The Cold War lasted from 1947 to 1991 and was characterized by political and economic tensions between capitalist and communist nations without direct military conflict. Key events and ideologies included the establishment of Soviet satellite states in Eastern Europe, the development of nuclear weapons and their use in diplomatic negotiations known as "atomic diplomacy," the construction of the Berlin Wall in 1961 dividing East and West Germany, and the policy of containment used by the US to prevent the spread of Soviet communism.

1. Movements/Ideologies of the Cold War
• Cold War
• Hostilities between nations manifested through antagonistic “economic, political, military, and ideological
rivalry”, with nations in opposition yet not engaging in battle (“Cold War”).
• The Cold War lasted from 1947 - 1991.
"Cold War." Dictionary.com. Dictionary.com. Web. 16 Jan. 2016.
• Satellite States
• Refers to states that are independent, yet have puppet governments and are politically controlled by another
nation; the Soviet Union had satellite states in the Federal People’s Republic of Yugoslavia, Socialist People’s
Republic of Albania, the People’s Republic of Bulgaria, the Czechoslovak Socialist Republic, the German
Democratic Republic (East Germany), the People’s Republic of Poland, the Socialist Republic of Romania, and the
People’s Republic of Hungary (Losada).
Losada, Sergio. "The East European Satellite States." Silvapages. Web. 16 Jan. 2016.
• Atomic Diplomacy
• Refers to using atomic weapons or nuclear warfare for diplomatic maneuverings, beginning with the US
at first being a nuclear monopoly (as displayed through the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki), and
then hinted at during the Potsdam Conference by US President Truman to Joseph Stalin; at this time,
United States, Britain, Germany, and USSR were doing nuclear research (“Atomic Diplomacy”).
• The US stopped being the main power in nuclear warfare, with the Soviet Union successfully creating
an atomic bomb in 1949, the UK in 1952, France in 1960, and People’s Republic of China in 1964
(“Atomic Diplomacy”).
• Threat of nuclear warfare was used by President Truman during the Berlin Blockade in 1948, and again
during the Korean War; the Soviet Union did a similar tactic when deploying missiles to Cuba (“Atomic
Diplomacy”).
• This atomic diplomacy, threatening nuclear warfare, lasted until the mid-1960s due to multiple nations
having the capacity to deploy an atomic bomb and being retaliated against, therefore making the threat
useless in that there will be (when using the bomb) mutual destruction (“Atomic Diplomacy”).
"Atomic Diplomacy - 1945–1952 - Milestones - Office of the Historian." Atomic Diplomacy - 1945–1952 -
Milestones - Office of the Historian. Web. 15 Jan. 2016.
• Berlin Wall (Berliner Mauer) 1961
• Separating Easter and Western Germany for 28 years, the Berlin Wall was put up on August 13, 1961
(Rosenberg). Although the intention was to later reunify Germany, the division between the Soviet Union
and the other powers became evident, with hostilities arising between the split with democracy and
communism, later translated through West Germany being pitted against Eastern Germany, including
Berlin being split into wester and eastern sides despite being in Soviet Union territory (Rosenberg).
Rosenberg, Jennifer. "All About the Rise and Fall of the Berlin Wall." About.com Education. Web. 15 Jan.
2016.
• Kennan and Containment 1947
• Used against the Soviet Union during the Cold War (lasting from 1947-1989), containment was a policy
drafted by career Foreign Service Officer George F. Kennan to prevent Soviet expansion through “adroit
and vigilant application of counter-force at a series of constantly shifting geographical and political
points corresponding to…Soviet policy” (“Kennan and Containment”).

2. "Kennan and Containment, 1947." Kennan and Containment, 1947 - 1945–1952 - Milestones - Office of
the Historian. Web. 15 Jan. 2016.
• Khrushchev and the Twentieth Congress of the Communist Party 1956
• Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev addressed communist leaders at the Twentieth Congress of the
Communist Party of the Soviet Union on February 1956, condemning Stalin’s policies leading to reforms
in Eastern Europe and new policy in handling Western Powers and Soviet Union relations
(“Khrushchev”).
• Georgi Malenkov, Lavrenti Beria, Vyascheslav Molotov, and Nikita Khrushchev led the Soviet Union in
1953 after Stalin’s death, with Beria (who headed the KGB) planned for execution by the other three,
with Malenkov resigned when Khrushchev gained enough power by 1955 to become the main leader
(“Khrushchev”).
• A Party Congress, consisting of 1,500 Communist leaders from 56 countries, had it’s twenty meeting in
Moscow on February 14, 1956, meeting every four years to discuss policies and ideology, with
Khrushchev later delivering his address on renouncing Stalin’s deeds (“Khrushchev”).
• Khrushchev then proposed decentralization, and supported peaceful coexistence, with this speech later
being leaked to the New York Times by US CIA chief Allen Dulles with the approval of President
(“Khrushchev”). The speech set off grassroots movement for democratic reforms in Eastern Europe,
with protests in Poland and Hungary in 1956 (“Khrushchev”).
"Khrushchev and the Twentieth Congress of the Communist Party, 1956." Khrushchev and the Twentieth
Congress of the Communist Party, 1956 - 1953–1960 - Milestones - Office of the Historian. Web. 16 Jan.
2016.
• USAID and PL-480, 1961-1968
• Kennedy passed the Foreign Assistance Act of 1961 in September 1961 which allowed for the
creation of an agency that coordinated foreign assistance; the Agency for International Development
(AID) formed by Executive Order 10973 to disburse capital and technical assistance to nations in need
(“USAID”).
• AID was Kennedy’s vision in cultivating social, political, and economic development to the receiving
nations (“USAID”).
• Food aid was also one of Kennedy’s objectives, with President Eisenhower first mandating the
Agricultural Trade Development and Assistance Act of 1954 or the Food for Peace being the first
permanent program in the US to coordinate and distribute commodities, with the Public Law 480 being
passed to give surplus commodities to allied nations (“USAID”).
• Kennedy launched the Executive Order 10915, and had George McGovern be the Food for Peace
Director to coordinate different agency that assisted the program, such as aID, Department of State,
and Department of Agriculture with the intent to mitigate malnutrition in foreign nations (“USAID”).
• Johnson also bolstered the Food for Peace program for humanitarian reasons, however modofied it to
with the conditions that the receiving nations must have agriculture reforms that will aid in the economic
development of the nations as outlined in the Food for Peace Act of 1966 (“USAID”).
• Detente and Arms Control 1969 - 1979
• Due to the strain with Sino-Soviet split on the Soviet Union, and the difficulties of the Vietnam War on
United States, the two opposing powers ended up signing the Nuclear Nonproliferation Treaty in 1968,
the Antiballistic Missile Treaty in the Strategic Arms Limitations Talks in 1972, with the Helsinki Final Act
then being signed in 1975, however this detente was short-lived as competition reignited when Soviet
Union invaded Afghanistan in 1979 (“Detente and Arms”).
"Détente and Arms Control, 1969–1979." Détente and Arms Control, 1969–1979 - 1969–1976 -
Milestones - Office of the Historian. Web. 16 Jan. 2016.
Alliances, Plans, and Treaties

3. • Morgenthau Plan 1944
• First proposed by Henry Morgenthau, who was the secretary of treasury during the Roosevelt
administration and only Jew in Roosevelt’s cabinet, he spent evelyn years helping stabilize the US
dollar, finance the “New Deal” and war effort through selling war bonds, and preparing the Us Economy
for war, he later resigned due to differences with President Truman (“Henry Morganteau”).
• He played a more active role in the late 1930’s with Jewish issues, suggesting rescue plans for Jewish
refugees, later being accompanied with Treasury official John peel, and Randolph Paul to urge
Roosevelt to focus more on rescuing Jews, leading to the establishment of the War Refugee Board on
January 22, 1944 (“Henry Morganteau”).
• Morgenthau Plan later devised, suggesting for Germany to be partitioned, dismantling certain German
industries—an altered version of this plan was signed by Churchill and Roosevelt in September 1944 at
the Second Quebec Conference (“Henry Morganteau”).
• The Joint Chiefs of Staff Directive was influenced by this plan, it ensured that German living
standards will be reduced so another war will not reemerge, along with probating the German
agricultural sector from receiving assistance, and oil, rubber, merchant ships and aircraft production
being banned (“Henry Morganteau”).
"Henry Morgenthau." United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. United States Holocaust Memorial
Council, 18 Aug. 2015. Web. 15 Jan. 2016.
• Marshall Plan 1948-1951
• The Marshall Plan, or European Recovery Program, aided in the economic recovery of Europe by the
US funding $13 billion dollars between 1948 and 1951, and influenced the European economy by
promoting public organization of the private economy—Russia along with it’s satellite states did not
participate (“Marshall Plan”).
"Marshall Plan." History.com. A&E Television Networks. Web. 16 Jan. 2016.
• NATO 1949
• In 1949, Western Nations formed the North Atlantic Treaty Organization to combat the spread of
communism, with the Soviet Union and their allies creating the Warsaw Pact in retaliation (“Formation of
NATO”).
• Foreign ministers from 12 North American and Western European countries arrived in Washington, DC
on April 4, 1949 to sign the alliance. Belgium, Britain, Canada, Denmark, France (which rejoined in 1995
after leaving and taking it’s military forces in 1966), Iceland, Italy, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Norway,
Portugal, and the US were the original members of NATO, with more members joining throughout the
course of 40 years as they allied against the USSR—in 1952, Greece and Turkey joined, followed by
West Germany in 1955, and Spain in 1982 (“Formation of NATO”).
"Formation of NATO and Warsaw Pact." History.com. A&E Television Networks. Web. 15 Jan. 2016.
• Warsaw Pact
• Created six years after the formation of NATO in response to West Germany joining the NATO and
being allowed to form it’s own military—the Warsaw Pact included Albania, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia,
East Germany, Hungary, Poland and Romania,lasting until the dismantlement of communist
governments in 1989 and 1990 (“Formation of NATO”).
• The Warsaw Pact was a way for USSR to have greater control of it’s state and prevent their lands from
gaining autonomy, using military force under the guise of the Warsaw Pact to crush rebellions
(“Formation of NATO”).
"Formation of NATO and Warsaw Pact." History.com. A&E Television Networks. Web. 15 Jan. 2016.
• The Acheson-Lilienthal & Baruch Plans 1946

4. • Presented by US representative Bernard Baruch on June 14, 1946m a plan for creating an international
Atomic Development Authority was formed called the “Baruch Plan” to keep nuclear power between
nations in check (“The Acheson-Lilienthal & Baruch Plans”).
• Atomic power was first discussed between US, Great Britain, and Soviet Union representatives during
the Conference of Foreign Ministers of 1945; the UNAEC was later created on January 24, 1946 with
six permanent members from US, Britain, France, Soviet Union, China, and Canda and six rotating
members (“The Acheson-Lilienthal & Baruch Plans”).
• Another committee was created by US Secretary of State James Byrnes consisting of Under-Secretary
of State Dean Acheson, and Chairman of the Tennessee Valley Authority David Lilienthal who later gave
the Acheson-Lilienthal report (written mainly by Robert Oppenheimer) to create an Atomic Development
Authority to “oversee the mining and use of fissile materials, the operation of all nuclear facilities that
could produce weaponry, and the right to dispense licenses to those countries wishing to pursue
peaceful nuclear research” (“The Acheson-Lilienthal & Baruch Plans”).
• Baruch, appointed American delegate to the UNAEC, presented this report but with modifications: The
ADA will supervise the use and development of atomic energy, “manage any nuclear installation with
the ability to produce nuclear weapons, and inspect any nuclear facility conducting research for
peaceful purposes”, also prohibiting illegal possession of an atomic bomb, seizing ADA-administered
facilities, and punishing those interfering with inspections, with ADA answering only to the Security
Council, and all UN Security Council members losing their veto power in regards to UN sanctions
against nations participating in banned activities—the Baruch Plan, once pursued, will then lead to US
destroying their nuclear weapons (“The Acheson-Lilienthal & Baruch Plans”).
• Soviet Union opposed the plan since it meant Soviet nuclear facilities can be inspected, veto power will
be lost, and the US will haven nuclear monopoly (“The Acheson-Lilienthal & Baruch Plans”). The
Baruch Plan, which could only pass with unanimous voting, failed to pass due to Poland and the Soviet
Union abstaining from voting (“The Acheson-Lilienthal & Baruch Plans”).
"The Acheson-Lilienthal & Baruch Plans, 1946." The Acheson-Lilienthal & Baruch Plans, 1946. Web. 15
Jan. 2016.
• The Truman Doctrine 1947
• Under President Harry S Truman, US will provide political, military, and economic support to democratic
nations under threat, being proposed after Britain withdrew it’s assistance to Greece, with Congress
giving 400 million worth of aid to Greek and Turkish governments and dispatching American personnel
and equipment, motivating primary by stopping the spread of communism and redirecting the US
Foreign Policy away from it’s former policy of non-involvement (“The Truman Doctrine”).
"The Truman Doctrine, 1947." The Truman Doctrine, 1947 - 1945–1952 - Milestones - Office of the
Historian. Web. 15 Jan. 2016.
• National Security Act 1947
• Created to reorganize US approach to foreign policy and military establishment of US Government,
creating institutions like the National Security Council, Defense Intelligence Agency, and Central
Intelligence Agency (“National Security Act”).
• Council consisted of the President, Vice President, Secretary of State, Secretary of Defense as primary
members meeting to discuss national security crises both immediate and long-term, with each President
using the NSC in various ways (“National Security Act”).
"National Security Act of 1947 - 1945–1952 - Milestones - Office of the Historian." National Security Act of
1947. Web. 15 Jan. 2016.
• NSC-68 1950

5. • Paul Nitze, who led the Policy Planning Staff, reviewed the U.S. national security strategy on the
request of Secretary of State Dean Acheson by revising the National Security Council Paper stating
that the Soviet Union is in opposition to United State’s ideology, and wha the US should due to handle
relations with the Soviet Union such as either pursuing isolationism (rejected due to the possibility of
Soviet Union being able to control Eurasia), war (rejected due to being unsupported by the public),
negotiation, or aggrandize the “political, economic, and military strength of the free world” (“NSC-68,
1950”). The last suggestion won favor, with President Truman building conventional and nuclear arms in
to protect the US and Western Allies from the Soviet Union, with defense spending tripling between
1950-1953 (“NSC-68, 1950”)
"NSC-68, 1950." NSC-68, 1950 - 1945–1952 - Milestones - Office of the Historian. Web. 16 Jan. 2016.
• Australia, New Zealand, and United States Security Treaty (ANZUS Treaty) 1951
• Australia and New Zealand (territories belonging to the British Empire) entered WWII once Britain
started participating, with Australia getting air raids from Japan in 1942 and 1943, with Australia and
New Zealand protection by Britain being questioned after the loss of Singapore to Japan (“Australia,
New Zealand”).
• Australia and New Zealand sought security through a tripartite treaty between US, Australia and New
Zealand on April 1951, with the Southeast Asian Treaty Organization later being form to include those
in ANZUS along with Britain, France, and other Asian powers (“Australia, New Zealand”).
• In 1986 US ended it’s part of the ANZUS Treaty to New Zealand, due to New Zealand not allowing US
nuclear-powered submarines to go to it’s ports in 1984 when New Zealand declared it’s self a nuclear-
free zone (“Australia, New Zealand”).
"The Australia, New Zealand and United States Security Treaty (ANZUS Treaty), 1951 - 1945–1952 -
Milestones - Office of the Historian." The Australia, New Zealand and United States Security Treaty
(ANZUS Treaty), 1951. Web. 16 Jan. 2016.
• The Immigration and Nationality Act of 1952 (McCarran-Walter Act)
• Revised the immigration system to give preferential treatment on skill sets and reuniting families with
alterations being made due to examining the relationship between immigration and foreign policy along
with how immigration links to national security (“The Immigration”).
• New York Democrat Congressman Emanuel Celler led a group advocating liberating immigration laws,
saying that the quota system gave special treatment to Northern and Western European immigrants,
which made immigrants from other regions susceptible to resentment, stating that the law made Asians
seem inferior compared to Europeans (“The Immigration”).
• Nevada Democratic Senator Pat McCarran and Democratic Congressman Francis Walter from
Pennsylvania thought the immigration meant a spread of communism, promoting a more restrictive
immigration for the sake of national security and interests (“The Immigration”).
• Due to the nature of the Cold War, economic concerns regarding immigration took a backseat (in
contrast to how economic factors were important in the past); the Act carried over the system in the
National Origins Quota System, yet changed the national quota to one-sixth of one percent of each
nationality’s population, leading to more than 80% of annual visas being given to those of northern and
western European roots (“The Immigration”).
• Although the Immigration and Nationality Act repealed the exclusion against Asians, it was still
discriminatory, basing quota on race instead of nationality making immigration limited (“The
Immigration”).
• Truman saw the laws to be discriminatory against Asians, but Congress overrode his veto—the
immigration acts of today still practice what was implemented then, such as preferring those that have
certain skills and have family members residing in the US, but created the labor certification system to
avoid unwanted competition with American workers (“The Immigration”).

6. "The Immigration and Nationality Act of 1952." The Immigration and Nationality Act of 1952. Web. 16 Jan.
2016.
• Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO) 1954
• Consisting of US, France, Great Britain, New Zealand, Australia, the Philippines, Thailand, and
Pakistan, the SEATO was created on September 1954 (“Southeast Asia Treaty”).
• Creating to prevent communism from spreading to Southeast Asia, had only two Southeast Asian
countries (Philippines and Thailand) joining that were worried about communist insurgencies, with
Vietnam, Cambodia, and Laos being unable to join due to the Geneva Agreements of 1954 (however
they later joined as “observers”) (“Southeast Asia Treaty”).
• SEATO Charter used to justify US actions to divide communist North Vietnam and South Vietnam
instead of unifying Vietnam and proceeding with the 1956 elections that were promised, with the
addition of Vietnam to SEATO later also being used by the US as an excuse to be involved in Vietnam
affairs (“Southeast Asia Treaty”).
• SEATO had no means to get intelligence or use military forces, only having consultations along with the
linguistic/cultural differences making communication and finalizing goals difficult (“Southeast Asia
Treaty”).
• Pakistan and France did not support US intervention in Vietnam, and left the organization in the 1970s,
and SEATO later disbanding when the Vietnam War ended in 1975, since the core reason for it’s
existence was to deal with Vietnam (“Southeast Asia Treaty”).
"Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO), 1954." Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO), 1954
- 1953–1960 - Milestones - Office of the Historian. Web. 16 Jan. 2016.
• US - China Ambassadorial Talks 1955 - 1970
• The repatriation of nationals and other issues were discussed in Geneva on August 1, 1955 between
the US and PRC, wit the US being represented by Czechoslovakia U. Alexis Johnson, and Poland
Wang Binan representing the Chinese Ambassador (“US - China”).
• After the Chinese Communists won in 1949 and the Korean War occurred in 1950, people were denied
or arrested to leave China that were from the US when the US did not recognize PRC, in return, the US
issued a “state of emergency” and didn’t let Chinese students, scholars, or those possessing technical
skills from returning to China (“US - China”).
• On September 10, 1955, both nations agreed to have their respective citizens return freely to their
homelands, with a third party being included if a return was unjustly blocked—the Indian Embassy
helping the Chinese in the US, and the British Embassy helping the Americans in China (“US - China”).
• Disagreements occurred when US refused to lift the US embargo on China until US citizens were
returned to America, with accusations being exchanged (“US - China”).
• US also refused to lift the embargo and have meetings with China until China renounced its declaration
on using force to unify Taiwan and the mainland, with talks continuing for the next 16 years and 136
meetings taking place without making progress (“US - China”).
• President Nixon visiting China, and eventually recognizing the PRC opened up possibilities of
negotiation between the two countries, lessening tension in East Asia (“US - China”).
"U.S.-China Ambassadorial Talks, 1955–1970 - 1953–1960 - Milestones - Office of the Historian." U.S.-
China Ambassadorial Talks, 1955. Web. 16 Jan. 2016.
• The Baghdad Pact (1955) and the Central Treaty Organization (CENTO)
• Molded after NATO and SEATO, the Baghdad Pact (later renamed Central Treaty Organization) united
Turkey, Iraq, Great Britain, Pakistan, and Iran into an organization in 1955 to discuss political, military
and economic goals (“The Baghdad Pact”).
• An attempt was made to ally Israel with Western powers, so US wanted to create an alliance between
the Northern Their (the countries that bordered the USSR and Middle East) with Turkey (southernmost
nation in NATO) being allied with Pakistan (Westermost nation in SEATO)(“The Baghdad Pact”).

7. • Turkey and Pakistan signed a pact of mutual cooperation in Baghdad in February 1955 while allowing
other countries to join, following their agreement in 1954 to focus on stabilizing the region (“The
Baghdad Pact”).
• Eventually the UK joined the pact, then Pakistan, and Iran and the US joined as an observer (“The
Baghdad Pact”).
• When the Suez Canal was seized by Egyptian leader Gamal Abdel Nasser in 1956, Israel invaded the
Sinai peninsula (with Britain and France intervening)—this damaged both Britain’s reputation in the
“Northern Tier” and it’s position in the pact (“The Baghdad Pact”). Other events happened that
weakened the pact as a whole, with the Egyptian-Syrian union, Iraqi revolution and unrest in Lebanon
threatening stability, with the US later implementing the Eisen Hower Doctrine to intervene in Lebanon,
which was unsupported by Iraq who later left the organization in 1959 leading to the formation of
CENTO (“The Baghdad Pact”).
• US, still not part of CENTO, signed bilateral military aid treaties with Iran, Turkey, and Pakistan, with the
CENTO headquarters being in Ankara, Turkey, and Iran’s withdrawal from the group happening in 1979
after the Iranian revolution, and Pakistan leaving when the organization proved unhelpful in security,
and later disbanding altogether in 1979 (“The Baghdad Pact”).
"The Baghdad Pact (1955) and the Central Treaty Organization (CENTO)." The Baghdad Pact (1955) and
the Central Treaty Organization (CENTO). Web. 16 Jan. 2016.
• Eisenhower Doctrine 1957
• Stated that a country can receive economic assistance or military aid if threatened by another state from
America, the passage of this doctrine being precipitated by the Middle East hostilities and increasing
Soviet influence in the Middle East after the Suez Crisis—Lebanon President Camille Chamoun
contacted US for help under the Eisenhower Doctrine for assistance against Chamoun’s political rivals
that had communist backgrounds, with US troops later aiding Chamoun (“Eisenhower Doctrine”).
"The Eisenhower Doctrine, 1957." The Eisenhower Doctrine, 1957 - 1953–1960 - Milestones - Office of
the Historian. Web. 16 Jan. 2016.
• Alliance for Progress and Peace Corps 1961-1969
• US gave $20 billion in assistance to Latin American governments in order for Latin American
governments providing $80 billion towards investment funds for their own economies, signaling US
biggest aid program, and leading to reforms in Latin American institutions, however Latin American poor
only benefitted from 2 percent economic growth (“Alliance for Progress”).
• Peace Corps later established in 1961 (“Alliance for Progress”).
"Alliance for Progress and Peace Corps, 1961–1969." Alliance for Progress and Peace Corps, 1961–1969
- 1961–1968 - Milestones - Office of the Historian. Web. 17 Jan. 2016.
• Limited Test Ban Treaty 1963
• Negotiations began between United States, Great Britain and the Soviet Union concerning the test ban
treaty in 1958, with Kennedy creating the Arms Control and Disarmament Agency in 1961, with
negotiations being sought a year after due to France and China exploding their own atomic bombs
along wit the Cuban Missile Crisis that led to the 1963 Test Ban Treaty that banned nuclear testing in
the atmosphere, space, or underwater (“The Limited Test”).
"The Limited Test Ban Treaty, 1963." The Limited Test Ban Treaty, 1963 - 1961–1968 - Milestones - Office
of the Historian. Web. 17 Jan. 2016.
• Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty 1968
• signed in 1968 by both nuclear and non-nuclear powers to cooperate in maintaining the spread of
nuclear technology to prevent proliferation (“The Nuclear”).

8. "The Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT), 1968." The Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT), 1968 -
1961–1968 - Milestones - Office of the Historian. Web. 17 Jan. 2016.
• Strategic Arms Limitations Talks/Treaty (SALT) 1 and II
• Upon learning that the Soviet Union has been building an Intercontinental Ballistic Missile (ICBM),
along with building a limited Anti-Ballistic Missile (ABM) defense system around Moscow, US
President Lyndon Johnson initiated the strategic arms limitations talks (SALT) with Johnson and Soviet
Premier Alexei Kosygin meeting at Glassboro State College in New Jersey in 1967 to limit defensive
and offensive system in order to restore relations between the US and Soviet Union (“Strategic Arms”).
• Nixon began another SALT talk on November 17, 1969 in Helsinki, Finland on if ABM plans should be
completed, concerns of Soviets building Submarine-Launched Ballistic Missles (SLBMs), with Nixon
and Soviet General Secretary Leonid Brezhnev signing the ABM Treaty and SALT agreement on May
26, 1972 in Moscow (“Strategic Arms”).
• The second SALT negotiations began in 1972, focusing on the limitation and reduction of MIRVs
(Multiple Independently Targeted Re-Entry Vehicles) throughout the Nixon, Ford, and Carter
administrations (“Strategic Arms”).
• Reagan, who opposed SALT II, followed the terms until it expired on December 31, 1985, choosing to
follow the Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty (START) instead, and researching in to the Strategic
Defense Initiative (SDI) (“Strategic Arms”).
"Strategic Arms Limitations Talks/Treaty (SALT) I and II - 1969–1976." Strategic Arms Limitations Talks/
Treaty (SALT) I and II - 1969–1976 - Milestones - Office of the Historian. Web. 17 Jan. 2016.
• Political and Security Relations between US and Western Europe 1977-1981
• The US was able to accept the movement of Eurocommunism, which had communist countries working
with their own national systems and some using ruling coalition governments, focusing instead on
terrorist threats (“Policy and Security”).
• The Soviet Union began deploying intermediate-range ballistic missiles (IRBMs) in Eastern Europe in
1977, with Carter creating enhanced radiation weapons (ERWs) or neutron bombs, with then negative
public reaction causing Carter to end production of ERWs in 1978—NATO countries then began
deploying Pershing II and cruise missiles and trying to get the Soviet Union to reduce its nuclear forces
to counter the IRBM threat in Western Europe (“Policy and Security”).
• Missiles were deployed into Germany and Italy (“Policy and Security”).
• Spain and Portugal, first feared by the US to be taken over my Communism, later entered democracies
and received US support along with Lisbon and Madrid (“Policy and Security”).
• Terrorism sprung in Wester Europe through Baader Meinhof Group in West Germany, the Red Brigades
in Italy, and Euzkadi ta Azkatasuna in Spain who target European business and military personnel, and
later US government officials—US and Wester powers then worked together to mitigate terrorism
(“Policy and Security”).
• The hostage crisis in 1979 (Iranian forces took more than 60 US diplomats hostage after entering the
US Embassy in Tehran) strained relationships between the US and European leaders over how to
handle Iran, same tensions arose with how to treat Moscow after the Soviet Union intervened in
Afghanistan (“Policy and Security”).
• Soviet Union’s invasion of Afghanistan increased tension between the US and Soviet Union, reigniting
the Cold War (“Policy and Security”).
• North-South Dialogue and Economic Diplomacy
• Asian, African, and Latin American nations that newly received independence began negotiating with
industrializated countries to discuss the international economic system of the 1970s (“North-South
Dialogue”).
• United Nation members rose to 150 by 1979, with the United Nations Conference on Trade and
Development (UNCTAD) being created in 1964 as a forum to discuss policies with third world nations
(termed “south”) with the “north” industrial democracies (“North-South Dialogue”).

9. • The international economic system was proposed to be modify due to it previously benefitting
developed countries at the developing world’s expense, with “trade and tariffs, international finance,
foreign aid, and the governance of multinational companies and institutions” discussed in the dialogue
(“North-South Dialogue”).
• However development issues were tossed on the wayside as the Cold War marched on, focus being
placed on having resources supplement respective powers participation in the Cold War, with no
solutions be implemented in the developing world, however it did help unify the Southern nations
(“North-South Dialogue”).
• US - Soviet Relations 1981- 1991
• On January 1981, Ronald Reagon became president who immediately started modernizing US nuclear
and conventional forces to lessen communism in South America, Africa, and South Asia, writing to
Soviet Leaders Leonid Breshnev, Yuri Andropov, and Konstantin Cherneko to negotiate arms
reductions, lifting the embargo on grain to foster good faith, however Soviet’s declaration of Martial law
on Poland in December 1981 led to economic sanctions being placed on Moscow (“Us - Soviet
Relations”).
• The Strategic Defense Initiative (Star Wars) was introduced during Reagon’s first term, and the Soviets
also shown down Korean Airlines Flight 007 in 1983, with Soviets walking about of Geneva arms control
talks as NATO began to create intermediate-range nuclear missiles in Western Europe (“Us - Soviet
Relations”).
• Mikhail Gorbachev was appointed as General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union in
March 1985, finally opening an opportunity to negotiate with the Soviet Union with summits and
meetings following, with the singing of the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty on December
1987 to get rid of a class of missiles, with Bush later reassessing the US objectives and finally the fall of
the Berlin Wall and reunification of Germany being discussed between NATO including Gorbachev
resulting in the Conventional Forces in Europe Treaty and the Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty for
democratically-elected governments to emerge in countries—US-Soviet relations began to improve (“Us
- Soviet Relations”).
• The Invasion of Kuwait by Saddam Hussein in August 1990 signified this when Gorbachev refused to
use force against Saddam, and did not interfere with Washington (“Us - Soviet Relations”).
• New president Boris Yeltsin supported Russian independence and dissolution of Soviet Union, and after
talks between Bush and Gorbachev address the US to announce that the Soviet Union was officially
dissolved (“Us - Soviet Relations”).
"U.S.-Soviet Relations, 1981–1991." U.S.-Soviet Relations, 1981–1991 - 1981–1988 - Milestones - Office
of the Historian. Web. 17 Jan. 2016.
Events
• Nuremberg Trial and Tokyo War Crimes Trials (1945 - 1948)
• France, Soviet Union, UK, and US established the International Military Tribunal (IMT) in Nuremberg,
Germany to prosecute war criminals of WWII, such as Nazi leaders and organizations, with another
International Military Tribunal for the Far East (IMTFE) also created in Tokyo, Japan (“The
Nuremberg Trial”).
• The 1942 St. James Declaration had US, Australia, Canada, China, India, New Zealand, Union of South
Africa, Soviet Union, and German-occupied countries (nine exiled governments) condemning Germany,
prosecuting those who either gave orders, perpetuated orders, or participated in them (“The Nuremberg
Trial”).
• A 1945 London Agreement was signed by the four Allies, with Australia, Belgium, Czechoslovakia,
Denmark, Ethiopia, Greece, Haiti, Honduras, India, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, New Zealand,
Norway, Panama, Paraguay, Poland, Uruguay, and Yugoslavia adhering to the agreement (“The
Nuremberg Trial”).

10. • Additionally, the Charter of the International Military Tribunal (Nuremberg Charter) was included to
the London Agreement, outlining the constitution, functions, and jurisdiction, along with having one
judge (with an accompanying prosecution team) from each of the four Allied powers, with the capacity to
punish those that did the following crimes:
• “(a) Crimes Against Peace: namely, planning, preparation, initiation or waging of a war of aggression,
or a war in violation of international treaties, agreements or assurances, or participation in a Common
Plan or Conspiracy for the accomplishment of any of the foregoing;
• (b) War Crimes: namely, violations of the laws or customs of war. Such violations shall include, but
not be limited to, murder, ill-treatment or deportation to slave labor or for any other purpose of civilian
population of or in occupied territory, murder or ill-treatment of prisoners of war or persons on the seas,
killing of hostages, plunder of public or private property, wanton destruction of cities, towns, or villages,
or devastation not justified by military necessity;
• (c) Crimes Against Humanity: namely, murder, extermination, enslavement, deportation, and other
inhumane acts committed against any civilian population, before or during the war, or persecutions on
political, racial, or religious grounds in execution of or in connection with any crime within the jurisdiction
of the Tribunal, whether or not in violation of domestic law of the country where perpetrated.” (“The
Nuremberg Trial”)
• 22 senior German leaders (political and military) such as Hermann Goering. Rudolph Hess, Joachim
von Ribbentrop, Alfred Rosenberg, and Albert Speer were indicted, along with seven Nazi organizations
—the Nuremberg Trial went from November 1945 - October 1946, with 19 defendants guilty and
punished by either death by hanging or a 15 year prison sentence; the Leadership Corps of the Nazi
party, the elite “SS” unit, and the Nazy security police (SD and Gestapo) were judged as criminal
organizations (“The Nuremberg Trial”).
• On July 1945, China, the UK, and US signed the Potsdam Declaration in which Japanese war
criminals were tried and Japan had to agree to “unconditional surrender” (“The Nuremberg Trial”).
• Those signing Japan’s terms of surrender (Australia, Canada, China. France, India, the Netherlands,
Philippines, the Soviet Union, UK, and US) had, like the IMT, one judge with an accompanying
prosecution team, trying criminals with Crimes Against Peace, War Crimes, and Crimes Against
Humanity (“The Nuremberg Trial”).
• The IMTFE judged crimes from the Japanese Invasion of Manchuria in 1931 to Japan’s surrender in
1945 (“The Nuremberg Trial”).
• Nine Japanese political leaders, and 18 military leaders were prosecuted, with the Japanese Emperor
Hirohito and those in the family not indicted, even being about to maintain his throne (“The Nuremberg
Trial”).
• From May 1946 - November 1948 the Tokyo War Crimes Trials took place, with all defendants guilty
and either being executed or having a seven-year imprisonment sentence, with two defendants dying
during trial (“The Nuremberg Trial”).
• Other war criminals were tried through domestic courts or the singled Allied powers operating their own
tribunal (“The Nuremberg Trial”).
• These tribunals were the first time mention of “war crimes” and “crimes against humanity” have been
used in terminology, and helped craft international criminal law (“The Nuremberg Trial”).
"The Nuremberg Trial and the Tokyo War Crimes Trials (1945–1948)." The Nuremberg Trial and the Tokyo
War Crimes Trials (1945–1948) - 1945–1952 - Milestones - Office of the Historian. Web. 15 Jan. 2016.
• Occupation and Reconstruction of Japan (1945 - 52)
• General Douglas A. MacArthur led US forces between 1945 - 1952 in military, political, economic and
social reforms to help rebuild Japan as outlined by Great Britain, Soviet Union, Republic of Chia, and
the United States in wartime conferences (“Occupation and Reconstruction of Japan”).
• MacArthur had the final authority, leading the Supreme Command of Allied Powers (SCAP) by first
punishing and reforming Japan, revival of Japanese economy, and then forming peace treaties and
alliances (“Occupation and Reconstruction of Japan”).

11. • Land reform was introduced (benefiting tenant farmers), the emperor lost his status and a parliamentary
system was placed, with offensive armed forces being dismantled when eliminating Japans right to
wage war, and having more rights and privileges for women, however economic challenges were faced
and soon rectified through the Korean War: Japan later being a “principal supply depot for UN
forces” (“Occupation and Reconstruction of Japan”).
• MacArthur’s reconstruction ended with peace treaties and agreements to have US keep their Okinawa
bases (along with other Japanese bases) and a bilateral security pact, which was later signed by 49
nations in San Francisco on September 1951 (“Occupation and Reconstruction of Japan”).
"Occupation and Reconstruction of Japan, 1945–52." Occupation and Reconstruction of Japan, 1945–52
- 1945–1952 - Milestones - Office of the Historian. Web. 15 Jan. 2016.
• The Berlin Airlift 1948-1949
• Western side of Berlin was controlled by US, UK, and France with the Soviet Union controlling the
eastern side—as hostilities between the Western Allies and Soviet Union mounted, the problem of who
controls the western portion of Berlin (because Berlin is technically within Soviet Union area occupation,
just split due to it being capital) led to the Berlin crisis which began on June 24, 1948 when Soviet
forces blocked water, rail, and road access to Western Berlin (“The Berlin Airlift”). Due to these
blockades, UK and US airlifted supplies (food and fuel) to Berlin from allied airbases in western
Germany, with the crisis then ending on May 12, 1949 when the blockades became lifted by the Soviets
(“The Berlin Airlift”).
• Berlin still faced issues such as Allied bombing destroying the city, having little shelter and wmarth, and
a economically dominate black market along with possible starvation (“The Berlin Airlift”).
• Bizonia was later formed by unifying US and UK zones in Germany on January 1, 1947, escalating
tensions between the two halves of Germany (“The Berlin Airlift”).
• In 1948 US, UK, and France secretly planned forming a new state with Western Germany leading to the
Soviets leaving the Allied Control Council (council that planned occupation policies) with the US and
British policymakers soon after using a new Deutschmark in Bizonia and West Berlin to gain economic
control, weaken the black market, and introduce the Marshall Plan with the Soviets introducing the
Ostmark, blocking road,rail and canal links to West Berlin in retaliation, ultimately cutting off West Berlin
from food, coal and electricity (“The Berlin Airlift”).
• These blockades is what resulted in the Western Allies using the air corridors (established to be left in
Western Allies control due to written agreements) to airlift supplies, under the plan of Operation Vittles
by the US on June 26, and Operation Plainfare by the UK on June 28 (“The Berlin Airlift”).
• Soviets would end blockade if the Deutschmark is no longer used as currency in West Berlin, with the
Allies rejecting this offer, strengthening the Allies resolve was the 300,000 West Berliners that stayed in
Reichstag to protest the Soviets (“The Berlin Airlift”).
• Berlin Airlifts became successful in spring 1949, with the blockades being lifted by Moscow on May 11,
1949, however two weeks after this West Germany and East Germany was created, dividing germany
(“The Berlin Airlift”).
"The Berlin Airlift, 1948–1949." The Berlin Airlift, 1948–1949 - 1945–1952 - Milestones - Office of the
Historian. Web. 15 Jan. 2016.
• Creation of Israel 1948
• President Harry S Truman recognized the new nation after the head of the Jewish Agency, David Ben-
Gurion proclaimed State of Israel on May 14, 1948, separating Palestine into a Jewish and an Arab
state under Resolution 181 (the Partition Resolution) by the United Nations on November 29, 1947
(“Creation of Israel”).
• The Balfour Declaration of 1917, supported by the US, stated the formation of a Jewish national
area in Palestine but wouldn’t be established unless the Jews and Arabs of that region were first
consulted, as confirmed by President Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1945 (“Creation of Israel”).

12. • The British opposed this potential establishment, seeing as how it had a colonial mandate for
Palestine until May 1948 due to wanting to maintain diplomatic relations with Arabs and protect it’s
interests in Palestine (“Creation of Israel”).
• Assistant Secretary of State dr. Henry F. Grady led a committee (formed by President Truman) that
studied the Palestinian issue in 1946, who also negotiated with a British version of this committee that
suggested creating a Jewish state and putting 100,000 displaced people in Palestine—this was
declared by Truman on May 1946 (“Creation of Israel”).
• This United Nations Special Commission on Palestine, during 1947, later had Palestine partitions into
a Jewish and Arab state in Resolution 181, with religious areas near Jerusalem being in corpus
separatum—however, many issues arose with Arab states threatening physical force, with tension
being between the Palestinian Arabs and Palestinian Jews (“Creation of Israel”).
"Creation of Israel, 1948." Creation of Israel, 1948 - 1945–1952 - Milestones - Office of the Historian.
Web. 15 Jan. 2016.
• The Arab-Israeli War of 1948
• After Israel was established, war began with five Arab nations invading the region—Palestinian Arabs
saw the partition act as favoring Jews but mistreating Arabs, with Palestinian Arabs joining the Arab
Liberation Army (comprised of Palestinian and other Arabian countries) to attack Jewish forces,
settlements, and cities with the Haganah (underground Jewish militia in Palestine) and Irgun and LEHI
fighting back (“The Arab-Israeli War”).
• The Arabs did not want a Jewish state and the Partition Resolution to pass, with the Jews wanting the
territory promised in the resolution (“The Arab-Israeli War”).
• After the Tel Aviv air attack by Arabs, Egyptian, Iraqi, Syrian, and Lebanese Arabian armies invaded the
area, with Israeli forces (supported by British forces) providing offensive (“The Arab-Israeli War”).
• Armistice agreements lasting until 1967 were later made between Israel, Egypt, Lebanon, Transjordan,
and Syria, with Israel gaining some of it’s allotted territory given to Palestinian Arabs, and Egypt and
Jordan controlling the Gaza Strip and West Bank (“The Arab-Israeli War”).
"The Arab-Israeli War of 1948." The Arab-Israeli War of 1948 - 1945–1952 - Milestones - Office of the
Historian. Web. 16 Jan. 2016.
• Chinese Revolution of 1949
• Communist leader Mao Zedong announced the official establishment of People’s Republic of China
(PRC) on October 1, 1949, ending the civil war between the Nationalist Party (Kuomintang, KMT) and
Chinese Communist Party that occurred after WWII and intermittently continued before since the 1920’s
(“The Chinese Revolution of 1949”).
• China first fell to communism and established as the Republic of China after the end of the Quing
Dynasty (ending the imperial system as well) after revolutions in southern China in the Chinese
Revolution of 1911. However, the end of the Qing dynasty exasperated the lack of unification in
China (which already experienced territorial loss from Britain in the Opium Wars losing Hong Kong,
and from Japan through the Sino-Japanese Wars losing Manchuria and Taiwan) gave way to warlords
taking over territories, yet eventually managed to have diplomatic relations first with the US in 1913,
and then Britain, Japan, and Russia (“The Chinese Revolution of 1911”).
• Once the People’s Republic of China was created under communism, US cut diplomatic ties in 1949
—this suspension lasted for decades (“The Chinese Revolution of 1949”).
• Chinese Communist Party was first a study group founded in 1921 in Shanghai working in the First
United Front with the Nationalist Party, and then joining the Nationalist Army in Northern Expedition of
1926-27 to eliminate the warlords until 1927 due to the “White Terror” when the Communists were
killed or purged by the Nationalists (“The Chinese Revolution of 1949”).
• The 1931 Japanese invasion of Manchuria meant Republic of China (ROC) had three threats:
Japanese invasion, uprising from Communists, and warlords (“The Chinese Revolution of 1949”).

13. • Chiang Kai-shek (the Nationalist leader at the time) focused on internal problems between the
Nationalists and Communists instead of Japan, with Communists spreading their influence after
abducting Chiang in 1937 and having him cooperate with the CCP (“The Chinese Revolution of
1949”).
• CCP gain success through land reform and fighting the Japanese, with Japanese surrender signaling
the civil war in China while Nationalist Government of Kai-shek—in an effort to mitigate communist
influence—got aid from the IS (“The Chinese Revolution of 1949”).
• Chiang Kai-shek met Mao Zedong to form a truce in 1945 that became ineffective—in 1946 civil war
was unleashed, with the communists on the winning end due to their “grassroots support, superior
military organization and morale, and large stocks of weapons”, while the Nationalist Government was
viewed as corrupt (“The Chinese Revolution of 1949”).
• Chiang later left to Taiwan once Zedong announced the People’s Republic of China; US relations with
PRC became distant especially once they were posed on opposite ends during the Korea War, with
Taiwan (Republic of China) being seen as “China’s true government” having the United Nations seat
for China (“The Chinese Revolution of 1949”).
"The Chinese Revolution of 1911.” The Chinese Revolution of 1911 - 1899–1913 - Milestones - Office of
the Historian. Web. 16 Jan. 2016.
”The Chinese Revolution of 1949." The Chinese Revolution of 1949 - 1945–1952 - Milestones - Office of
the Historian. Web. 16 Jan. 2016.
• Decolonization of Asia and Africa 1945 - 1960
• Three dozen Asian and African states become decolonized between 1945 - 1960 occurred during the
Cold War between the United States and Soviet Union, along with the developing United Nations which
was affected by the emergence of these new countries (“Decolonization of Asia and Africa”).
• European powers, seeing the natural resources, labor, and territory rife in African and Asian continents
began colonizing during the mid 19th century, resulting in boundaries that “divided ethnic and linguistic
groups and natural features” creating states that didn't have “geographic, linguistic, ethnic or political
affinity” (“Decolonization of Asia and Africa”).
• Japanese invasion during WWII took nations away from European rule, with the Japanese surrender
resulting in the nations fighting for independence instead of returning to European colonialism, such as
when Indonesia and French Indonesia had nationalists fight in guerrilla warfare (“Decolonization of Asia
and Africa”).
• US, although supporting national self-determination and decolonization, wanted to maintain good
relations with its European allies, especially during the Cold War when NATO allies wanted to keep their
colonized regions since they provided “economic and military strength” (“Decolonization of Asia and
Africa”).
• US gave independence to Philippines in 1946, encouraging other European imperial powers to also
decolonize (“Decolonization of Asia and Africa”).
• Truman and Eisenhower, during the Cold War, was worried about these decolonized nations from
European power because they could be claimed by the Soviet Union, so the US provided military
intervention, technical assistance, and aid packages to independent nations to development
Westernized governments with Soviet Union attempting to provide the same influence in burgeoning
countries to have communist governments, saying that communism is “non-imperialist” (“Decolonization
of Asia and Africa”).
• The decolonized countries faced issues springing from their colonial past that made them wary of
European government structure, ideas, and economics, however many joined the United Nations which
initially had 35 members in 1946, and then 127 by 1970 (“Decolonization of Asia and Africa”).
• These new nations had the UN create a committee focusing on colonialism, and having the UN accept
indolence resolutions for colonial states (“Decolonization of Asia and Africa”).
• The Korean War 1950-1953

14. • Reached an international level when first starting as a civil war between North and South Korea when
the United Nations supported South Korea, with the People’s Republic of China supporting North Korea
—the aftermath of this war had Korea divided, and a Cold War in Asia (“The Korean War”).
• Kingdom of Korea was seen as a tributary state by China for centuries, with the Korean Peninsula being
fought over by Japan and China in 1894, the Russo-Japanese War being fought in Korea, and Japan
(after defeating Russia) annexing Korea as a colony in 1910, ruling it until the end of WWII (“The
Korean War”).
• The United States, Great Britain and Republic of China discussed Korea’s future after WWII in Ciaro in
1943, with US getting surrender from Japanese troops south of the 38th parallel, and Soviet Union
receiving surrender from troops north of the 38th parallel, leading to the divide between North and
South Korea that was meant to be temporary—Korea was supposed to be reunified after elections
being supervised by the United Nations, however the Soviet Union blocked these elections through it’s
support of Kim IL Sung to lead Democratic People’s Republic of Korea, and Syngman Rhee being
backed by the United States for the Republic of Korea (“The Korean War”).
• Reunification negotiations continued, despite US and Soviet Union withdrawing their troops in 1949 due
to the UN agreement, with war beginning when DPRK attacked the ROK on June 25, 1950 when they
passed the demarcation line (“The Korean War”).
• DPRK invaded South Korea, these actions by DPRK being condemned by the Security Council and told
to leave the South, once the US alerted the UN Security Council upon hearing the attacks, creating it
into an international issue (“The Korean War”).
• The US, Australia, Belgium, Canada, Colombia, Ethiopia, France, Greece, Luxembourg, the Netherland,
New Zealand, the Philippines, South Africa, Thailand, Turkey, and the UK sent troops to South Korea,
with MacArthur later attempting to regain North Korea for reunification, but was warned by PRC that
they will intervene if the 38th parallel was crossed, upon recognizing the threat of the Chinese forces
they retreated (“The Korean War”).
• Stalemates were reached, and on July 27, 1953 the DPRK, PRC, and UN signed an armistice marking
the 38th parallel as a border between North and South Korea, with a demilitarized zone being placed
near the boundary—a mutual defense treaty was later drawn between the US and ROK (“The Korean
War”).
• Dien Bien Phu and Fall of French Indochina 1954
• French colonies (Vietnam, Cambodia, and Laos) were fighting French control in the late 1940s through
nationalist rebellions (“Dien Bien Phu”).
• The French garrison at Dien Bien Phu was taken over by Vietnamese nationalist Ho Chi Minh after four
months on May 7, 1954 with the French later leaving the region—the US eventually began focusing on
getting rid of communist influences by combatting nationalists in Indochina with the US stationing in
Vietnam for the next 20 years (“Dien Bien Phu”).
• During the mid-19th century Europe colonized Southeast Asia, with Japan later taking control of
Southeast Asia; after Japan’s surrender, these colonies previously occupied by Japan experienced a
wave of nationalism, refusing to revert back to being colonized (“Dien Bien Phu”).
• Laos later got independence in 1949, Cambodia in 1953, and France promised Vietnam independence
in 1949, but it was a partial independence since France still controlled Vietnamese defense and foreign
policy, and even tried to have emperor Bao Dai to control Vietnam who did not have public support and
was abdicated once again, being unable to be as popular as Ho Chi Minh (“Dien Bien Phu”)
• Ho Chi Minh led the North Vietnamese against US in 1960s, with war first breaking out against Ho Chi
Minh’s Viet Minh forces and French troops in 1946 in north Vietnam (“Dien Bien Phu”).
• Particular attention was paid by the US to Vietnam; because of the Southeast Asian nations receiving
independence with communist governments such as Malaya and the Philippines and People’s Republic
of China, President Eisenhower likened Vietnam’s leanings towards communism as a domino effect,
also the NATO alliance meant US needed to support France in maintaining it’s control of Indochina
(“Dien Bien Phu”).
• In 1954 the French were in Dien Bien Phu fighting Viet Minh and lost, after this the French and
Vietnamese along with US and China representatives met in mid-1954 in Geneva to negotiate

15. Indochina’s future—two agreements were made: first a cease-fire between French and Vietminh and
division of Vietnam along the 17th parallel were requested, with French being in the South and Ho Chi
Minh’s forces in the North, and secondly, neither will ally with other nations, with general elections being
held in 1956 (“Dien Bien Phu”).
• US ended up having its own government in South Vietnam, with Ngo Dinh Diem selected by the US to
govern South Vietnam (“Dien Bien Phu”)
"Dien Bien Phu & the Fall of French Indochina, 1954." Dien Bien Phu & the Fall of French Indochina,
1954 - 1953–1960 - Milestones - Office of the Historian. Web. 16 Jan. 2016.
• East German Uprising 1953
• Protests began in East Berlin against productivity demands on June 16, 1953 with almost a million East
Germans joining throughout Eastern Germany—taking advantage of this scenario, the US made an aid
program to give food to East Germans that continued until October 1953 (“The East German Uprising”).
• On May 1952, Western Allies signed the General Treaty and European Defense Community Treaty
which denied Stalin’s offer to unify Germany if Western Germany becomes disarmed; the signings of
these treaties led to Soviet Union turning East Germany into a satellite state (“The East German
Uprising”).
• A form of collectivization, called “constructing socialism” was enforced in Eastern Germany to go
against private trade and industry by developing heavy industry and collective agriculture—the
consequence of this was food shortages, aggravating the population along with the implementation of
forced remilitarization, prosecuting any opposition, and suppressing churches, with many East
Germanys moving to West Germany through West Berlin (“The East German Uprising”).
• The “constructing socialism” movement later led to the “new course”, this however had workers doing
strikes because of the poor treatment of manufacturing workers, with demonstrations later being
stomped by Soviet using martial law to use military force (“The East German Uprising”).
• “Eisenhower packages” that had peas, flour, milk and lard were sent in a relief program costing the US
$15 million to be carried to 35 distribution center—in response, East German Government blockaded
transportation to West Berlin (“The East German Uprising”).
"The East German Uprising, 1953 - 1953–1960 - Milestones - Office of the Historian." The East German
Uprising, 1953. Web. 16 Jan. 2016.
• Taiwan Straits Crises: 1954-55 and 1958
• ROC controlled islands in the Taiwan Strait Jinmen and Mazu) were bombed by the PRC on two
occasions, as tensions elevated between PRC and ROC, with the US coming to ROC’s aid through
singing a Mutual Defense Treaty with ROC (“Taiwan Straits Crises”).
• The Formosa Resolution was passed by Congress in January 1955, allowing President Eisenhower to
defend Taiwan along with the two islands if Chiang Kai-shek (then ruler of ROC) withdrew troops from
Dachen (“Taiwan Straits Crises”).
• During the Afro-Asian Conference in April 1955 however, PRC Foreign Minister Zhou Enlai and US
began negotiations Geneva in September 1955 (“Taiwan Straits Crises”).
• PRC ended up blocking ROC from resupplying it’s garrisons on the islands until US intervened by
arranging the re-supply, with the PRC and ROC later taking turns shelling each other for twenty years
and PRC and the US reached settled diplomatic relations (“Taiwan Straits Crises”).
"The Taiwan Straits Crises: 1954–55 and 1958 - 1953–1960 - Milestones - Office of the Historian." The
Taiwan Straits Crises: 1954–55. Web. 16 Jan. 2016.
• Bandung Conference (Asian-African Conference) 1955
• Asian and African representatives belonging to 29 different governments convened in Bandung,
Indonesia on April 1955 to discuss decolonization, economic development, and the Third World in the
Cold War (“Bandung Conference”).

16. • Including newly formed nations freed from colonial rule, the conferenced emphasized “political self-
determination, mutual respect for sovereignty, non-aggression, non-interference in internal affairs, and
equality” (“Bandung Conference”).
• Delegates spoke on behalf of nations still undergoing decolonization, such as Africa, with the Five
Principles of Peaceful Coexistence used between India and China in 1954, and goals such as
protecting human rights, self-determination, ending racial discrimination, and peaceful coexistence
through economic and cultural cooperation was state in a communique that was to be signed by all
attendees (“Bandung Conference”).
• Bandung Conference gave a platform for the newly independent nations, with US not participating due
to fear of black-lash with the 1954 Brown v. Board of Education and eliminating Jm Crow Laws in the
South placing scrutiny on US handling civil rights, in turn making US cautious in joining an organization
that advocated for decolonization (which US supported) yet meant going against it’s needed European
Allies during the Cold War against the Soviet Union (“Bandung Conference”).
"Bandung Conference (Asian-African Conference), 1955." Bandung Conference (Asian-African
Conference), 1955 - 1953–1960 - Milestones - Office of the Historian. Web. 16 Jan. 2016.
• Suez Crisis 1956
• Constructed in 1869, the Suez Canal Company was a joint British-French enterprise operated by the
Suez Canal which was later nationalized by Egyptian President Gamal Abdel Nasser on July 26, 1956
spurring antagonism from Britain and France (“The Suez Crisis”).
• The US tried to mediate the British-French-Egyptian disagreement, with US Secretary of State John
Foster Dulles suggested the creation of a the Suez Canal Users’ Association (SCUA) consisting of 18
maritime nations to operate the canal, but was rejected (“The Suez Crisis”).
• Israeli forces later attacked Egyptic’s Sinai Peninsula on October 29, 1956 after secretly meeting with
Britain and France with overthrowing Nasser—US intervened, pressuring Britain and France to have a
United Nations ceasefire on November 6, and a UN peacekeeping force being created, along with the
Eisenhower Doctrine partly being created to handle the European political and military power in the
Middle East (“The Suez Crisis”).
"The Suez Crisis, 1956." The Suez Crisis, 1956 - 1953–1960 - Milestones - Office of the Historian. Web.
16 Jan. 2016.
• Sputnik 1957
• Sputnik-1 was the first artificial satellite launched by the Soviet Union on October 4, 1957 (with two
satellites later following), contributing to the arms race between the world powers (“Sputnik”).
• Eisenhower increased funding and resources to the US space program in an effort to catch up with the
Soviet Union, with the failed launch of the Vanguard on 1957, and the successful launch of the Explorer
on January 31, 1958 (“Sputnik”).
• Soviet Union’s success in launching a satellite exasperated the Cold War between them and the US,
placing fear in the US for falling behind and consequently concentration more on space and weapons
programs (“Sputnik”).
"Sputnik, 1957." Sputnik, 1957 - 1953–1960 - Milestones - Office of the Historian. Web. 16 Jan. 2016.
• Berlin Crisis 1958 - 1961
• Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev demanded the Western powers to withdraw forces from West Berlin
within six months on November 10, 1958, an ultimatum that caused a three year crisis in Berlin, leading
the the Berlin Wall being built in 1961 (“The Berlin Crisis”).
• West Berlin was still until Western Powers dominion, however land access was barred between West
Germany and West Berlin by the Soviet Union, leading to supplies needed to be airlifted (“The Berlin
Crisis”).

17. • President Eisenhower met with Khrushchev in Geneva in 1959 to negotiate, continuing their talks in
Camp David, yet causing tension when the Soviet Union shot down the American U-2 spy plane in 1960
(“The Berlin Crisis”).
• In 1961 new president Kennedy met with Khrushchev to talk about Berlin along with Laos, with Kennedy
then “activating 150000 reservists and increasing defense expenditures” and Khrushchev putting up the
Berlin Wall by East German leader Wlater Ulbricht on August 13, 1961 (“The Berlin Crisis”).
• The wall was later dismantled on November 9, 1989 when border between West and East Berlin was
reopened (“The Berlin Crisis”).
"The Berlin Crisis, 1958–1961 - 1953–1960 - Milestones - Office of the Historian." The Berlin Crisis,
1958–1961. Web. 17 Jan. 2016.
• U-2 Overflights and the Capture of Francis Gary Powers 1960
• Eisenhower proposed having “open skies” during the Geneva Conference of 1955 so nations will be
able to make flights for aerial inspections of nuclear facilities, which was rejected by Khrushchev—the
U2 skyline (piloted by Francis Gray Powers) was later shot down by the Soviet Union on May 1, 1960
with Powers ejecting out of the plan and later captured by the KGB for interrogation (“U2”).
• Khrushchev demanded Eisenhower to apologize (he didn’t) and later had Soviet Union leave the Paris
before the start of the Paris Summit, with Powers convicted of spying and serving a three year sentence
until he and a student were exchanged for a Soviet spy https://streamable.com/s23m..
"U-2 Overflights and the Capture of Francis Gary Powers, 1960." U-2 Overflights and the Capture of
Francis Gary Powers, 1960 - 1953–1960 - Milestones - Office of the Historian. Web. 17 Jan. 2016.
• Laos Crisis 1960-1963
• Before his inauguration, Kennedy concentrated on the Laos crisis with his foreign policy team
(Secretary of State Dean Rusk, Secretary of Defense Robert S. McNamara, and National Security
Advisor McGeorge Bundy)—Laos had no central political government, and three factions attempting to
seize control in 1961 with US supporting General Nosavan Phoumi who fought against Kong Le who
was backed by Soviet Union (“Laos Crisis”).
• The main influential figure in Laos politics was Prime Minister Souvanna Phouma, who was exiled in
Cambodia, and his half-brother Souphanouverong that led Pathet Lao (primarily Communist) to control
the Laos-North Vietnam border (“Laos Crisis”).
• SEATO was at first propositioned, however Britain and France supported Souvanna Phouma and did
not want to take military action, with Kennedy later calling for a ceasefire that was accepted by Pathet
Lao on May 3, wherein the North Vietnamese Army (NVA) launched an offensive in souther Laos by
capturing Tchepone and regions that will increase the size of the Ho Chi Minh Trail towards the Western
side of Annamite Mountains (“Laos Crisis”).
• During the Vienna Summit on June 4, Kennedy and Khrushchev established an agreement on the
ceasefire, neutrality and coalition government of Laos, with W. Averell Hairrman being the Ambassador
at Large and then the Assistant Secretary of State for Far Eastern Affairs (“Laos Crisis”). Harriman
created American policy for Laos in an international conference in Geneva on May 16 regarding Laos,
with fourteen nations such as USSR, Laos, PRC, North Vietnam, South Vietnam, Poland, US, France,
UK, India, Burma, Cambodia, Canada, and Thailand attending (“Laos Crisis”).
• The coalition government was negotiated between the three Laotian factions, reaching an agreement
on June 12, 1962, and the Declaration of Neutrality of Laos decided on July 23 (“Laos Crisis”).
• The coaltion government will be headed under Souvanna Phouma, and the three factions maintaining
cabinet positions along with foreign troops being withdrawn from Laos with the International
Commission for Supervision and Control in Laos (ICC) supervising the removal (“Laos Crisis”).
• North Vietnam ended up going against the agreement, having continuing its military support of Pathet
Lao, controlling territory in southern Laos, with the US later giving economic and military support to Meo
and Thai forces along wit the Phouma government (“Laos Crisis”).

18. "The Laos Crisis, 1960–1963." The Laos Crisis, 1960–1963 - 1961–1968 - Milestones - Office of the
Historian. Web. 17 Jan. 2016.
• Congo, Decolonization and the Cold War
• Newly elected president Joseph Kasavubu, prime minster Patrice Lumumba, along with the ruling
senate and assembly and other governmental positions in Congo provinces were expected to have a
pro-Western government in the independent state however, Congolese soldiers in Force Publique
fought against white Belgian commanders at the Thysville military base on July 5 over higher pay, more
opportunity and authority (“Congo, Decolonization”). Mutiny caught across Congo, with Europeans later
leaving as the Congolese National Army became out of control, with the Belgians using force to regain
order with asking the new cabinet, leading to the new cabinet requesting help from the United Nations,
with the United Nations creating the Organizations des Nations Unities au Congo (ONUC) to intervene,
along with having Belgian troops withdraw (“Congo, Decolonization”).
• Soon enough Cantata and South Kasai provinces of Congo declared independence (“Congo,
Decolonization”).
• Soviets later entered the country, alerting Eisenhower of possible Communist insurgency, with
Lumumba being invited to visit Washington (he declined) and later planned for removal and even
assassinated—on September 5, Kasavubu beca dismissed by Lumumba after Kasavubu attempted to
dismiss Lumumba, with Colonel Joseph Mobutu of the CNA later staging a coup d’etat on September 14
and demanding Soviets to leave the country (“Congo, Decolonization”). Mobutu’s support of Western
governing placed him on good terms with Devlin, who later told him about an assassination planned on
Mobutu on September 18, with Lumumba being blamed and executed on January 17, 1961 (“Congo,
Decolonization”).
• US kept trying to establish a Western government in Republic of Congo through financially supporting
pro-Western candidates or buying votes, however the area was unstable (“Congo, Decolonization”).
• Rebels comprised of nearby African nations, Soviets, and Chinese Communists overtook Stanleyville
and fought against the CNA, with the CIA later aiding CNA and US pursuing diplomatic outreaches to
the Organization of African Unity (OAU) to get support for the Republic of Congo (“Congo,
Decolonization”).
• Operation Dragon Rouge commenced to rescue hostages by the US and Belgians, however Prime
Minister Tshombe damaged his reputation, later dismissed on October 1965 with the threat of civil war
in Africa looming (“Congo, Decolonization”).
• Mobuto again staged an coup d’etat on November 25, 1965, taking control of the Congolese
government renaming Congo Zaire in 1971 until mid-1990s, and was against Communist influences and
therefore received US assistance in finances, materials, and political support (“Congo, Decolonization”).
"The Congo, Decolonization, and the Cold War, 1960." The Congo, Decolonization, and the Cold War,
1960–1965 - 1961–1968 - Milestones - Office of the Historian. Web. 17 Jan. 2016.
• Bay of Pigs Invasion and Aftermath April 1961-October 1962
• Fidel Castro took over the Cuban government after the end of the revolution in 1959 (and the removal of
President Fulgencia Batista) who later aligned himself with the Soviet Union, expropriated US economic
assets in Cuba, and consequently cutting ties with the US (“Bay of Pigs”).
• Eisenhower had the CIA plan to overthrow Castro and invade Cuba, due to these developments
threatening the US due to Cuba’s proximity to the nation in 1960, resulting in the Democratic
Revolutionary Front, or Brigade 2506 comprising of trained exiled counter-revolutionary Cubans (“Bay
of Pigs”).
• Kennedy approved of the invasion, with the Brigade landing at Bay of Pigs on April 17, 1961 and later
defeated by Cuban forces (“Bay of Pigs”).
• Castro then openly declared it’s alliance with the Soviet Union and intention to adopt socialism, with
President Kennedy reacting by later launching Operation Mongoose in May 1961, with Landale
coordinating a six-phase schedule to distribute Anti-Castro propaganda, arm opposing militant groups,
creat guerrilla bases across Cuba..however Castro was not abdicated, Operation Mongoose failed
(“Bay of Pigs”).

19. • It was later discovered that the Soviet Union was sending missiles to Cuba (“Bay of Pigs”).
"The Bay of Pigs Invasion and Its Aftermath, April 1961–October 1962 - 1961–1968 - Milestones - Office
of the Historian." The Bay of Pigs Invasion and Its Aftermath, April 1961. Web. 17 Jan. 2016.
• Cuban Missile Crisis, October 1962
• US confronted Soviet Union during the Cuban Missile Crisis in October 1962 (“Cuban Missile Crisis”).
• Khrushchev secretly made plans with Castro in July 1962 to send missiles to Cuba to prevent any future
invasions, with missile sites being made during the summer, along with arms being gathered—Kennedy
then had a naval quarantine implemented on Cuba, with a letter also being sent to Khrushchev to end
weapons delivery to Cuba and to dismantle missile bases along with returning weapons to the USSR
(“Cuban Missile Crisis”).
• Khrushchev dismissed the letter, stating the quarantine was an act of aggression and continued sending
Soviet ships to Cuba; DECON 2 was later enacted, or Strategic Air Command in war approaching,
however Kennedy held off on offensives, with a stalemate later being drawn (“Cuban Missile Crisis”).
• John Scali, an ABC News correspondent was told by a Soviet agent that Soviets will get rid of their
missiles from Cuba if United States promised no invasion—John reported this to the White house, with
Khrushchev also sending Kennedy a message containing a similar proposal outlined by Scali (“Cuban
Missile Crisis”).
• Khrushchev later stated that US must remove its missiles from Turkey, with the US U-2 Jet later shot
down, however this message was ignored with Kennedy responding to the first message by first crafting
steps to remove the Soviet missiles with the United Nations—Attorney General Robert Kennedy
secretly met with Soviet Ambassador to the US Anatoly Dobrynin, suggesting the the US will remove
missiles from Turkey but will not state this in public resolutions (“Cuban Missile Crisis”).
• Khrushchev later publicly stated Soviet missiles will be removed from Cuba, with the naval quarantine
ending after Soviet IL-28 bombers were removed from Cuba (removed on November 20, 1962), and US
missiles taken from Turkey on April 1963 (“Cuban Missile Crisis”).
• This crisis helped strengthen Kennedy’s image both in the states, and worldwide (“Cuban Missile
Crisis”).
• Through the miscommunication issues between the Soviet Union and White House, a direct telephone
link was made between the White House and Kremlin, called “Hotline”, with the near occurrence of a
nuclear conflict during this crisis setting up the creation of the nuclear Test Ban Treaty (“Cuban Missile
Crisis”).
"The Cuban Missile Crisis, October 1962." The Cuban Missile Crisis, October 1962 - 1961–1968 -
Milestones - Office of the Historian. Web. 17 Jan. 2016.
• US and Vietnam War: Gulf of Tonkin and Escalation 1964
• North Vietnamese forces fired at two US Destroyers in the Gulf of Tonkin in early August 1964, with US
military presence being increased in Indochina by Lyndon B Johnson, with the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution
being passed to allow Johnson to retaliate and maintain peace and security in southeast Asia, using this
resolution as the reasoning behind the Vietnam War during Johnson and Nixon administrations (“US
and Vietnam”).
• In 1959, the Viet Cong (Southern Vietnamese communist guerrillas) and Viet Minh, entered the South,
provoking the Second Indochina War, with Ngo Dinh Diem (who was ruling South Vietnam) later being
assassinated by his generals, approved by the Kennedy administration, with Kennedy’s assassination
soon following (“US and Vietnam”).
• Johnson increased US military, aiding South Vietnamese troops and bombing the Lao border to
damage sully lines, and the US Navy placing the Maddox and Turner Joy (destroyers) in the gulf of
Tonkin which later were attacked by North Vietnamese patrol (“US and Vietnam”).
• The Gulf of Tonkin resolution was later passed by Congress when Johnson asked to defend US forces,
escalating conflict in Vietnam through Operation Rolling Thunder which were bombing campaigns
throughout 1965 - 1967, with US troops also being deployed to fight the Viet Cong (“US and Vietnam”).

20. "U.S. Involvement in the Vietnam War: The Gulf of Tonkin and Escalation, 1964 - 1961." U.S. Involvement
in the Vietnam War: The Gulf of Tonkin and Escalation, 1964 - 1961–1968 - Milestones - Office of the
Historian. Web. 17 Jan. 2016.
• India-Pakistan War 1965
• The status of states Jammu and Kashmir were disputed between India and Pakistan in 1965,
happening after South Asia became decolonized from Britain in 1947, being split into a secular nation of
India and a Muslim nation of Pakistan, with Pakistan being split into East and West Pakistan with Indian
territory in between (“India-Pakistan War”). Jammu and Kashmir had majority Muslim population with a
Hindu leader and bordered India and West Pakistan, with the problem being which state will get the
territory contested in the first India-Pakistan War in 1947-48, with the UN intervening to have Jammu
and Kashmir joining Republic of India—this was opposed by Pakistan, who believed a majority Muslim
state should be part of Pakistan (“India-Pakistan War”).
• Pakistani army tied to take Kashmir, however failed with this second India-Pakistan War having a
stalemate with US giving development assistance to India, but also tried to “maintain a regional balance
of power” by restricting India’s influence on other countries political development (“India-Pakistan War”)
• US and UK provided military supplies to Pakistan to help Pakistan grow its military and defense, which
was the main reason for why Pakistan joined the Baghdad Pact/CENTO and SEATO (“India-Pakistan
War”).
• India contacted United Nations when Pakistani invaded Kashmir, with the Security Council passing
Resolution 211 on September 20 to cease fighting and to negotiate to solve the Kashmir issue—India
agreed to a ceasefire on September 21, and Pakistani agreed on September 22 (“India-Pakistan War”).
• Tashkent agreement was reached with territory being given up on both sides between India and
Pakistan in January 1966 (“India-Pakistan War”).
"The India-Pakistan War of 1965." The India-Pakistan War of 1965 - 1961–1968 - Milestones - Office of
the Historian. Web. 17 Jan. 2016.
• 1967 Arab-Israeli War
• After the Suez War, Eisenhower, Kennedy, and Johnson administrations have successively failed in
rectifying the Arab-Israeli conflict, with Johnson reshaping America’s role in the conflict (instead of
following the Tripartite Declaration of 1950).
• Johnson first proposed to Egyptian President Gamal Abdul Nasser and Soviet leaders to have a
regional arms control regime, but neither were interested, leading to Johnson selling M48A3 tanks and
aircraft to Israel to signify to Arabs that an arms race can not be won by them (“1967 Arab-Israeli”).
• Palestinian guerrilla organizations such as Fatah started attacking Israel, with Us wanting to prevent
Israel from attacking Jordan in retaliation due to agreements made with King Hussein of Jordan who
agreed to have Jordan’s West Bank be a buffer zone (“1967 Arab-Israeli”).
• Israeli attack on West Bank town of Samu in Nov 1966 resulted in the Johnson administration having a
UN Resolution to condemn Israel and airlift military supplies to Jordan (“1967 Arab-Israeli”).
• Israel then started attacking Syria, with Syrian leaders wanting Egypt to intervene and help (“1967 Arab-
Israeli”).
• Egypt, who sent troops into the Sinai, demanded the United Nations Emergency Force (UNEF) that was
at Sinai Peninsula and the Gaza Strip since 1957 to withdraw, with Secretary General U Thant then
responding that UNEF will then have to leave all positions. including Sharm Al-Shaykh which will cause
Nasser to close the Striates of Tiran to Israel shipping (“1967 Arab-Israeli”). Still insisting on his
proposal, UNEF then left on May 22, Nasser stating the the Straights will close (“1967 Arab-Israeli”).
• Johnson said that the closing of the Straights will be viewed as an act of war, with with Eisenhower then
having Operation Red Sea Regatta launched to form a collation of maritime nations that refused to give
the Nations
• US and Vietnam War: Tet Offensive 1968

21. • North Vietnamese and Viet Cong attacked South Vietnam during the new year on January 1968, with
the Tet Offensive resulting in severe losses by South Vietnam and the US, and causing public dissent
on the Vietnam War in the US (“US Involvement”).
• The Tet Offense was met to ensure victory and the end the war, with the South Vietnamese National
Liberation Forces (NLF) using the Tet Holiday to begin the first phase of attacks on January 30 and 31
in Hue and Saigon, and were almost entirely wiped out by US and the South Vietnamese in return (“US
Involvement”).
• Results of Tet Offensive called for deescalation, with Johnson then ended the bombing campaigns
above the 20th parallel, limiting US troops in South Vietnam, and trying to coordinate peace talks that
did not happen—Johnson did not run for a second term in presidency, leaving the Vietnam War
undecided with Nixon (“US Involvement”).
"U.S. Involvement in the Vietnam War: The Tet Offensive, 1968." U.S. Involvement in the Vietnam War:
The Tet Offensive, 1968 - 1961–1968 - Milestones - Office of the Historian. Web. 17 Jan. 2016.
• Soviet Invasion of Czechoslovakia 1968
• Soviet Union invaded Czechoslovakia to end the reforms in Czechoslovakia with it’s Warsaw Pact
forces on August 20, 1968 (“Soviet Invasion”).
• Alexander Dubcek enabled public expression and support for widespread reform in 1968 as he ended
censorship, leading the government with the intention of liberalization of the Czechoslovakia without
getting rid of the political and economic system detailed in a Marxist-Leninist state (“Soviet Invasion”)..
• These reforms were seen as dangerous because other satellite states of the Soviet Union may follow,
such as Ukraine, Lithuania, Latvia, and Estonia (“Soviet Invasion”).
• When the invasion occurred, Dubcek was removed from power, with government censorship and
restriction reestablished, with the amount of force used in Prague justified under the Brezhnev
Doctrine, which gave Moscow right to intervene in any government that had it’s communism threatened
(“Soviet Invasion”).
"Soviet Invasion of Czechoslovakia, 1968 - 1961–1968 - Milestones - Office of the Historian." Soviet
Invasion of Czechoslovakia, 1968. Web. 17 Jan. 2016.
• South Asia Crisis and Founding of Bangladesh 1971
• East Pakistan became Bangladesh (an independent state) after the third war between India and
Pakistan in 1971, changing the relations between US and the South Asia region (“The South Asia
Crisis”).
• West and East Pakistan were then divided, both having Islam and the dominant language, but differed
in language, ethnicity, and culture (“The South Asia Crisis”).
• East Pakistanis ported for autonomy in East Pakistan during the 1970s parliamentary elections and
were suppressed by the Pakistani army, sparking refugees to move to India and East Pakistani guerrilla
solders (supported by India) began fighting Pakistani Army in 1971, with West Pakistan then doing air
attacks on India (“The South Asia Crisis”).
• The Soviet Union signed a mutual assistance treaty with India (this cooperation with Soviet Union made
India unable to ask the United Nations for assistance) in August 1971, and the US started selling
Pakistan military supplies to India, and first supported Pakistan to stop the partition of Pakistan (“The
South Asia Crisis”).
• Bangladesh later emerged, joining the UN in 1974, with India being the main power in South Asia and
competition being placed between India and Pakistan (“The South Asia Crisis”).
"The South Asia Crisis and the Founding of Bangladesh, 1971 - 1969–1976 - Milestones - Office of the
Historian." The South Asia Crisis and the Founding of Bangladesh, 1971. Web. 17 Jan. 2016.
• Oil Embargo 1973-1974

22. • An embargo was placed against the US due to the US re-supplying Israeli military by the Arab members
of Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) during the 1973 Arab-Israeli War, including
other Israeli supporters such as the Netherlands, Portugal, and South Africa straining the US economy,
with the price of oil skyrocketing as the dollar devalued with the European powers and Japan needing
energy sources (“Oil Embargo”).
• Nixon administration began Project Independence on November 7 to move towards having domestic
energy independence, along with a consumer’s union to control oil pricing (“Oil Embargo”).
• The First Egyptian-Israeli Disengagement Agreement was created on January 18, 1974 detailing the
negotiations between the US, Egypt, Syria, and Israel to have Israil withdraw from Sinai and the Golan
Heights (“Oil Embargo”).
• The embargo highlighted the conflict of US Policy in supporting Israel, and wanting to maintain tied with
Arab due to oil production (“Oil Embargo”).
• The oil embargo led to high inflation and stagnated oil importers, with problems arising from this crisis
leading the measured being taken for energy conservation and making domestic energy sources, with
the Strategic Petroleum Reserve being established, and then Ford’s fuel economy standards being
imposes, along with Kissinger’s International Energy Agency (“Oil Embargo”).
"Oil Embargo, 1973–1974." Oil Embargo, 1973–1974 - 1969–1976 - Milestones - Office of the Historian.
Web. 17 Jan. 2016.
• End of Vietnam War 1969 - 1973
• President Nixon ordered B-52 bombing os North Vietnamese camps in Cambodia, increasing military
power and offensives in Vietnam, using military pressure to instigate negotiations with Soviet Union and
end the War (“End of Vietnam War”).
• Nixon’s plan did not succeed, with troops later being withdrawn continually as he met with South
Vietnam President Ngyen Van Thieu on June 8 to announce this deployment, using the concept of
vietnamization to build South Vietnam’s military in order for them to have the “combat capability,
logistics and planning capacity, and leadership at the national and military levels” to fight North Vietnam
independently (“End of Vietnam War”).
• Henry Kissinger, then the Presdient’s Assistant for National Security Affairs, met with the North
Vietnamese Politburo member Le Duc Tho on August 4 over the months to reach a settlement with no
avail (“End of Vietnam War”).
• Nixon and Kissenger then decided to have Pacific Command (PACOM), Military Assistance Command
Vietnam (MACV), and Joint Staff along with the National Security Council strategize at the MACV
Headquarters in Saigon in 1969 yielding little results, with the US continuing to focus on Vietnamization
on prospect of negotiation (“End of Vietnam War”).
• The North Vietnamese Army, which increased it’s presence westward instead of withdrawing it’s camps
from Cambodia after Lon Nol succeeded Prince Norodom Sihanouk in 1970, had US and South
Vietnamese do an incursion in Cambodia in response, effectively disrupting North Vietnamese
command for months (“End of Vietnam War”).
• The North Vietnamese actions spurred Nixon into having South Vietnamese forces go to Cambodia and
Laos in February 1971, with a retreat from South Vietnamese due to the North Vietnamese anticipating
their movement (“End of Vietnam War”).
• The Beijing and Moscow Summits in 1972 attempted to deter Soviet Union and PRC from aiding North
Vietnam without success (“End of Vietnam War”).
• Operation Linebacker (air offensives) and air force/naval reinforcements being sent to Indochina and
Guam in retaliation of the North Vietnamese Eastern Offensive in March 1972 was damaging enough
for the Politburo the negotiate with the US—on October 11-12, Le Duc Tho and Kissinger made a
settled that was rejected by President Thieu, forcing Kissinger to then continue his negotiations with Le
Duc Tho (“End of Vietnam War”).
• Negotiations were not working; Nixon had B-52 attacks on North Vietnam on December 14, pressuring
Theiu by threatening to stop US aid, and an agreement finally met on January 27, signed by Thieu and
enabling the US to withdraw troops (however both North and South Vietnamese did not follow the

23. agreement afterwards, and continued warring until the North Vietnamese entered the Presidential
Palace in Saigon and ended the war) (“End of Vietnam War”).
"Ending the Vietnam War, 1969–1973 - 1969–1976 - Milestones - Office of the Historian." Ending the
Vietnam War, 1969–1973. Web. 17 Jan. 2016.
• Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan and the US Response 1978 - 1980
• Thousands of Soviet troops invaded Afghanistan, taking military and political control of Kabul and other
regions of the country on December 1979, inciting a decade-long occupation of Moscow trying to
restrain an Afghan civil war and establish and socialist government on its border (“The Soviet Invasion”).
• It was the only time the Soviet Union invaded a country other than the Eastern Bloc, hoping to use the
Afghanistan securing as an example of the Brezhnev Doctrine, and was met with condemnation by US
and European allies, who practice containment of communism (“The Soviet Invasion”).
• Moscow gave military training along with materials to Afghanistan since 1955, with a third of Afghan
troops having trained on Sovet grounds in 1973—Mohammad Daoud, who was the Afghan Prime
Minister, launched a coup against King Zahir in 1973, who although was supported by the People’s
Democratic Party of Afghanistan PDPA (that was sallied with Moscow and made with Marxist ideology),
the party split into the Parchamists headed by Babrak Karmal (A Daoud supporter) and the Kahlqis
headed by Noor Taraki (“The Soviet Invasion”). Daod unsuccessfully tried to govern Afghanistan’s
Islamic regions while also attempting to handle the PdPA split, however the Khalq did not recognize
Daoud, and the Karmal saw Daouds coup as being power-hungry, making Daoud want to get rid of
Soviet influence and foster US Relations with Afghanistan while also decreasing radicalsm in his
government (“The Soviet Invasion”).
• Daoud and his family were later executed on April 28, 1978 by Khalq soldiers, with Taraki becoming
Prime Minister, and Karmal Deputy Prime Minister—this communist revolution alarmed the US, who
later recognized Taraki to try to contain Soviet influence (“The Soviet Invasion”).
• Hafizullah Amin, Deputy Prime Minister, purged the Parchamists after hearing a plot to over Taraki
(whom he supported), causing internal strife and revolts, forcingg Amin and Taraki to sign a friendship
treaty in Moscow to receive Soviet military assistance in the event of a Islamic insurgency (“The Soviet
Invasion”).
• Troops were sent by Mosco in 1979 when it became evidenet that Taraki would not be able to handle
the imminent civil war, causing the Carter administration to give aid to the Afghan islamic insurgents
(“The Soviet Invasion”).
• Taraki was later executed when Amin realized that the Soviets wanted to strengthen Taraki and not him,
angering Moscow how already started deploying troops on the border, with the Soviets later killing Amin
and having Babrak Karmal installed in a puppet government in Afghanistan, causing the US to have
economic sanctions and trade embargoes against the Soviet Union, boycotting the 1980 Moscow
Olympics, aiding Afghan insurgents, and protecting Middle Eastern oil supplies from being under Soviet
control (“The Soviet Invasion”).
• Moscow withdrew from Afghanistan after ten years, losing millions of lives and billions of doctors,
leaving a country that was later controlled by Islamic fundamentalists Taliban, and a base for Osama bin
Laden (“The Soviet Invasion”).
"The Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan and the U.S. Response, 1978–1980." The Soviet Invasion of
Afghanistan and the U.S. Response, 1978–1980 - 1977–1980 - Milestones - Office of the Historian. Web.
17 Jan. 2016.
• Fall of Communism in Eastern Europe 1989
• On November 9, 1989 the Berlin Wall was brought down, also ending the Cold War (“Fall of
Communism”).
• Mikhail Gorbachev enforced his policies of perestroika (restructuring) and glasnost (transparency) to
encourage reform to leave behind military intervention by the Soviet Union (“Fall of Communism”)

24. • The Labor union Solidarity was formed in August 1980, with Solidarity representatives and the Polish
government partaking in the “Round Table Talks” resulting in free elections for parliament, free elections
for senate, new President office, and recognition of Solidarity as a political party, with Tadeusz
Maszowiecki becoming the first non-communist Minister in Eastern Europe (“Fall of Communism”).
• Hungary also had it’s alternative to Round Table Talks, with a constitution being written to allow multi-
party system and competitive elections have the appointment of Imre Nagy (the reformist commnist
leader of the Hungarian Revolution) as leader (“Fall of Communism”).
• East Germans went to the West as East German economy collapsed, with Gorbachev later having East
German borders opened, and East German leader Honecker replaced, with West German Chancellor
Helmut Kohl later planning to reunify Germany (“Fall of Communism”)
• However, arrests were still made on demonstrations by riot police, with Alexander Dubcek later leading
a non-communist government in Prague, and Vaclav Havel President (“Fall of Communism”). Reformist
communist Petar Mladenov replaced Todor Zhivkov in Bulgaria, with free elections being held in 1990
(“Fall of Communism”)
• Romania protests were violent, with Nicolae Ceausescu having the arm and police firing into the
protesting crowd, killing hundreds—eventually Ceausescu was arrested when he attempted to flee to
Bucharest, and reformist communist Ion Ilescu had Ceausescu and his wife executed on December 25
(“Fall of Communism”).
• Eastern Europe then, had all its communist regimes replaced with democratically elected governments
by summer 1990, with Poland, Hungary, East Germany and Czechoslovakia having independence for
the first time since the end of WWII, with Eastern Europe being ready to integrate into Western
“economic, political and security frameworks” (“Fall of Communism”)
"Fall of Communism in Eastern Europe, 1989." Fall of Communism in Eastern Europe, 1989 - 1989–1992
- Milestones - Office of the Historian. Web. 17 Jan. 2016.
Aftermath
• The Cold War lasted for 45 years, with Europe finally being liberated from Soviet domination, Germany
being reunified, with Soviet-US relations resulting in identifying that Soviet sphere of influence
encompassed central Europe, with America’s sphere of influence including Western Europe along with
Japan and South Korea (Brzezinski).
• The Soviet Union was dissolved, with Baltic states freed, decolonization in Africa and Asian countries,
and socio-economic reforms occurring throughout the world (Brzezinski).
Brzezinski, Zibigniew. "The Cold War and Its Aftermath." Foreign Affairs. 28 Jan. 2009. Web. 18 Jan.
2016.