
9.1.2 Degree of node of a tree
235
9.1.3 Degree of a tree
235
9.1.4 Level of a node
235
9.2
Binary tree and its representation
235
9.3
Graphical representation of a binary tree
236
9.3.1 Representation of a binary tree
237
9.4
Binary tree traversal
240
9.5
Binary search tree
243
9.6
Constructing a binary tree using the preorder and inorder traversals
248
9.7
Counting the number of nodes in a binary search tree
249
9.8
Swapping of left and right subtrees of a given binary tree
251
9.9
Searching for a target key in a binary search tree
254
9.10
Deletion of a node rom binary search tree
258
9.11
Applications of binary search trees
266
9.12
General comments on binary trees
267
10. Graphs
10.1
Basic definitions and terminology
275
10.2
Representations of a graph
278
10.3
Link list representation
279
10.4
Computing indegree and outdegree of a node of a graph using adjacency matric representation
280
10.5
Depth-first traversal
283
10.6
Breadth-first traversal
285
10.7
Connected component of a graph
289
10.8
Depth-first spanning tree and breadth-first spanning tree
295
10.8.1 MST property
299
10.9
Prim's Algorithm
299
10.10
Directed acyclic graph (DAG)
303
10.10.1 Topological sort of directed graph
304
11. C Interview questions (General and Technical)
11.1
Introduction
312
11.2
General questions
312

15. xv
11.3
Conventional questions
313
11.4
Technical questions on C programming language
317
12. How to become highly paid professional
12.1
Introduction
333
12.2
Establish an intelligent routine
333
12.2.1 Prioritize your projects
333
12.2.2 Critique your performance everyday
333
12.2.3 Check in with every member of your team or group everyday
334
12.2.4 Keep your project paper work in order and upto date and your office sportless
334
12.2.5 Ask to work and major corporate businesses
334
12.2.6 Reach for the business function that makes you most valuable
334
12.2.7 Note that good things come in big packages
335
12.3
Packages worth working on (best first)
336
12.4
What your boss really wants from you
336
12.4.1 Fair warning about problems
337
12.4.2 Confidence
337
12.4.3 Positive feedback about you
338
12.4.4 Accuracy
338
12.4.5 Putting your work ahead of your ego
338
12.4.6 The prudent "I don't know"
338
12.4.7 Respect
338
13. Learning map and remembering techniques
13.1
What is learning map
340
13.1.1 Getting started
13.2
Too much and no system
342
13.3
Keywords
344
13.3.1 In a nutshell
344
13.3.2 The right word
344
13.4
The human brain
345
13.4.1 Learning maps
346
13.5
The use of keywords
347
13.6
On a memory hunt
349
13.7
The natural way
350
13.8
Your own writing and speech
350
13.9
Rules
352
13.10
Learning maps applications
353
13.10.1 Study planning
353
13.10.2 Personal planning
355
13.10.3 Meetings
355
13.10.4 Budgets
355
14. Company etiquette
14.1
Let's star with the some typical characteristics of successful people
357
14.2
Etiquette in writing
357

16. xvi
14.3
Cross cultural differences - writing skills
358
14.3.1 Be concise
358
14.3.2 Phrases to avoid
358
14.3.3 Local words to be avoided in all our communication
358
14.3.4 Americal v/s english spelling
359
14.4
Tips on Telephone Etiquette
359
Appendix - 1 Self evaluation sheet (sample)
361
Appendix - 2 The elements of C and C++ coding style
365
Appendix - 3 Software testing concepts
370
A3.1 Introduction
370
A3.2 Role of software testing
370
A3.3 Software testing concepts
371
A3.4 Software testing types
372
A3.5 Software testig test cases
374
A3.6 Software quality assurance (SQA) & testing
375
A3.7 Software testing softwares
376
Appendix - 4 How to make professional resume and cover letter
A4.1 Introduction
378
A4.2 Structure of the resume
378
A4.2.1 Overall format
378
A4.2.2 Your profile
379
A4.2.3 Achievements, Education & Qualifications
379
A4.2.4 IT and other skills
380
A4.2.5 Personal details and hobbies
380
A4.2.6 The language you use
380
A4.2.7 Double check it
380
A4.3 Cover letter
381
Appendix - 5 Intellectual work of author published in journals /
abstract / books / Magazines
382
References & Bibliography
389
Index
390