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Children’s Response to Art Activities Describing how a child does what helps us understand a child’s feelings. Observing art activities allows a unique insight into every child, for no two children work with materials in the same way. Observe a child during an art activity. In the following section, complete each of the applicable items you observed. Give a brief statement for each applicable item. Age/Grade Level of Child: ___________________________________________________________ Place/Time of Observation: __________________________________________________________ Amount of Time Spent Observing: ____________________________________________________ Movement: What is the child’s posture like? What is the rhythm of body movements? What is the tempo of the body movements? How much and what kind of effort does the child expend? What kind of freedom does the child show in his or her body movements? Facial Expression: Describe the eyes of the child during the activity. Describe the mouth. Sounds and Language: From the items observed above, what can be surmised about the child’s emotional response to the materials? About the child’s self-awareness and self-concept? If the voice is used, what is it like? What does the child say? (Direct quotes, if possible) Does the child chant, sing, use nonsense syllables or phrases, or tell stories while working? Summary of Observation: Describe the child’s self-awareness and self-concept as reflected in the use of art materials. Week 6 Part 3 Nicole Richardson Student Demographics Sally is an eight-year-old Caucasian female in third grade, she is an only child with a diagnosis of ASD. Sally lives at home with her mother and father, Sally parents both work and Sally spends a majority of her time with her babysitter Sara. Sally is a sweet kid most of the time. She loves to color and likes everything Jojo Siwa! When Sally becomes agitated her behaviors included eloping, self injury, biting, hitting and screaming. Interfering Behavior Sally behaviors can be presented in different ways, from avoidance, fleeing, outburst, to getting out of her seat talking out of turn, becoming aggressive, and not completing assignments. She lacks the ability to think through her actions. (inpulsive) Preventative strategies Providing Sally with strategies to meet her needs, and give her different ways to prevent behaviors. Give Sally positive praise, encouragement and model positive behavior. Check the often for overstimulation. Offer Sally choices in manipulative tools for the task and guidance and positive redirection. Use a token board to reward positive beahvior, getting tokens as frequenly as a minute apart at first and then in time waiting longer. Functional assessment According to Sally’s school record, behaviors happen for attention or to escape work that she is not interested in. Her behavior continues until she either gets the attention she desires or until she does not have to complet ...

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Children’s Response to Art Activities Describing how a child does what helps us understand a child’s feelings. Observing art activities allows a unique insight into every child, for no two children work with materials in the same way. Observe a child during an art activity. In the following section, complete each of the applicable items you observed. Give a brief statement for each applicable item. Age/Grade Level of Child: _____________________________________________________ ______ Place/Time of Observation: _____________________________________________________ _____ Amount of Time Spent Observing: ____________________________________________________ Movement: What is the child’s posture like? What is the rhythm of body movements? What is the tempo of the body movements? How much and what kind of effort does the child expend? What kind of freedom does the child show in his or her body movements? Facial Expression: Describe the eyes of the child during the activity. Describe the mouth. Sounds and Language: From the items observed above, what can be surmised about the child’s emotional response to the materials? About the child’s self-awareness and self-concept? If the voice is used, what is it like? What does the child say? (Direct quotes, if possible) Does the child chant, sing, use nonsense syllables or phrases, or tell stories while working?
Summary of Observation: Describe the child’s self-awareness and self-concept as reflected in the use of art materials. Week 6 Part 3 Nicole Richardson Student Demographics Sally is an eight-year-old Caucasian female in third grade, she is an only child with a diagnosis of ASD. Sally lives at home with her mother and father, Sally parents both work and Sally spends a majority of her time with her babysitter Sara. Sally is a sweet kid most of the time. She loves to color and likes everything Jojo Siwa! When Sally becomes agitated her behaviors included eloping, self injury, biting, hitting and screaming. Interfering Behavior Sally behaviors can be presented in different ways, from avoidance, fleeing, outburst, to getting out of her seat talking out of turn, becoming aggressive, and not completing assignments. She lacks the ability to think through her actions. (inpulsive) Preventative strategies Providing Sally with strategies to meet her needs, and give her different ways to prevent behaviors. Give Sally positive praise, encouragement and model positive behavior. Check the often for overstimulation. Offer Sally choices in manipulative tools for the task and guidance and positive redirection. Use a token
board to reward positive beahvior, getting tokens as frequenly as a minute apart at first and then in time waiting longer. Functional assessment According to Sally’s school record, behaviors happen for attention or to escape work that she is not interested in. Her behavior continues until she either gets the attention she desires or until she does not have to complete task. Replacement behavior We will teach Sally that she can obtain the attention desired for staying on task completing her work and following directions. We will reward her with positive reinforcement as well as using the token board to allow Sally to earn preferred items, such as iPad time JoJo Siwa videos or edibles. Reflection With support from the whole team, continuous work, individualized strategies, UDL and interventions Sally will will be able to manage her behaviors and control her outbursts. Sally will have methods in place that will replace the behaviors at both school and at home.
Teaching Students with Mild and Moderate Disabilities: Research-Based Practices SECOND EDITION Libby G. Cohen National Institute of Education, Singapore Loraine J. Spenciner University of Maine, Farmington Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Cohen, Libby G. Teaching students with mild and moderate disabilities : resea rch-based practices / Libby G. Cohen, Loraine J. Spenciner.-- 2nd ed. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and indexes. ISBN-13: 978-0-13-233138-8 ISBN-10: 0-13-233138-1 1. Children with disabilities--Education-- United States. I. Spenciner, Loraine J. II. Title. LC4031.C64 2009 371.92’6-- dc22 2008008700 Vice President and Executive Publisher: Jeffery W. Johnston Executive Editor: Ann Castel Davis Development Editor: Heather Doyle Fraser Editorial Assistant: Penny Burleson Senior Managing Editor: Pamela D. Bennett
Production Editor: Sheryl Glicker Langner Production Coordination: Jodi Dowling/Aptara Design Coordinator: Diane C. Lorenzo Cover Designer: Diane Y. Ernsberger Photo Coordinator: Valerie Schultz Production Manager: Laura Messerly Director of Marketing: Quinn Perkson Marketing Manager: Erica DeLuca Marketing Coordinator: Brian Mounts This book was set in Galliard BT by Aptara. It was printed and bound by Edwards Brothers, Inc. The cover was printed by Phoe nix Color Corp. Part and Chapter Opening Photo Credits: Jack Hollingsworth/Ge tty Images, p. 1; Kathy Kirtland/Merrill, p. 2; Anthony Magnacc a/Merrill, pp. 34, 156, 280; Scott Cunningham/Merrill, pp. 66, 9 4, 123, 198, 436; Silver Burdett Ginn, p. 124; Katelyn Metzger/ Merrill, p. 228; SW Productions/Getty Images– Photodisc, p. 248; David Mager/Pearson Learning Photo Studio, p. 316; Getty Images– Stockbyte, p. 347; Krista Greco/Merrill, p. 348; Laima Druskis/ PH College, pp. 386, 466; Mike Provost/Silver Burdett Ginn, p. 414; Ken Karp/PH College, p. 465. Copyright © 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle Riv er, New Jersey 07458. All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. Thi s publication is protected by Copyright and permission should b e obtained from the publisher prior to any prohibited reproducti on, storage in a retrieval system, or transmission in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or likewise. For information regarding permission(s), write to: Rights and Permissions Department. Pearson® is a registered trademark of Pearson plc Merrill® is a registered trademark of Pearson Education, Inc. Pearson Education Ltd., London Pearson Education Singapore, Pte. Ltd.
Pearson Education Canada, Inc. Pearson Education—Japan Pearson Education Australia PTY. Limited Pearson Education North Asia Ltd., Hong Kong Pearson Educación de Mexico, S.A. de C.V. Pearson Education Malaysia, Pte. Ltd. Pearson Education Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 ISBN 13: 978-1-323-50396-6 ISBN 10: 1-323-50396-X Chapter 7 Methods for Teaching and Learning OBJECTIVES After completing this chapter, you should be able to Describe various theories regarding how students learn. Compare and contrast two or more research- based teaching methods. Discuss how educators might use learning or social networks to facilitate teaching and learning. Educators implement instruction in a variety of ways, referred t o as teaching methods. A teaching method is a broad approach b ased on theory, research, educational preparation, experiences, a nd/or philosophy. Sometimes referred to as an instructional met hod, a teaching method consists of a general plan that teachers f ollow to introduce new material, assist student learning, and pro vide feedback to students regarding their achievement. Some me thods emphasize a teacher- centered, structured approach to delivering instruction and high levels of student responses, whereas other methods focus on the importance of working and learning with peers or expert learner s and mentors. Unfortunately, there is no simple answer as to w hich method is best for students with disabilities. In this chapter , we explore the characteristics of several contemporary method s for teaching and examine the research findings related to stude
nts with disabilities. Before doing so, though, we begin by looki ng at various theories of learning. 7.1 How Students Learn Learning is the change in what students are capable of doing as the result of formal and informal experiences (Cruickshank, Jen kins, & Metcalf, 2005; Parsons, Hinson, & Sardo- Brown, 2001). Through these experiences, such as teacher- planned lessons and instructional activities, students learn new skills, acquire new knowledge, and develop deeper understandin gs. Teachers plan and implement learning activities using one or more instructional methods, supported by theories of learning. We explore several of these contemporary theories that form the basis for methods of instruction. The major theories of learning include cognitive, behavioral, and social learning. Each theory views the student and the teacher through a slightly different le ns, and each emphasizes different factors believed to be critical for learning to occur.Cognitive Perspectives Cognitive theories address how students think, process informat ion, and remember (Ausubel, 1968; Ausubul, 2000; Bruner, 196 6; Byrnes, 2000; Farnham- Diggory, 1992; Flavell, Miller, & Miller, 2001; Gagne, Wager, Golas, & Keller, 2004; Purcell- Gates, Jacobson, & Degener, 2004). They focus on the role of in formation processing, or how the learner takes in knowledge, st ores it, and retrieves information. Thus retaining information in both short-term and long- term memory is an important component of cognitive theories. Short- term memory is memory that holds information temporarily. Ind ividuals can keep information active in short- term memory by using various learning strategies, such as creati ng a mnemonic, a word or phrase that helps the individual to re member a set of steps or a series of words. The teacher’s role is to enable students to learn by organizing and structuring new in formation. For example, to show a student how to use a mnemon
ic, the teacher chunks information by grouping individual bits o f information in a meaningful way. Chapter 8 gives further infor mation about similar strategies that educators use to help studen ts. Long- term memory is memory in which information is permanently st ored. Cognitive theorists such as David Ausubel describe how te achers can promote classroom learning and enhance long- term memory. We discuss the following cognitive theories: 1. Ausubel’s cognitive theory 2. Constructivism 3. Metacognition 4. Multiple intelligencesAusubel’s Cognitive Theory Ausubel believes that teachers promote learning by planning we ll- organized, structured lessons and activities that selectively link new information to familiar information. At the beginning of ea ch class, the teacher presents lesson objectives to students so th at they know what they will learn and do as a result of the lesso n. This teacher- directed instruction proceeds from general topics to specific one s and from familiar to new information.Constructivism Similar to Ausubel’s cognitive theory, constructivism (Fosnot, 2 005; Marlowe & Page, 2005; Pass, 2004) views learning as a pr ocess in which students create new knowledge by building on th eir own past experiences and constructing knowledge as they int eract with their teachers and peers. However, the constructivist approach focuses on student- centered activities rather than on more structured, teacher- directed lessons and activities.CONSTRUCTIVISM IN ACTION . Morgan Lindstrom, an elementary special educator, works with a fourth- grade teacher in planning to introduce a new science unit on ene rgy and heat. They want the children to make discoveries and ge nerate ideas that they can prove—or disprove— during class time. Morgan and her colleague decide to ask the st
udents to consider the question, What are the characteristics of heat? During the beginning class discussions, they encourage st udents to draw on their past experiences to help formulate the a nswer. Students mention that a stove, an oven, a microwave, and a radiator give off heat. Then someone says that heat comes fro m coats and mittens. When the other children agree, the teacher s decide to put aside other activities and help the children const ruct an experiment, observe the results, and correct the misconc eption. They begin by wrapping several thermometers in a coat and mittens. When the temperature does not rise, they discuss th e findings and brainstorm ideas. They decide to seal the thermo meters and clothing in plastic bags and continue to collect data. The class analyzes the results and brainstorms possible reasons for their findings. When there is still no change in the temperatu re, the teacher facilitates student discussions by writing down k ey concepts and drawing a picture to illustrate them. By organiz ing the class discussion in this way, the teachers help the studen ts draw the conclusion that clothing merely holds the heat in wh en someone wears it. Through this unit, they hope that students will develop a better understanding of energy (adapted from Wa tson & Konicek, 1990).METACOGNITION Metacognition involves learning how to learn and think. Flavell, Miller, and Miller (2001) define three types of metacognitive k nowledge. First, learners hold beliefs about themselves as learn ers. For example, a student believes that listening to music is he lpful when studying. Second, a learner has task knowledge, or a n understanding of procedures that must be followed to complet e a task. In mathematics, this type of knowledge is important wh en completing operations (for example, to add two different frac tions, write the fractions with a common denominator). Third, a learner has strategic knowledge, or an understanding of selectin g and using various approaches to solving a problem. In mathem atics, strategic knowledge helps the student know how to begin t o solve a word problem. Students with disabilities often have difficulties because they d o not know how to learn, solve problems, or complete assignme
nts, even though they have the facts and information. They do n ot readily achieve proficiency in problem solving and higher ord er thinking skills, which are characteristics of successful learner s. Many educators feel that these metacognitive skills should be taught along with the curriculum. Others believe that selected th inking skills should be integrated within the curriculum.METAC OGNITION IN ACTION. We continue our visit with Morgan Lindstrom and her work outs ide the fourth- grade classroom. She explains, “Sometimes I work individually or with small groups of students to help them gain a better unde rstanding of some of the upcoming learning activities in which t hey will be participating. Take, for example, the science lesson that we just completed on energy and heat. Several of the studen ts with learning disabilities and ADHD in this classroom have d ifficulty in following the problem- solving approach to science. Last week, I worked with these stu dents to help prepare them for their classroom work. First I pres ented a similar problem. We then talked through the steps that we could take to solve it. Teaching students how to go about sol ving a problem gives them some strategic knowledge. They brin g this to their work in the general education classroom, helping them to be more successful.”Multiple Intelligences Some contemporary psychologists (Armstrong, 2000; Gardner, 1 983, 2006) have written that multiple intelligences (MI) play a c ritical role in learning. Howard Gardner developed a complex th eory of MI and described each intelligence, such as linguistic in telligence, musical intelligence, logical- mathematical intelligence, spatial intelligence, bodily- kinesthetic intelligence, interpersonal and intrapersonal intellig ence, naturalist intelligence, and possibly others. Gardner theorized that each intelligence is relatively independe nt of the others but that frequently more than one intelligence is involved during the learning process. For example, a learner fir st observes and then imitates the actions performed by the teach er in learning a new skill. According to MI theory, a learner can
use spatial, bodily, and interpersonal intelligences. Linguistic i ntelligence may be involved to a minor degree (if at all). By con trast, when the teacher presents new information during a classr oom lecture, the learner needs to use mostly linguistic knowledg e and some bodily- kinesthetic knowledge in note taking.MULTIPLE INTELLIGEN CES IN ACTION. The last refrain of a rap song lingers in the air as the children c omplete the final dance step. Someone asks if they can do a repe at performance. Tina asks the teacher assistant to take over so t hat she can explain what is going on. “I base a lot of my teachin g on the theory of multiple intelligences. Many of my students l ove music, especially some of the rap by Johnny and the Kids, a popular rap group of 8-year- olds. We make up our own rap of the letters and their sounds an d add some body movement. Usually we do a couple of songs as a warm- up activity before choosing a book to read. It’s really been amaz ing to see the children’s interest rise and to see how their music is helping them learn!”Behavioral Perspectives Behavioral theory (Coleman & Webber, 2002; Kazdin, 2001; Sk inner, 1974) examines learning in terms of observable behaviors . Behavioral theorists believe that learning occurs by associatio n. When two events occur together often, they are linked, and le arning occurs. For example, when the teacher turns the lights of f and asks the students to be quiet, they learn that turning off th e lights means that they are to stop talking. After a few times, t he teacher should be able to simply turn off the lights to restore quiet. Theorists believe that reinforcement is the primary mechanism f or changing behavior if the type of reinforcement is desired and meaningful. To increase desired student behaviors, educators us e a set of rules, or principles of reinforcement (Walker, She, & Bauer 2006). The first principle is to reinforce only the target b ehavior, or the behavior that the student should exhibit, when it occurs. Second, the target behavior is reinforced immediately af
ter it is exhibited. Third, the student receives reinforcement eve ry time the target behavior is exhibited. Finally, as the target be havior becomes more consistent, the student is reinforced only i ntermittently. Educators use various types of reinforcement, including consum able, activity- based, manipulative, possessional, and social reinforcement (Ma rtin & Pear, 2002). Consumables consist of food that the student likes, such as crackers, fruit, or juice. Activity reinforcers are o pportunities to engage in an activity that a student enjoys, such as listening to music, sending an e- mail message, or talking with friends. Manipulative reinforcers include activities that involve drawing, painting, or fixing a ma chine, for example. Possessional reinforcers include a chance to sit in a desired location, wear a favorite cap, or temporarily use an item that belongs to another. Social reinforcers include verb al praise, a high five, a smile, or a glance that indicates social a pproval. For reinforcers to be effective, teachers must determine what types of items a student likes or desires. This information can be gathered by asking the student to complete a checklist or talking informally with the student. Positive reinforcement can be highly effective in helping studen ts change problem behaviors. But unless educators and other sch ool staff use the principles of reinforcement carefully, this inter vention can have many pitfalls. Sometimes school staff inadvert ently strengthen undesirable behaviors. In fact, many undesirabl e behaviors are due to the social attention that they evoke from aides, nurses, peers, teachers, parents, doctors, and others (Mart in & Pear, 2002, p. 39).Applied Behavior Analysis Teachers can have a dramatic effect on the way students with di sabilities learn and behave in the classroom by understanding an d applying concepts associated with behavior theory through ap plied behavior analysis. Applied behavior analysis is a systemat ic procedure that involves identifying and describing a behavior in observable terms, assessing the frequency of the behavior, th e antecedent conditions, and the consequences following the beh
avior, developing an intervention(s) designed to change the beh avior, and observing and recording data regarding the effect of t he intervention.APPLIED BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS IN ACTION. Lionel Roy, a resource room teacher, uses applied behavior anal ysis in his work with students with problem behaviors. When a s tudent is experiencing difficulties, Lionel begins by collecting c ritical information. He looks for antecedent conditions and cons equences. Antecedent conditions are events, or triggers, in the e nvironment that occur just before the behavior and can be adjust ed by the teacher, who carefully observes any changes in studen t behavior. For example; a student came into class and slumped in his seat, refusing to participate. As Lionel talked with the stu dent, he found out about a confrontation in the hall just before c lass. Consequences are events that occur directly after the behavior a nd, similar to antecedent events, can be adjusted by the teacher. Both antecedent conditions and consequences directly influence the recurrence of the behavior. As Lionel and the student contin ued to talk, Lionel learned that another teacher had stepped in t o break up the argument, but both students left feeling angry, no t having resolved the problem. Lionel quickly realized that, with out intervention, this consequence was going to affect the stude nt for the rest of the class period and, perhaps, the rest of the da y.Social and Affective Perspectives Social and affective perspectives emphasize the importance of s ocial skills, self- awareness, and relationships with others, which in turn affect le arning. We discuss two theories associated with these perspectiv es: 1. Social cognitive theory 2. Emotional intelligenceSocial Cognitive Theory Social learning theory (Bandura, 1969, 1977, 1986; Glasser, 199 0) focuses on how individuals acquire social behaviors and the e ffects of these behaviors on learning. Teachers can be effective models if they consider four interrelated factors (Bandura, 1986 ). First, the teacher must get the students’ attention. Second, ret
ention of learning occurs when students rehearse or practice lear ning. Third, students must have opportunities to perform the tas k. Finally, motivation influences observational learning.Emotio nal Intelligence In additional to cognitive abilities, many researchers believe tha t emotional intelligence plays an important part in learning and in school success. Emotional intelligence includes the ability to manage feelings and handle stress, empathy for others, and lear ned optimism (Cherniss, 2000). Emerging research links emotio nal intelligence and competence to achievement and career succ ess (Low, Lomax, Jackson, & Nelson, 2004). Based on emotional intelligence, Goleman (2001) defines emoti onal competence as a learned capability that results in outstandi ng performance. Today, more and more schools recognize the st rong relationship between social and emotional factors and succ essful student academic achievement (Collaborative for Academ ic, Social, and Emotional Learning, 2003; Payton et al., 2000; Z inns, Weissberg, Wang, & Wallberg, 2004). Emotional competence can be viewed as a framework that inclu des both personal and social competence. Personal competence i ncludes self-awareness, self-regulation, and self- motivation. Social competence includes social awareness and so cial skills. Table 7.1 illustrates these areas and describes charac teristics of an individual displaying emotional competence. For all learners, emotional processes affect the cognitive proces ses. For example, a negative mood can result in missing importa nt details when listening to a group discussion. Educators can e nhance their effectiveness by using interventions to improve stu dent social- emotional functioning (Pellitteri, Dealy, Fasano, & Kugler, 200 6). For example, a teacher carefully monitors the group dynamic s and the emotional tone of social interactions as a small group of students engage in small talk during recess. In the past she ha s had to intervene quickly if a member of the group became aggr essive with other students. Teaching methods based on social and affective perspectives cre
ate ways to support peer tutors and opportunities for collaborati ve teams of students to work together. In fact, group support an d cooperation among students are keys to facilitating learning. S tudents acquire social behaviors by observing and modeling oth er students. The classroom becomes a learning community that s upports each member, and teachers design activities to foster a s ense of belonging. Table 7.1 Emotional Competence Personal Competence People with this competence Self-awareness → Know which emotions they are feeling and why → Remain open to new perspectives, continuous learning, and s elf development → Recognize how their feelings affect their performance Self-regulation → Manage their impulsive feelings → Are organized and careful in their work → Think clearly and stay focused under pressure Self-motivation → Set challenging goals → Recognize setbacks as due to manageable circumstance rathe r than a personal flaw → Learn how to improve performance Social Awareness → Are attentive to emotional cues and listen well → Show sensitivity and understand others’ perspectives Social Skills → Are effective in give and take, registering emotional cues in attuning their message → Listen well, seek mutual understanding → Stay receptive to bad news as well as good Adapted from the Emotional Competence Framework. Retrieved June 15, 2007, at the Consortium for Research on Emotional Int elligence in Organizations Web site: http://www.eiconsortium.o rgSOCIAL-EMOTIONAL PERSPECTIVES IN ACTION.
Special education consultant Teo Liang encourages the develop ment of class spirit at the beginning of the school year by askin g students to develop a class nickname and logo. He encourages them to think about the characteristics of their school and their classroom that make them special. Someone asks about the old f oundry nearby, and Liang encourages them to investigate. As th e students seek out information, they discover interesting facts a nd history of the old foundry. Someone creates a graphic of the old building, and the students vote to adopt this as their class lo go. Some students volunteer to create a short video that explains their class nickname and logo, and Liang helps them post it to t he Web. Learning how to work together with others, sharing successes, a nd belonging to a group of peers are lifetime skills that help stu dents to be contributing members in their communities. For stud ents with learning and behavior problems, these skills are essent ial, yet their disabilities may have interfered with the acquisitio n of them. Teachers who consider teaching methods based in par t on social learning theory believe that they can assist students t o acquire collaborative skills in working with others.Connecting Theories to Practice We have seen that theories of learning provide a basis for under standing how students learn, including • the ways that information is stored in memory; • how students connect new information to information learned previously; • knowledge of how to learn, or metacognition; • the role of multiple intelligences; • the effects of reinforcement; • the importance of antecedent conditions and consequences; • the effects of group support and cooperation. Knowledge and understanding of how students learn provide the basis for one or more methods of instruction. Figure 7.1 illustra tes the learning theories that we have discussed and their conne ctions to various teaching methods discussed in the following se ction.
Figure 7.1 Learning theories and their relationships to methods of teaching Figure 7.2 Factors that influence selection of an instructional method Previous section Next section 7.2 Methods That Support Teaching and Learning Teachers often select a teaching method compatible with their o wn professional training, philosophy of education, or theoretical perspectives. Other factors, such as the characteristics of the le arners, the classroom curriculum, and the teacher’s experience, also influence the selection of a teaching method (Figure 7.2). Learning to be an effective teacher also includes developing kno wledge of research supporting the method of teaching that the te acher uses. Although a teaching method may appeal intuitively t o a teacher, if it does not have a strong research base, there is n o assurance that it will be effective for students with disabilities . There are several contemporary teaching methods of interest: d irect instruction, explicit or conspicuous instruction, affective i nstruction, differentiated instruction, and inquiry- based learning.Direct Instruction Direct instruction is a systematic method that can be used to tea ch, practice, and reinforce specific skills (Adams & Engelmann, 1996; Carlson & Francis, 2002; Kroes- bergen & van Luit, 2003; Minskoff & Allsopp, 2003). Teachers use well- organized and structured lessons and activities to assist students in learning skills or demonstrating certain knowledge. As a teac hing method, direct instruction incorporates elements of more th an one learning theory (Figure 7.1). In addition to cognitive the ories, direct instruction draws from behavioral theory, including the use of reinforcement. Educators use positive comments, hig
h fives, and other types of reinforcement to aid student learning. Teachers use direct instruction to assist students in learning skil ls and demonstrating knowledge.What It Looks Like Educators plan direct instruction by determining the sequence o f skills in the curriculum area. The curricula and the sets of skil ls, sometimes referred to as a scope and sequence, are frequentl y part of a school’s curricular guide. Criterion- referenced assessments are good resources, too, because they pr ovide a broad range of curricula and sequences of skills within c urricular areas such as reading, mathematics, spelling, and writi ng. To assess student knowledge and weaknesses in one or more areas of the curriculum, special educators frequently use curric ulum-based and criterion- referenced assessments. They analyze assessment information to determine how much students have mastered and what they do not know within the sequence of skills. This is the point at whic h they design and implement instruction. When a teacher knows what students can and cannot do, he or s he focuses on helping each one to succeed by offering instructio n in a systematic, organized fashion (Figure 7.3). Direct instruct ion, sometimes referred to as mastery learning, can be used in g eneral education classrooms and settings where students receive special education services. Using the direct instruction method, a teacher tells students wha t they will be learning, the reasons for each lesson, and how the se reasons relate to previous lessons. All students use the same materials and are involved in the same activity. The teacher serv es as the principal source of information. Figure 7.3 Characteristics of direct instruction Because the purpose of direct instruction is to teach the students specific material, lessons are highly structured. Teachers may u se applied behavior analysis. Applied behavior analysis is a syst ematic procedure that involves identifying and describing behav ior in observable terms; assessing the frequency of the behavior,
the antecedent conditions, and the consequences following the behavior; developing an intervention(s) designed to change the behavior; observing; and recording data regarding the effectiven ess of the intervention. Monitoring the effectiveness of direct instruction through data c ollection is sometimes referred to as precision teaching. Precisi on teaching is a precise and systematic procedure for evaluating instruction. Students are active participants in their progress as they count and chart daily learning. An additional aspect of direct instruction usually involves teach er- directed discussion, readings, and classroom activities. The teac her checks frequently to make sure that each student is making progress toward the desired outcome. The progress checks provi de valuable information and allow the teacher to make adjustme nts during the lesson if students are having difficulty. The teach er can provide correction and reteach some of the lesson, allot a dditional instructional time, or suggest extra learning materials. Because students learn at different rates, the teacher also plans enrichment activities. Thus, students who complete their work b efore other students have an opportunity to deepen and extend t heir knowledge. When students demonstrate that they have met t he learning objectives, the class moves on to the next lesson (Fi gure 7.4). A teacher spends time after the class reflecting on the lesson. F or example, he or she might ask, Were the objectives clear to th e students? Was the lesson presented clearly? Did the students h ave enough time to practice? How could I improve the feedback that I gave to the students? After thinking about the instruction, a teacher may decide to make changes for the following day. Re flection provides a teacher with a way to improve instruction. R eflective teaching is dynamic and powerful.What the Research S ays About Direct Instruction Many research studies present evidence that direct instruction is effective in helping students with disabilities learn new skills a nd increase academic achievement across the curriculum. Swans
on and Hoskyn (1998) examined 180 research studies that inclu ded students with learning disabilities. In synthesizing their fin dings, they reported that direct instruction was one of the perva sive influences in remediating the academic difficulties of child ren with learning disabilities. In a second meta- analysis, Swanson (1999a; Swanson & Sachse- Lee, 2000) found that direct instruction and strategy instruction were the most effective techniques for adolescents with learning disabilities and mental retardation. Figure 7.4 Direct instruction in practice Similarly, a meta- anaylsis of mathematics instruction (Kroesbergen & Van Luit, 2 003) found that in 58 studies of mathematics instruction for ele mentary students with disabilities, direct instruction and self- instruction were found to be the most effective methods. Additi onal studies describe the benefits of direct instruction on achiev ement in reading (Engelmann, 1999; Gardill & Jitendra, 1999; S piegel, Vickers, & Viviano, 1999; Swanson, 1999b), mathematic s (Kroesbergen & Van Luit, 2005; Maccini, Gagnon, Mulcah, & Leon, 2006), building social skills (Bendt & Nunan, 1999; Berto ne, Boyle, Mitchel, & Smith, 1999), increasing listening skills ( Engraffia, Graff, Jezuit, & Schall, 1999), language (Kroeger, & Nelson, 2006), and developing skills in language arts such as sp elling (Berninger et al., 1998) and writing (Anderson & Keel, 2 002; Walker, Shippen, Alberto, Houchins, & Cihak, 2006). A special educator provides scaffolded instruction during initial learning. Snapshot: Gabe Cerino’s Classroom Gabe Cerino, a special educator at an elementary school, invites us to observe a lesson in the resource room. For the next 45 mi nutes this morning he will be working with Juan, a first grader. One of Juan’s IEP goals is to increase reading comprehension. T o plan and monitor his specially designed instruction in reading, he uses a chart that lists the skills in developing phonemic awar
eness. Gabe keeps a daily check sheet of Juan’s progress. When Juan comes in, he joins Gabe at the table, and together th ey look at a short letter that his teacher has written him (Figure 7.5). Gabe reads it aloud as Juan follows along. When he comes to a word missing the beginning or ending sound of s, he pauses and Juan writes in the corresponding letter. After reading the book Gabe has promised, Juan begins work on a set of picture cards. He pronounces the name of each picture and decides which pictures belong in the pile beginning with an s sound. Before going back to his classroom, he completes a dra wing of objects beginning with the s sound. Afterward, he and Gabe go over his work together, correcting any errors.Explicit o r Conspicuous Instruction Explicit instruction includes the systematic procedures of direct instruction and behavior analysis along with the design procedu res derived from effective schools research (Hall, 2006.) Explici t instruction includes three essential components (Dimino, 2007 ): 1. Metacognition. Students know rules, concepts, and strategies. Students understand how to apply a strategy, such as how to ide ntify an unfamiliar word when reading. Figure 7.5 Juan’s letter 2. Scaffolded instruction. Scaffolded instruction consists of thre e phases: modeling, teacher- assisted or guided practice, and independent phases. 3. Vocabulary instruction. Vocabulary instruction includes selec ting words that are associated with a specific content area. For e xample, in preparing a science lesson a teacher develops a defin ition of precipitation that will be comprehensible to the student. The teacher also plans to provide multiple meaningful exposure s to practice the new vocabulary. Educators often use explicit instruction in the general education classroom to meet the diverse needs of all learners.What It Loo ks Like The teaching team begins with the “big idea” of the unit. This is
the content that all students will learn. Primed background kno wledge includes the consideration of how the learner can access the information. The team also addresses any special needs of t he students. Educators teach conspicuous strategies to students s o that they know how to go about learning and problem solving. Knowing one or more of these effective strategies assists stude nts to be more independent learners. Educators also provide mediated scaffolding, or temporary supp ort and guidance during initial learning. The degree of scaffoldi ng is based on individual learner needs. For example, the teache r shows students how to interpret a graph displayed in the textb ook. Together they discuss the meaning of new vocabulary word s. The teacher might also develop an outline of the chapter cont ent. Chapter 8 discusses scaffolding. Educators also use strategic instruction to help students integrat e the big ideas and apply their knowledge to other settings. Strat egic instruction, often used in middle and secondary programs, i s an approach that focuses on providing students with rules or g uidelines so that they can approach learning activities or assign ments more effectively and efficiently and with greater indepen dence. Finally, judicious review requires educators to identify informat ion that is essential and monitor student progress. Additional ac tivities provide review of the material and contribute to retentio n. Figure 7.6 illustrates the components essential to explicit inst ruction. Figure 7.6 Explicit instruction in practice What the Research Says About Explicit Instruction A growing body of research supports the use of explicit instruct ion as an effective method for teaching students, including stud ents with disabilities. A meta- analysis of spelling interventions conducted by one group of res earchers (Wanzek et al., 2006) indicated that explicit instruction with multiple practice opportunities and immediate corrective f eedback helped students consistently improve spelling. Explicit instruction in decoding and comprehension suggests that at-
risk children in early elementary grades can achieve gains in co mprehension and early reading skills (Pullen, Lane, Lloyd, Now ak, & Ryals, 2005; Willimas, 2005). Explicit instruction in math ematics increased student problem- solving abilities (Fuchs, Fuchs, Hamlett, & Appleton, 2002). Fu rther, when explicit instruction is combined with concrete to rep resentational to abstract (CRA) in teaching algebra, Witzel (200 5) found an increase in student achievement. For social studies i nstruction, Williams and her colleagues (Williams et al., 2007) f ound that explicit instruction was more effective in learning soc ial studies content than instruction that did not include explicit i nstruction. Considering Cultural and Linguistic Perspectives Research-Based Teaching Methods and Latino Students What teaching methods work best for newcomer students, or stu dents who have recently arrived in this country, and students fro m diverse cultural and linguistic backgrounds? In an extensive r eview of the research concerning Latino students, Fashola, Slavi n, Claderón, and Durán (2002) found a number of replicable pro grams for elementary and middle schools that are proven to mee t the needs of these students. These programs include the instruc tional methods that we discuss in this chapter, such as explicit a nd direct instruction, and a very effective instructional strategy, cooperative learning, that we discuss in Chapter 8. Success for All, a program that uses cooperative learning, one-to- one tutoring for students who have difficulties, and family supp ort to build positive home- school relations, shows very positive results, too. Latino student s who participated in the program made substantial gains on sta ndardized tests, compared to Latino students who did not partici pate (Fashola et al., 2002). Yet Fashola et al. also found large g aps in the knowledge base concerning the teaching of reading an d language arts, particularly in approaches designed for Latino or English language learners. A research team led by Vaughn and her colleagues (Vaughn et a l., 2006) compared the effectiveness of an explicit reading instr
uction for first- grade students whose home language was Spanish and who were at risk for reading difficulties with a group of comparison stude nts who participated in the school’s standard instruction for at- risk students. This study found that children who participated in explicit instruction obtained significantly higher scores in phon ological awareness, letter- sound identification, word attach, reading fluency, and compreh ension. Questions for Reflection 1. What teaching methods do educators in other countries use? 2. What Web-based resources might a first- year teacher find helpful for designing instruction?Affective Ins truction Perhaps as a result of the increase in social problems, such as b ullying behaviors, depression, substance abuse, and violent acts of students against other students and teachers, there is much in terest in affective instruction. Based on social learning theory a nd much of the work of Maslow (1999) and Rogers and Freiberg (1994), affective instruction focuses on personal and social lear ning as well as the academic development of each student. Educ ators use different terms to describe one or more areas of affecti ve education, including social and emotional learning (Elias et a l., 1997) character education (Lickona, 1997), moral education ( Gilligan, 1993; Noddings, 2005), multicultural education (Bank s & Banks, 2003), and values education (Huitt, 2003). Additiona lly, some educators use specific curricula to promote personal d evelopment such as social skills training.What It Looks Like Affective instruction begins with careful thought and preparatio n regarding both the physical classroom and the learning enviro nment (Figure 7.7). The teacher nurtures feelings of self- respect among the students as well as respect and acceptance of others. By planning learning activities that offer a degree of stu dent choice, the educator assists students in developing a feelin g of control over their work. Instruction includes both academic and personal/social development. For example, the teacher may
stress the importance of skills he or she wants to see a student display in working with a partner. The teacher supports learning by using active listening and paraphrasing student comments or ideas. Visitors quickly observe that the teacher places a high va lue on citizenship and respect for others. Chapters 9 and 10 look more closely at ways educators help students develop and enha nce social skills and positive behaviors. Figure 7.7 Affective instruction in practice What the Research Says About Affective Instruction Muscott and O’Brien (1999) examined an after- school program for 19 elementary students with emotional or be havioral disorders. Instruction focused on one area of affective i nstruction called character education and the use of high school and college mentors. Through a series of interviews, the student s reported that they learned to accept the responsibilities for the ir actions, that they made new friends, and that they responded t o the ideas of cooperation and teamwork. Another study (De Cuyper, Timbremont, Braet, De Backer, & W ullaert, 2004) reports findings in working with children with sy mptoms of moderate depression. Twenty children between the a ges of 10 and 12 participated in 18 sessions of affective instruct ion. At the end of this period, the researchers found that both ch ildren and parents reported significant improvements. Improvements were also noted for 15 children with autism (ages 8–17 years old) who participated in a 7- month intervention program that focused on teaching interperso nal problem solving, affective knowledge, and social interaction . The researcher (Bauminger, 2002) found that children were mo re likely to initiate positive social interaction with peers, includ ing sharing experiences with peers and showing more interest in peers. Snapshot: Ben Schultz’s Classroom Ben Schultz sits on the edge of the desk, watching as students g ather around two boys circling each other with threatening fists. Someone shouts, “Go for it.” The crowd of students begins to s urge closer to the two students. Watching the monitor across fro
m Ben, we can see a close up as the camera zeros in on one of t he students in the background. “Cut.” Ben jumps up and provide s suggestions to the young actors. Later we learn that this class has been studying school citizensh ip and how to address the problems of bullying in their building . As a culminating project, the class is creating a series of video clips with typical scenarios that many of the students have faced . Later they will use these videoclips as discussion starters as th ey visit other classes to help students find alternative ways to a ddress common concerns. Although this project focused on affe ctive skills and the use of problem solving as the students devel oped the story lines, Ben found that the students also demonstra ted increased interest in planning and writing as they developed the scenario scripts. We learn that this is the first of many projects the students will complete over the school year. Ben believes that combining affe ctive and academic education is very helpful to his students. Th e students report that one of the most important aspects of this c lass is the teacher’s ongoing availability to students. They are q uick to talk about the respect that their teacher shows for each s tudent and how they, in turn, respect him.Differentiated Instruct ion Designed for the general education classroom, differentiated ins truction is an inclusive approach for working with all students. Tomlinson (2001) identifies three assumptions underlying differ entiated instruction. First, within any classroom, there is a wide range of learners. Second, there is no substitute for high- quality curriculum and instruction. Third, even with high- quality curriculum and instruction, effective educators must buil d bridges between the learner and learning. Teacher- student relationships are essential, and they take time to develo p. Figure 7.8 Differentiated instruction Source: Adapted from “Differentiated Instruction: Inclusive Str ategies that Benefit the Whole Class,” by D. Lawrence-
Brown, 2004, American Secondary Education, 32(3), pp. 34– 62. Adapted with permission.What It Looks Like? An educator planning for differentiated instruction tries to maxi mize student attainment of grade- level curriculum standards (Lawrence- Brown, 2004). Planning differentiated instruction often begins with the concept of universal design. Universal design in educat ion means that physical, social, and learning environments are d esigned so that individuals with a wide range of abilities can ha ve meaningful access to and participation in general education. Universal design in education involves flexibility of materials, s trategies, approaches, and technology. It can guide teachers as t hey work to make their teaching and learning activities appropri ate and accessible to a wide range of learners. Figure 7.8 illustrates the components of a differentiated classro om. Providing supports is an important strategy for helping som e students to obtain grade- level proficiency. For these students with mild to moderate disa bilities, grade- level standards are obtainable but very challenging (Lawrence- Brown, 2004). Supports include various types of materials, such as manipulatives, visual aids, charts, outlines, or assistive tech nology such as text-to- speech software to allow students to listen to textbooks. Additio nal supports may also include personal assistance such as peer t utoring or help from a teacher assistant. The teacher will use a v ariety of instructional strategies, such as a handout on the key c oncepts of the unit or a list of the new vocabulary terms. The te acher will help students make connections between prior knowle dge and new learning. Supports are also important so students with severe disabilities can follow alternative achievement standards or a prioritized cu rriculum. These supports enable a student to participate in the g eneral education curriculum while following the IEP, which has different curriculum goals. These goals are accomplished within the context of large-group activities (Lawrence-
Brown, 2004, p. 48). Figure 7.9 Differentiated instruction in practice Students with gifts and talents engage in an enriched curriculum . This curriculum allows students to explore concepts and ideas that are not typically covered in the classroom. Students have o pportunities for completing challenging and creative projects an d sharing their work with their classmates. Figure 7.9 illustrates these components of differentiated instruction in practice.What the Research Says About Differentiated Instruction Hawkins (2007) reports a longitudinal study of 100 public schoo ls in Rhode Island that demonstrated significant improvement o n achievement test scores between subgroups of students with I EPs and students without IEPs. This study focuses on improvem ents in either language arts or mathematics. School staff were as ked to identify effective practices that contributed to the rise in student test scores. Among the practices identified were the use of differentiated instruction, small- group instruction, manipulatives, teacher read- alouds, and collaborative teaching models, among other practice s. Additional research should lend further support to the use of differentiated instruction. Snapshot: Jan Browski’s Classroom Jan Browski greets us enthusiastically outside one of the eighth- grade classrooms. “Come on into our classroom! The students ar e anxious to show you our semester- long project, called ‘Exploring Our Town.’ Basically, the classr oom teaching focuses on giving students the general skills that t hey need while working on the project. For example, a few wee ks ago the students heard that a local construction company was going to build a new bridge over Temple Stream. We had heard that the Passamoquoddy Indians had camped near the stream in that area many years ago. As we talked, the students wondered a bout the history of the area and what would be lost as a result of the construction. They decided to conduct interviews with some of the tribe elders still living in the area. In the classroom, we
discussed how to develop an interview and collect the data. Two of the students had some experience in developing interview qu estions, and they became our peer tutors for this aspect of the pr oject. They each worked with small groups of students to help t hem refine their questions. “You’ll see the students working in a 2- hour block of time today. Will Engart, the teacher assistant, is g oing to be working with one of the smaller groups. The students were assigned a small booklet to read. Some of the students rea d the historical account and others listened to a copy that was sc anned in to the computer.” As we sit in on the group discussion, we hear students asking What viewpoint is this written from? How do we know this? How is this connected to what we learned in our interviews with the tribe elders? Will leads the students in thinking about their interpretations. St udents with strong higher order thinking skills are modeling var ious ways of connecting the information. Other learners have a mple opportunities to observe, listen, and participate in the disc ussion. We leave the classroom realizing that differentiated inst ruction has enabled all students to deepen their understanding of preservation issues faced by this community.Inquiry- Based Learning Inquiry- based learning relies on the teacher to create experiences from which students derive their own knowledge and meaning. Jerom e Bruner (1966) believed that inquiry- based learning helps students take responsibility for their own l earning and remember important information. Inquiry- based learning, sometimes referred to as discovery learning, or problem solving, is built on the theory of constructivism. Eleme nts of social cognitive theory, such as group work and cooperati on among students, play a role in inquiry- based learning. But organization of student activities should not be the only principle; inquiry is also characterized by the teach
er’s mode of participation (Wells, 2000).What It Looks Like The teacher begins by planning a broad purpose, or goal, and he lping students generate their own questions and topics. The teac her gathers information about the topics and makes sure that stu dents have access to needed resources. Inquiry- based learning uses objects and ideas that encourage students to manipulate and compare. The teacher provides questions to cap ture students’ attention and encourage higher order thinking or ways of knowing that were discussed in Chapter 6. Students are encouraged to make guesses based on available information and to find ways of solving problems. The teacher acts as a guide, p roviding basic information and encouraging students to determi ne the best way to organize new and familiar information, but is careful not to provide guidance that would interfere with self- direction and discovery (Figure 7.10). General educators often u se inquiry- based learning in the general education classroom in the belief t hat students learn best through active involvement. Science edu cators, for example, emphasize doing science by focusing on the following student activities: designing experiments, predicting results, manipulating materials, recording observations, and sum marizing findings. These activities are quite different from othe r teaching methods, such as a more direct instruction approach i n which the educator performs the experiment while students wa tch and then discuss the results. Research to Practice Teaching Methods and Specific Content Focus Some teaching methods specific to a curriculum area also have a wide research base that demonstrates their effectiveness for stu dents with disabilities. An example of a curriculum- specific teaching method is MathWings (Madden, Slavin, & Sim ons, 2002), tied to the national mathematics standards develope d by the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics. MathWi ngs involves students in problem solving in real situations using cooperative groups and literature, science, art, and other subjec
ts as well as the students’ personal experiences. Students are en couraged to use calculators for developing mathematical concep ts, explain and defend their solutions orally, and write regularly in their individual logbooks. Research studies indicate that stud ents involved in MathWings, including students in poverty, mad e substantial gains in mathematical achievement. Special educators use supported inquiry- based learning to encourage inductive thinking. Figure 7.10 Supported inquiry-based learning in practice Source: Adapted from “Supported Inquiry Science: Teaching for Conceptual Change in Urban and Suburban Science Classrooms ,” by B. Dalton and C. C. Morocco, 1997, Journal of Learning D isabilities, 30(6), pp. 670–685. Adapted with permission. Students are required to use inductive thinking in many inquiry- based activities. Inductive thinking requires students to consider their observations and then develop a general rule based on thei r findings or discoveries. Thus, the students “construct” knowle dge as a result of their own observations and thinking.Supported Inquiry-Based Learning Because students with mild and moderate disabilities often have difficulty with inductive thinking (Mastropieri & Scruggs, 1997 ), special educators often support them through the use of prom pted coaching and supported inquiry methods. In the following dialogue (adapted from Mastropieri & Scruggs), notice how the teacher uses questioning during prompted coaching to help a stu dent with a disability to draw inferences: Educator: Anteaters have long claws on their front feet. Why does this ma ke sense? Student: I don’t know. Educator: Well, let’s think. What do you know about anteaters? For examp le, what do they eat?
Student: Anteaters eat ants. Educator: Good. And where do ants live? Student: They live in holes in the ground. Educator: Now, if anteaters eat ants and ants live in holes in the ground, w hy do you think that anteaters have long claws on their front fee t? Student: To dig for ants. Educator: Good. To dig for ants. Sometimes in supported inquiry- based learning, the educator provides the general rule to the stu dents first. Then students are prompted and questioned to apply the rule (Woodward & Noell, 1992). Educators also embed asses sment in instruction, including performance tasks as well as que stions that students respond to in drawing and writing (Dalton & Morocco, 1997).What the Research Says About Inquiry- Based Instruction Research studies supporting the benefits of inquiry- based learning have focused on the importance of insight and di scovery to learning (Parsons et al., 2001). Students report that i nquiry- based learning is enjoyable (Algava, 1999; Romeo & Young, 19 97). Teachers using an inquiry-based, hands- on science curriculum have found that students with learning dis abilities learn and comprehend more information than students t aught from textbooks (Scruggs, Mastropieri, Bakken, & Brigha m, 1993). Research findings suggest that coaching students with learning disabilities to draw inferences regarding science princi ples results in higher levels of recall and understanding (Palincs ar, Magnusson, Collins, & Cutter, 2001) and that supported inqu iry is more effective than an activity-
based science approach alone (Dalton & Morocco, 1997; Sasaki & Serna, 1995). Use of inquiry with Web- based activities is an effective practice in inclusive biology clas ses (Bodzin, Waller, Santoro, & Kale, 2007). These studies are part of a small, but growing, body of research that focuses on in quiry-based learning and higher order thinking. Snapshot: Kayla Hennesey’s Classroom Kayla Hennesey, a special educator in a small K– 8 community school, has invited us to join her and her students for the day. One of the first things we see when entering her res ource room is a large glass terrarium on a table. Several student s are gathered around the table this morning, some with handhel ds (such as PDAs) and others with notebooks. The students are using these to record their daily observations. As we move close r, we see a cocoon hanging from a branch. On the table is a vari ety of magnifying glasses. The students are following the life cy cle of two caterpillars they found earlier. Each week they record their observations and take a digital picture to add to the class Web site. Kayla introduced the unit by leading a discussion about two diff erent caterpillars she had brought to class. Most of the students knew that caterpillars metamorphosed into butterflies. But the te acher continued to probe, hoping that the additional questions s he posed would create interest among the students. Do you think that all caterpillars have the same life cycle? What kinds of but terflies will metamorphose from these caterpillars? The students were hooked! Can we find out? Once the students had accepted the challenge, Kayla helped them decide how to conduct their o bservations and collect their data. She provided multiple ways, i ncluding both text and digital formats, for drawing or sketching and recording their observations. Working with the school librar ian, she located resource books at different reading levels and id entified community resource people with whom students could d iscuss their ideas. Previous section
Next section 7.3 Using TechnologyTablets and Laptops: Tools or Too Many Obstacles? In considering ways of teaching, tablets and laptops provide exc iting possibilities for enhancing teaching and learning activities because each student can access an enormous amount of informa tion from a desktop or small- group work area. These technology tools enable students to deve lop skills in working with others and to enhance self- esteem and self- sufficiency while working on content knowledge. Students also can use software to help them organize their school schedules a nd assignments as well as other aspects of their daily lives. Tec hnology tools, such as text-to- speech software or word prediction, may allow some students wi th disabilities to access and use information more efficiently an d more accurately than traditional materials. However, for some students with disabilities, using tablets and l aptops may create major problems. Some students may not be ab le to see text on the screen, either because it is too small or bec ause they are not able to read text written at a specific level. La ptops and tablets may not be compatible with specialized softwa re that students with disabilities need to access text information or they may not support the use of voice input as a keyboard alt ernative. For students who have difficulty in keyboarding or wh o are not physically able to use a keyboard, accessing the comp uter directly using speech- recognition software allows them to find and use information. F or students with fine motor difficulties, the reduced keyboard si ze of some laptops, buttons on tablets, and minikeyboards or thu mb keyboards may be too small or too complicated or may requi re too high a degree of fine motor control to operate. Here are s ome questions to consider: What are some of the difficulties tha t the keyboard or screen might present to a student with a disabi lity? What are some advantages to using a tablet? How easy or d
ifficult is it to learn to use one? What problems might this tool present to a student with a disability? IN PRACTICE As we learned earlier in this chapter, a method consists of a gen eral plan that the teacher follows to introduce new material, assi st student learning, and provide feedback to students regarding t heir achievement. Educators typically select and use teaching m ethods with which they are most familiar. Often an individual te acher’s selection of a method is based on earlier training and ex periences provided by experienced mentors. Selection of a teaching method also should be based on research findings. The teacher should ask which methods are most effect ive for students with disabilities. Classroom Focus Sean Bellaire, a high school special educator, and Mary Wallace , a high school social studies teacher, meet twice a week to plan daily lessons. Today they are starting a new unit, and together t hey decide that Sean should begin the class by discussing a gene ral topic, familiar to the students, and then move to the specific topic of today’s lesson. Working Toward Solution s As students settle into their seats, Sean asks, “How many of you have ever moved to a new neighborhood or a new community?” He encourages students to share their experiences, sometimes p robing with questions such as, How did you prepare for the mov e? and How long did it take to get settled? After students have a chance to share their experiences, Sean and Mary introduce the
new unit, the Western Movement. Each student receives a hando ut with a graphic that represents the overall unit and an outline of the material to be covered today. Several new vocabulary wor ds, such as Donner Pass, are included on the handout. After previewing what they will be covering for today, Mary us es her laptop and a data projector to display the outline with key concepts on the screen while she presents the information orall y. She also encourages students to participate in the lively discu ssion concerning the new information. During this time, Sean as sists several students to record notes on the outline handout. Ne xt the teachers pass out a written follow- up activity for each student to complete. At the end of class, Ma ry provides a brief review of what they covered and answers any questions about an upcoming assignment. For a student with a mild to moderate disability, a method of instruction that is well organized and structured helps in learning new information. What the Research Says Probably no other teaching method has such a wide research bas e as direct instruction. Numerous research studies focus on the e ffectiveness of direct instruction for students with learning disa bilities, behavior disorders, mild to moderate mental retardation , and autism. In fact, the effectiveness of direct instruction is no t restricted to a particular disability, age group, or skills area ( White, 1988). Direct instruction is one of the most effective classroom interve
ntions. In a review of 24 meta- analyses concerning various types of intervention used with stu dents with disabilities, Forness (2001) found that direct instruct ion, mnemonic strategies, reading- comprehension strategies, and behavior modification were the m ost effective methods. MyEducationLab: Your Turn Learn more about how teachers use direct instruction— go to MyEducationLab and select the topic Instructional Practic es and Learning Strategies. Then watch the video entitled “Read ing: Direct Instruction.” Compare and contrast how the teachers in the preceding scenario and the teacher in the video used dire ct instruction. Be prepared to discuss your ideas with members of the class. 7.4 Emerging Concepts What will teaching and learning look like in your classroom? E merging concepts in the field of education as well as new techn ologies present innovative ways of teaching and learning. As yo u read the following section, envision how you might employ on e or more of these concepts or technology tools in your future cl assroom. Do you think teaching and learning would be more eff ective?Learning and Social Networks Technology offers new windows of opportunity for creating lear ning networks among students. Learning portals that provide a s
ingle point of access, coupled with wireless and mobile technol ogies such as laptops and cell phones, allow students to connect with others in the classroom and in classrooms across the world to collect data, solve problems, and create products. Moreover, these technologies offer multiple formats for learning. Students download multimedia content, including text, graphics, animatio ns, video or audio clips. For many students, being “plugged in” is not only motivating but also helps make learning fun. For other students, networks provide opportunities for using ne w skills. Today students build social networks beyond physical neighborhoods and communicate regularly with individuals with whom them have common interests but have never met face to f ace. Educators can build social networks for students to introdu ce and practice social skills by working with others or role playi ng in virtual worlds. Participating in social networks, though, d emands an understanding of certain protocols for participation a nd a foundation of learning how to play safely. In a synchronous learning or social environments, the students o r the instructor and the students communicate in real time. How ever, asynchronous environments operate continuously, and lear ners come during times that are convenient. Synchronous learning allows teachers to provide immediate feed back and correct student misunderstandings. Technology tools t hat may support this environment include student- controlled clickers to participate in whole-
class quizzes, voice and video conferencing with experts across the country, text messaging with other students across the globe , and live Web quests. Asynchronous learning allows teachers to extend learning beyon d the classroom in an interactive way, providing students opport unities to think more deeply about their activities and then parti cipate in threaded discussions, create blogs, or produce material s to post to a Web- based bulletin board. Podcasts allow students to listen to materi al once or multiple times, if needed. Future learning networks may provide a variety of environments , using the best features of each. In class, seat time may be aug mented by small- group activities in a synchronous environment; later, students m ay post ideas and drafts of work in an asynchronous environmen t. The 21st century is truly a time of emerging concepts, technol ogies, and new ideas for learning networks! Snapshot: Piper Armstrong’s Mentorship Program Piper recently graduated from the state university with a major i n biology and coursework in special education. In her first year of teaching at Randall High, she is participating in an interestin g mentorship program. She explains that this online mentoring p roject, called Electronic Mentoring for Student Success (eMSS), matches new teachers (first or second year of teaching middle o r high school science) with an experienced science teacher from
another school district who teaches in the same content area. T he mentoring takes place online and is focused on content and p edagogy. Scientists from the University of California and Monta na State University also participate to provide content support w hen needed or share their research activities. Discussion areas a re provided for earth, space, life, and physical science, and seve ral modules are designed to explore different aspects of science teaching between mentors and mentees (eMSS, 2006). Previous section Next sectionSummary • Based on learning theory and research in the field, an effective teaching method provides a general plan that the teacher follow s in introducing material, assisting student learning, and providi ng feedback to students regarding their achievement. • Theories of learning offer different perspectives on how stude nts learn and provide a framework for teaching methods. • An integral part of any teaching method should include planni ng and developing ways to welcome all students in the classroo m. Educators must work to create opportunities for students to l earn about and celebrate the unique characteristics of people in their communities, building respect for and acceptance of others . • Some research suggests that particular teaching methods better
meet the needs of Latino students than other methods. Much ad ditional research is needed for teaching of students whose secon d or third language is English and for newcomer students with d isabilities. • Web- based technologies, such as social and learning networks hold m uch promise for all students, including students with disabilities . • As new devices and concepts emerge, educators may need to p lay many roles, such as teacher, advocate, investigator, and lead er to uphold the right to information access for all students.
Chapter 6 Planning and Organizing Instruction OBJECTIVES After completing this chapter, you should be able to Discuss planning classroom environments to positively affect l earning. Describe how special educators and other team members develo p individualized education programs. Discuss the process of planning and organizing instruction. Students with and without disabilities are expected to acquire k nowledge and skills across all areas of the school curriculum. In fact, IDEA states that students with disabilities must have acce ss to the general education curriculum. Today, special educators must be familiar with the general education curriculum as well as with specialized teaching methods and instructional strategie s for students with disabilities. They may join general educators as part of a teaching team, or they may work alone or with othe r special educators to plan, organize, and implement instruction. To begin, educators ask questions about the students with whom they will be teaching. What do Tony, Tasha, and Juanita know? In planning and organizing instruction, special educators begin by assessing the academic needs of students with disabilities in the various content areas, such as literacy (including reading an d writing), mathematics, science, and social studies. Assessment
results help educators to determine where to begin planning an d implementing instruction. Chapter 5 examined some of the ass essment approaches that educators use to link assessment inform ation with instruction. By using assessment information aligned with the general education curriculum, educators can plan and d evelop learning activities that deepen students’ understanding a nd strengthen their skills while facilitating work toward high ac ademic achievement. Special educators also assess student skills and behaviors. They consider prerequisite skills that a student may need, which is cri tical before planning instruction. For example, the educator con ducts a brief probe to assess whether a student is familiar with t he meaning of new vocabulary words. Special educators also ass ess social skills and behaviors. When students need to build app ropriate social skills and positive behaviors, educators plan and organize instructional activities to include a social skills compo nent as part of the academic instruction. For example, an educat or may plan a lesson in writing that involves working cooperati vely with one or more other students to allow a student with a di sability to build positive behaviors in working with peers. If students require accommodations or modifications, educators review the students’ IEPs to determine what accommodations or modifications are described. If students use AT devices, educat ors consider how they will use the devices during assessment, in struction, and learning activities. Careful planning and organizi
ng of instruction create successful learning opportunities for all students. Planning and organizing instruction for students with disabilitie s begins with knowing the characteristics of learners, what they know, and what they can do. Chapters 2 and 3 discussed the cha racteristics of students, their abilities, and their diverse needs. Chapter 5 discussed the assessment of students to answer questi ons about their achievement, skills, and behaviors. This chapter discusses how teachers use assessment information to plan instr uction and organize learning experiences. 6.1 Classroom Environments Each classroom consists of various environments— physical, social, and learning— that must be considered in planning instruction. The physical en vironment consists of the space and furnishings that make up th e classroom. The social environment comprises the everyday act ivities, interactions, and relationships that exist in the classroo m and their impact on learning. The learning environment consi sts of the content of the instruction, the methods and instruction al strategies that a teacher uses, the learning strategies that a stu dent uses, and the ways the student demonstrates progress and a chievement.Physical Environment As we discussed in Chapter 1, special educators work in various
settings, such as general education classrooms, resource rooms, special- purpose schools, and other places. The physical environment for learning has received considerable emphasis in regard to studen ts with disabilities. For example, the Americans with Disabilitie s Act (ADA) ensures that all public classrooms are physically a ccessible to students with disabilities. But simply creating ramp s and wide doorways is not enough; students must have access t o meaningful instruction and learning activities. To participate fully in learning activities, students should have physical access to appropriate classroom materials and equipme nt. For example, a visitor to Mario Stefani’s social studies class observes students working in small groups using a variety of m aterials. One group of four students works together using laptop s, whereas another group uses graph paper, pens, colored pencil s, and various small cardboard shapes. Tony, a student with men tal retardation, is an active participant in another group of four students who are using wooden forms to create a model of the s ocial structure of an ancient society. The teacher frequently pla ns various small-group learning activities involving hands- on use of materials that are stored in accessible locations. In his classroom, small tables are placed throughout the room for sma ll-group work. Additional considerations in the physical environment include li ghting, temperature, distractions, and noise level. The teacher s
hould adjust lighting so that projectors and computer screens ar e free from glare, which can make reading difficult. The teacher should also check that room displays are not visually distractin g. For example, hanging mobiles help a room look attractive, bu t materials that are visually stimulating may be distracting to so me learners. When possible, the teacher arranges seating away f rom a door, bulletin board, window, or other areas that could di stract these students. To create a positive physical environment, the teacher monitors the noise level, making sure that no studen t work group is loud enough to distract students in other groups. Figure 6.1 illustrates a teacher- made form for observing the physical environment. Special educators create positive social environments for studen ts.Social Environment Establishing positive relationships with peers and teachers and building a school community are important components of the e ducational program for all students. Yet, for many students with disabilities, these relationships may not develop. Students with disabilities in fourth and fifth grades report that they felt lonely at school (Pavri & Monda- Amaya, 2000). Murray and Greenberg (2001) found that student s with disabilities in fifth and sixth grades are more dissatisfied with their relationships with teachers and establish poorer bonds with school than students without disabilities.
Research studies such as these suggest that special educators to day must plan ways of creating positive social environments for students with disabilities while planning interventions to streng then relationships between students with and without disabilitie s. In fact, Hunt (2000) found that teachers were the driving forc e for the unification of general education and special education programs. These teachers worked together to develop needed cu rricular adaptations and social supports, often coteaching in the classroom. They implemented a social curriculum and conflict- resolution procedures. They respected and valued all students an d, in return, expected all students to respect others. Successful t eachers also encourage students to attempt new and difficult tas ks and to take learning risks. Teachers hold high expectations fo r all students, and students’ attempts are valued. Figure 6.2 illus trates a teacher- made form for observing the social environment. Figure 6.1 Observing the physical environment Source: From Assessment of Children and Youth with Special N eeds (3rd ed.), by L. G. Cohen and L. J. Spenciner. Published by Allyn & Bacon, Boston, MA. Copyright © 2007 by Pearson Edu cation. Reprinted by permission of the publisher. Figure 6.2 Observing the social environment Source: From Assessment of Children and Youth with Special N
eeds (3rd ed.), by L. G. Cohen and L. J. Spenciner. Published by Allyn & Bacon, Boston, MA. Copyright © 2007 by Pearson Edu cation. Reprinted by permission of the publisher.Learning Envir onment As noted previously, the classroom learning environment includ es the content of instruction, the instructional strategies that the teacher employs, the learning strategies that students use, and t he methods students use to demonstrate progress and achieveme nt. Students bring diverse needs, skills, and abilities to the class room. How can learning experiences be meaningful and relevant for each student? How can teachers help every student achieve high academic standards? Teachers frequently plan and organize instruction across more than one content area to help students make learning connections. For example, one team of teachers p lanned an integrated unit in literacy, science, and social studies. Students broadened their understanding of the 1800s not only b y studying historical events but also by participating in and writ ing about activities that illustrate the way of life during that per iod. They conducted research to learn how people dressed and w hat foods they ate. They created replicas of simple machines tha t people used and learned how they worked. In planning an integrated unit, teachers frequently embed the st udent’s IEP goals and objectives within lesson plans and teachin g activities. Let us return to Tony, the boy with mental retardati on whom we met earlier. When planning instructional activities
for Tony and the other students, Nelson Barnes, the social studi es teacher, decided to design activities that would involve small - group work. Encouraging students to work and learn together en ables them to grasp concepts of earlier societies in which work was interdependent. For Tony, learning to work with peers is no t only important for understanding these concepts but is also par t of his IEP. One of his goals is to increase his skills in working cooperatively with peers. Learning activities that involve both i ndividual and group work support the diverse abilities that stude nts bring to the classroom. In a report that analyzed how planning instruction to meet a wid e range of student abilities and standards- based curricula affects students with disabilities, Jorgensen (19 97) found that several essential questions challenge and support students both with and without disabilities. Some of these questi ons include: What is the central unit, problem, or question? Wh at will interest students— for example, serve as a unit “grabber” or kick- off activity? What are the learning experiences? What assessme nt approaches can be used? What are the culminating projects? Educators must consider many questions such as these in planni ng and organizing the learning environment. Figure 6.3 illustrat es a teacher- made form for considering the learning environment.
Planning and organizing instruction for students with disabilitie s involves working closely with general education teachers and t he general education curriculum so that all students can achieve high standards. For example, Raphael Suazo, the special educat ion teacher, meets regularly with the classroom teachers to cons ult and coordinate education planning for Tony. Tony participat es in the general education classes for social studies and science and receives specially designed instruction for mathematics and language arts in the resource room. Raphael, who majored in m athematics with a concentration in special education, is responsi ble for delivering mathematics instruction; another special educ ator, who is also highly qualified but in English and language ar ts, teaches an intensive English course for Tony and a small gro up of other students. As with each student in the high school, T ony is expected to work toward high achievement in every acade mic area. Figure 6.3 Observing the learning environment Source: Excerpts from Assessment of Children and Youth with Special Needs (3rd ed.), by L. G. Cohen and L. J. Spenciner. Pu blished by Allyn & Bacon, Boston, MA. Copyright © 2007 by P earson Education. Reprinted by permission of the publisher. Considering Cultural and Linguistic Perspectives Physical, Social, and Learning Environments
In considering the physical, social, and learning environments, t he teacher plans ways to enable students to connect classroom l earning with their homes and communities. Learning experience s and instructional activities should be culturally relevant and m eaningful. Diversity perspectives should be embedded when pla nning units of instruction. For example, in planning a unit on nu trition, the teacher plans and organizes instructional activities s o students learn about foods from various cultural groups that ar e part of the community. Meaningful learning experiences, such as inviting students to bring in a recipe from home to create a cl assroom cookbook, are included in the unit. Teachers create culturally responsive social environments, too. They arrange collaborative groups to encourage student learning . They work to connect prior experiences with new learning. Stu dents engage in a variety of activities that allow them to move a bout the classroom. What should a teacher consider in planning and organizing instruction that is effective for all students? Afte r extensive research, the Center for Research on Education, Div ersity, and Excellence has developed five principles for effectiv e pedagogy that are applicable across K– 12 grade levels (Dalton, 1998). 1. Joint productive activity The teacher designs instructional act ivities requiring student collaboration to accomplish a joint pro duct…. [The teacher] organizes students in a variety of groupin gs, such as by friendship, mixed academic ability, language, pro
ject, or interests, to promote interaction. [The teacher] plans wit h students how to work in groups…. (p. 11) 2. Developing language and literacy across the curriculum The t eacher listens to students talk about familiar topics such as hom e and community…. [The teacher] assists written and oral langu age development through modeling, eliciting, probing, restating, clarifying, questioning, praising, etc., in purposeful conversatio n and writing. [The teacher] interacts with students in ways that respect students’ preferences for speaking that may be different from the teacher’s, such as wait-time, eye contact, turn- taking, or spotlighting…. [The teacher] encourages students’ us e of first and second languages in instructional activities. (p. 17 ) 3. Making meaning Connecting school to students’ lives. The te acher … designs instructional activities that are meaningful to s tudents in terms of local community norms and knowledge…. [T he teacher] acquires knowledge of local norms and knowledge b y talking to students, parents, or family members, community m embers, and by reading pertinent documents…. [The teacher] pl ans jointly with students to design community- based learning activities…. (p. 22) 4. Teaching complex thinking The teacher assures that students —for each instructional topic— see the whole picture as a basis for understanding the parts…. [ The teacher] designs instructional tasks that advance student un
derstanding to more complex levels…. [The teacher] gives clear , direct feedback about how student performance compares with the challenging standards…. (p. 26) 5. Teaching through conversation The teacher … has a clear aca demic goal that guides conversation with students. [The teacher] ensures that student talk occurs at higher rates than teacher talk …. [The teacher] guides conversation to include students’ views , judgments, and rationales using text evidence and other substa ntive support…. (p. 30) Questions for Reflection 1. Consider the students in your community schools. To develop language and literacy across the curriculum (see recommendati on 2), what children’s books and folk tales can you locate that would help you in working with these students? 2. To become more knowledgeable about the culture and traditio ns of the students in your community schools, what online resou rces would be helpful? Chapter 5 Linking Assessment and Instruction OBJECTIVES
After completing this chapter, you should be able to Discuss contemporary views regarding assessment practices an d instruction. Compare and contrast contemporary assessment approaches for planning and monitoring instruction. Discuss approaches to evaluating instruction, including state an d federal mandates that influence practices. Describe professional standards and ethics in assessing student s with disabilities. Good teaching always begins with an understanding of what the student already knows and can do. Before special educators star t to plan specific instruction, they identify questions and gather information about the student’s knowledge, skills, and abilities. Educators continue to gather information, or perform assessmen t, during the lesson or instructional activities, in monitoring stu dent work, and at the end of the instructional unit. When linking assessment with instruction, an educator uses student assessme nt information to make instructional decisions regarding introdu cing new material, providing additional practice with supplemen tary learning activities, or modifying lessons and using different instructional strategies. In other words, the assessment informa tion guides teaching practices. Finally, assessments that are closely aligned with the curriculu m provide a special educator with valuable help in monitoring st udent progress. By examining this assessment information, the e
ducator can identify areas of proficiency and areas where the st udent is making progress. Assessment information also indicates areas in which the student needs attention, signaling the teacher that adjustments should be made in instruction. Previous section Next section 5.1 Contemporary Views of Assessment and Instruction Educators use an array of assessment approaches from student t o student and from classroom to classroom. Perhaps as a student , you have experienced some of the many different ways teacher s (and professors) monitor and assess achievement. Contempora ry researchers have written about the importance— and connections— of good assessment to effective teaching. According to Shepard (as cited in Olson, 2002, p. 2), “We have strong evidence that hi gh- quality classroom assessment improves learning tremendously, possibly more effectively than any other sort of teaching interve ntion.” In this chapter, we look at various assessment approache s and ways teachers construct high- quality assessments and, link assessments with instruction to hel p students with disabilities meet high academic standards, devel op positive behaviors, and demonstrate competent social skills.
5.2 Assessment for Planning and Monitoring InstructionPlannin g Where to Begin Instruction Before planning instruction, teachers use various assessment ap proaches to identify what students know and can do. They gathe r information about academic achievement, attainment of social skills, and positive behaviors. Many of the traditional assessme nt practices, such as teacher- developed quizzes and standardized achievement tests, focus on content knowledge. These assessment approaches require studen ts to recall or identify information. By contrast, contemporary a ssessments focus not only on knowledge but also on process skil ls, learning strategies, thinking skills, acquisition of social and personal behaviors, effective communication, and work habits. Students may be asked to compare, analyze, and evaluate inform ation in these types of assessments.Selecting Appropriate Asses sment Approaches Each of the assessment approaches discussed in this chapter has its own strengths and limitations. Some approaches are best use d as an integral part of instruction. Curriculum- based assessments, criterion- referenced assessments, probes, and observations are examples of assessments that occur before and during instruction. These t ypes of assessments are known as formative assessments. Forma tive assessments provide students and teachers with ongoing inf ormation about their work and progress. For teachers, formative
assessments provide information about what students can do an d enable teachers to reflect on what methods and strategies are most effective in supporting student learning (Darling- Hammond & Ancess, 1996). Other approaches, referred to as summative assessments, occur at the end of lessons, instructional units, or marking periods to s how student growth and progress. Student performances, portfol ios, teacher- made exams, and standardized tests are examples of summative assessments. Although summative assessments provide students time to develop understandings, sometimes students have to wai t a long time to receive feedback. Chapter 9 presents another val uable assessment approach, student observations, used in both f ormative and summative assessments. When selecting an assessment approach, teachers should be kno wledgeable of IDEA mandates. Regarding assessment practices, IDEA states that assessments and other evaluation materials use d to assess a child must be provided and administered in the chil d’s native language or other mode of communication. The assess ment should be in the form most likely to yield accurate informa tion about what the child knows and can do academically, devel opmentally, and functionally, unless it is clearly not feasible to do so. Because teachers use a variety of assessment approaches to mak e informed decisions, the assessment approach and the scoring p
rocedure must be both reliable and valid. Teachers want to have confidence in the results. The reliability of an assessment refer s to the “scoring procedure that enables the examiner to quantif y, evaluate, and interpret behavior or work samples. Reliability refers to the consistency of such measurements when the testing procedure is repeated on a population of individuals or groups” (American Educational Research Association, American Psycho logical Association, & National Council on Measurement in Edu cation, 1999). The validity of a test or other measure refers to the “degree to w hich evidence and theory support the interpretations of test scor es entailed by the proposed tests” (American Educational Resear ch Association et al., 1999, p. 9). An educator who needs infor mation about a student’s reading comprehension or a student’s a bility to solve a mathematical problem must have confidence tha t the assessment approach will provide that information.Curricul um-Based Assessment Curriculum- based assessment (CBA) provides valuable information to speci al educators about what students know and are able to do. Becau se CBAs consist of items that address specific areas of student k nowledge or skills, a teacher can use the assessment results to p inpoint a student’s actual skill levels. This information allows t he teacher to develop appropriate instructional and learning acti vities and to focus instruction on what the student needs to mast
er. Special educators frequently use the results of CBA to deter mine a student’s progress toward school district or state curricul um standards. Developing a CBA 1. Identify the content area and performance objectives. By iden tifying performance objectives, educators define the behaviors t hat the student must demonstrate in order to indicate progress. Because a CBA focuses on specific areas of the curriculum, edu cators begin by carefully examining the curriculum area and ide ntifying the specific information or skills they wish to assess. E ducators consider the kind of information students should know: facts, concepts, rules, and/or strategies (Howell & Nolet, 2000) . Facts are pieces of information that the student has memorized , such as the temperature at which water freezes or capitals of v arious countries. Concepts involve more than memorizing and re call; they require the student to understand and distinguish the a ttributes of one concept from another. Rules and strategies invol ve both memorizing and identifying situations in which the rule or strategy applies. A well- constructed CBA typically assesses two or more types of inform ation. 2. Decide on the question and response format. Before educators begin writing the actual test questions, they will need to decide if the assessment will be a paper-and- pencil assessment or if it will be available as a digital file acces
sible by computer. Educators can construct assessment items tha t require students to use their laptops to respond in a text or voi ce note or on a traditional answer sheet. Educators address other considerations as well, including what question formats to include in the assessment and how students will be asked to respond (Hargrove, Church, Yssel, & Koch, 200 2). Question formats include total recall, fill in the blank, multi ple choice, and matching. Students with cognitive disabilities an d short- term memory difficulties may have more difficulty with some q uestion formats than others. 3. Write the test questions. In this step, educators develop the s pecific test questions that correspond to the performance objecti ves. The content of the test questions should be closely aligned with the curriculum. This will help to ensure that the assessment is valid. 4. Develop scoring procedures. Educators must decide how test items will be scored and how educators will determine student p rogress. For example, a question could be scored as right or wro ng, or a certain number of points could be assigned based on the student’s response. 5. Organize and interpret the information. Educators consider h ow best to organize the assessment information so that it can be interpreted easily. They frequently create a bar or line graph. B y using graphs, educators and the student and family members c
Children’s Response to Art Activities Describing how a child
Children’s Response to Art Activities Describing how a child
Children’s Response to Art Activities Describing how a child
Children’s Response to Art Activities Describing how a child
Children’s Response to Art Activities Describing how a child
Children’s Response to Art Activities Describing how a child
Children’s Response to Art Activities Describing how a child
Children’s Response to Art Activities Describing how a child
Children’s Response to Art Activities Describing how a child
Children’s Response to Art Activities Describing how a child
Children’s Response to Art Activities Describing how a child
Children’s Response to Art Activities Describing how a child
Children’s Response to Art Activities Describing how a child
Children’s Response to Art Activities Describing how a child
Children’s Response to Art Activities Describing how a child
Children’s Response to Art Activities Describing how a child
Children’s Response to Art Activities Describing how a child
Children’s Response to Art Activities Describing how a child
Children’s Response to Art Activities Describing how a child
Children’s Response to Art Activities Describing how a child
Children’s Response to Art Activities Describing how a child
Children’s Response to Art Activities Describing how a child
Children’s Response to Art Activities Describing how a child
Children’s Response to Art Activities Describing how a child
Children’s Response to Art Activities Describing how a child
Children’s Response to Art Activities Describing how a child
Children’s Response to Art Activities Describing how a child
Children’s Response to Art Activities Describing how a child
Children’s Response to Art Activities Describing how a child
Children’s Response to Art Activities Describing how a child
Children’s Response to Art Activities Describing how a child
Children’s Response to Art Activities Describing how a child
Children’s Response to Art Activities Describing how a child
Children’s Response to Art Activities Describing how a child

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Children’s Response to Art Activities Describing how a child

  • 1. Children’s Response to Art Activities Describing how a child does what helps us understand a child’s feelings. Observing art activities allows a unique insight into every child, for no two children work with materials in the same way. Observe a child during an art activity. In the following section, complete each of the applicable items you observed. Give a brief statement for each applicable item. Age/Grade Level of Child: _____________________________________________________ ______ Place/Time of Observation: _____________________________________________________ _____ Amount of Time Spent Observing: ____________________________________________________ Movement: What is the child’s posture like? What is the rhythm of body movements? What is the tempo of the body movements? How much and what kind of effort does the child expend? What kind of freedom does the child show in his or her body movements? Facial Expression: Describe the eyes of the child during the activity. Describe the mouth. Sounds and Language: From the items observed above, what can be surmised about the child’s emotional response to the materials? About the child’s self-awareness and self-concept? If the voice is used, what is it like? What does the child say? (Direct quotes, if possible) Does the child chant, sing, use nonsense syllables or phrases, or tell stories while working?
  • 2. Summary of Observation: Describe the child’s self-awareness and self-concept as reflected in the use of art materials. Week 6 Part 3 Nicole Richardson Student Demographics Sally is an eight-year-old Caucasian female in third grade, she is an only child with a diagnosis of ASD. Sally lives at home with her mother and father, Sally parents both work and Sally spends a majority of her time with her babysitter Sara. Sally is a sweet kid most of the time. She loves to color and likes everything Jojo Siwa! When Sally becomes agitated her behaviors included eloping, self injury, biting, hitting and screaming. Interfering Behavior Sally behaviors can be presented in different ways, from avoidance, fleeing, outburst, to getting out of her seat talking out of turn, becoming aggressive, and not completing assignments. She lacks the ability to think through her actions. (inpulsive) Preventative strategies Providing Sally with strategies to meet her needs, and give her different ways to prevent behaviors. Give Sally positive praise, encouragement and model positive behavior. Check the often for overstimulation. Offer Sally choices in manipulative tools for the task and guidance and positive redirection. Use a token
  • 3. board to reward positive beahvior, getting tokens as frequenly as a minute apart at first and then in time waiting longer. Functional assessment According to Sally’s school record, behaviors happen for attention or to escape work that she is not interested in. Her behavior continues until she either gets the attention she desires or until she does not have to complete task. Replacement behavior We will teach Sally that she can obtain the attention desired for staying on task completing her work and following directions. We will reward her with positive reinforcement as well as using the token board to allow Sally to earn preferred items, such as iPad time JoJo Siwa videos or edibles. Reflection With support from the whole team, continuous work, individualized strategies, UDL and interventions Sally will will be able to manage her behaviors and control her outbursts. Sally will have methods in place that will replace the behaviors at both school and at home.
  • 4. Teaching Students with Mild and Moderate Disabilities: Research-Based Practices SECOND EDITION Libby G. Cohen National Institute of Education, Singapore Loraine J. Spenciner University of Maine, Farmington Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Cohen, Libby G. Teaching students with mild and moderate disabilities : resea rch-based practices / Libby G. Cohen, Loraine J. Spenciner.-- 2nd ed. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and indexes. ISBN-13: 978-0-13-233138-8 ISBN-10: 0-13-233138-1 1. Children with disabilities--Education-- United States. I. Spenciner, Loraine J. II. Title. LC4031.C64 2009 371.92’6-- dc22 2008008700 Vice President and Executive Publisher: Jeffery W. Johnston Executive Editor: Ann Castel Davis Development Editor: Heather Doyle Fraser Editorial Assistant: Penny Burleson Senior Managing Editor: Pamela D. Bennett
  • 5. Production Editor: Sheryl Glicker Langner Production Coordination: Jodi Dowling/Aptara Design Coordinator: Diane C. Lorenzo Cover Designer: Diane Y. Ernsberger Photo Coordinator: Valerie Schultz Production Manager: Laura Messerly Director of Marketing: Quinn Perkson Marketing Manager: Erica DeLuca Marketing Coordinator: Brian Mounts This book was set in Galliard BT by Aptara. It was printed and bound by Edwards Brothers, Inc. The cover was printed by Phoe nix Color Corp. Part and Chapter Opening Photo Credits: Jack Hollingsworth/Ge tty Images, p. 1; Kathy Kirtland/Merrill, p. 2; Anthony Magnacc a/Merrill, pp. 34, 156, 280; Scott Cunningham/Merrill, pp. 66, 9 4, 123, 198, 436; Silver Burdett Ginn, p. 124; Katelyn Metzger/ Merrill, p. 228; SW Productions/Getty Images– Photodisc, p. 248; David Mager/Pearson Learning Photo Studio, p. 316; Getty Images– Stockbyte, p. 347; Krista Greco/Merrill, p. 348; Laima Druskis/ PH College, pp. 386, 466; Mike Provost/Silver Burdett Ginn, p. 414; Ken Karp/PH College, p. 465. Copyright © 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle Riv er, New Jersey 07458. All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. Thi s publication is protected by Copyright and permission should b e obtained from the publisher prior to any prohibited reproducti on, storage in a retrieval system, or transmission in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or likewise. For information regarding permission(s), write to: Rights and Permissions Department. Pearson® is a registered trademark of Pearson plc Merrill® is a registered trademark of Pearson Education, Inc. Pearson Education Ltd., London Pearson Education Singapore, Pte. Ltd.
  • 6. Pearson Education Canada, Inc. Pearson Education—Japan Pearson Education Australia PTY. Limited Pearson Education North Asia Ltd., Hong Kong Pearson Educación de Mexico, S.A. de C.V. Pearson Education Malaysia, Pte. Ltd. Pearson Education Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 ISBN 13: 978-1-323-50396-6 ISBN 10: 1-323-50396-X Chapter 7 Methods for Teaching and Learning OBJECTIVES After completing this chapter, you should be able to Describe various theories regarding how students learn. Compare and contrast two or more research- based teaching methods. Discuss how educators might use learning or social networks to facilitate teaching and learning. Educators implement instruction in a variety of ways, referred t o as teaching methods. A teaching method is a broad approach b ased on theory, research, educational preparation, experiences, a nd/or philosophy. Sometimes referred to as an instructional met hod, a teaching method consists of a general plan that teachers f ollow to introduce new material, assist student learning, and pro vide feedback to students regarding their achievement. Some me thods emphasize a teacher- centered, structured approach to delivering instruction and high levels of student responses, whereas other methods focus on the importance of working and learning with peers or expert learner s and mentors. Unfortunately, there is no simple answer as to w hich method is best for students with disabilities. In this chapter , we explore the characteristics of several contemporary method s for teaching and examine the research findings related to stude
  • 7. nts with disabilities. Before doing so, though, we begin by looki ng at various theories of learning. 7.1 How Students Learn Learning is the change in what students are capable of doing as the result of formal and informal experiences (Cruickshank, Jen kins, & Metcalf, 2005; Parsons, Hinson, & Sardo- Brown, 2001). Through these experiences, such as teacher- planned lessons and instructional activities, students learn new skills, acquire new knowledge, and develop deeper understandin gs. Teachers plan and implement learning activities using one or more instructional methods, supported by theories of learning. We explore several of these contemporary theories that form the basis for methods of instruction. The major theories of learning include cognitive, behavioral, and social learning. Each theory views the student and the teacher through a slightly different le ns, and each emphasizes different factors believed to be critical for learning to occur.Cognitive Perspectives Cognitive theories address how students think, process informat ion, and remember (Ausubel, 1968; Ausubul, 2000; Bruner, 196 6; Byrnes, 2000; Farnham- Diggory, 1992; Flavell, Miller, & Miller, 2001; Gagne, Wager, Golas, & Keller, 2004; Purcell- Gates, Jacobson, & Degener, 2004). They focus on the role of in formation processing, or how the learner takes in knowledge, st ores it, and retrieves information. Thus retaining information in both short-term and long- term memory is an important component of cognitive theories. Short- term memory is memory that holds information temporarily. Ind ividuals can keep information active in short- term memory by using various learning strategies, such as creati ng a mnemonic, a word or phrase that helps the individual to re member a set of steps or a series of words. The teacher’s role is to enable students to learn by organizing and structuring new in formation. For example, to show a student how to use a mnemon
  • 8. ic, the teacher chunks information by grouping individual bits o f information in a meaningful way. Chapter 8 gives further infor mation about similar strategies that educators use to help studen ts. Long- term memory is memory in which information is permanently st ored. Cognitive theorists such as David Ausubel describe how te achers can promote classroom learning and enhance long- term memory. We discuss the following cognitive theories: 1. Ausubel’s cognitive theory 2. Constructivism 3. Metacognition 4. Multiple intelligencesAusubel’s Cognitive Theory Ausubel believes that teachers promote learning by planning we ll- organized, structured lessons and activities that selectively link new information to familiar information. At the beginning of ea ch class, the teacher presents lesson objectives to students so th at they know what they will learn and do as a result of the lesso n. This teacher- directed instruction proceeds from general topics to specific one s and from familiar to new information.Constructivism Similar to Ausubel’s cognitive theory, constructivism (Fosnot, 2 005; Marlowe & Page, 2005; Pass, 2004) views learning as a pr ocess in which students create new knowledge by building on th eir own past experiences and constructing knowledge as they int eract with their teachers and peers. However, the constructivist approach focuses on student- centered activities rather than on more structured, teacher- directed lessons and activities.CONSTRUCTIVISM IN ACTION . Morgan Lindstrom, an elementary special educator, works with a fourth- grade teacher in planning to introduce a new science unit on ene rgy and heat. They want the children to make discoveries and ge nerate ideas that they can prove—or disprove— during class time. Morgan and her colleague decide to ask the st
  • 9. udents to consider the question, What are the characteristics of heat? During the beginning class discussions, they encourage st udents to draw on their past experiences to help formulate the a nswer. Students mention that a stove, an oven, a microwave, and a radiator give off heat. Then someone says that heat comes fro m coats and mittens. When the other children agree, the teacher s decide to put aside other activities and help the children const ruct an experiment, observe the results, and correct the misconc eption. They begin by wrapping several thermometers in a coat and mittens. When the temperature does not rise, they discuss th e findings and brainstorm ideas. They decide to seal the thermo meters and clothing in plastic bags and continue to collect data. The class analyzes the results and brainstorms possible reasons for their findings. When there is still no change in the temperatu re, the teacher facilitates student discussions by writing down k ey concepts and drawing a picture to illustrate them. By organiz ing the class discussion in this way, the teachers help the studen ts draw the conclusion that clothing merely holds the heat in wh en someone wears it. Through this unit, they hope that students will develop a better understanding of energy (adapted from Wa tson & Konicek, 1990).METACOGNITION Metacognition involves learning how to learn and think. Flavell, Miller, and Miller (2001) define three types of metacognitive k nowledge. First, learners hold beliefs about themselves as learn ers. For example, a student believes that listening to music is he lpful when studying. Second, a learner has task knowledge, or a n understanding of procedures that must be followed to complet e a task. In mathematics, this type of knowledge is important wh en completing operations (for example, to add two different frac tions, write the fractions with a common denominator). Third, a learner has strategic knowledge, or an understanding of selectin g and using various approaches to solving a problem. In mathem atics, strategic knowledge helps the student know how to begin t o solve a word problem. Students with disabilities often have difficulties because they d o not know how to learn, solve problems, or complete assignme
  • 10. nts, even though they have the facts and information. They do n ot readily achieve proficiency in problem solving and higher ord er thinking skills, which are characteristics of successful learner s. Many educators feel that these metacognitive skills should be taught along with the curriculum. Others believe that selected th inking skills should be integrated within the curriculum.METAC OGNITION IN ACTION. We continue our visit with Morgan Lindstrom and her work outs ide the fourth- grade classroom. She explains, “Sometimes I work individually or with small groups of students to help them gain a better unde rstanding of some of the upcoming learning activities in which t hey will be participating. Take, for example, the science lesson that we just completed on energy and heat. Several of the studen ts with learning disabilities and ADHD in this classroom have d ifficulty in following the problem- solving approach to science. Last week, I worked with these stu dents to help prepare them for their classroom work. First I pres ented a similar problem. We then talked through the steps that we could take to solve it. Teaching students how to go about sol ving a problem gives them some strategic knowledge. They brin g this to their work in the general education classroom, helping them to be more successful.”Multiple Intelligences Some contemporary psychologists (Armstrong, 2000; Gardner, 1 983, 2006) have written that multiple intelligences (MI) play a c ritical role in learning. Howard Gardner developed a complex th eory of MI and described each intelligence, such as linguistic in telligence, musical intelligence, logical- mathematical intelligence, spatial intelligence, bodily- kinesthetic intelligence, interpersonal and intrapersonal intellig ence, naturalist intelligence, and possibly others. Gardner theorized that each intelligence is relatively independe nt of the others but that frequently more than one intelligence is involved during the learning process. For example, a learner fir st observes and then imitates the actions performed by the teach er in learning a new skill. According to MI theory, a learner can
  • 11. use spatial, bodily, and interpersonal intelligences. Linguistic i ntelligence may be involved to a minor degree (if at all). By con trast, when the teacher presents new information during a classr oom lecture, the learner needs to use mostly linguistic knowledg e and some bodily- kinesthetic knowledge in note taking.MULTIPLE INTELLIGEN CES IN ACTION. The last refrain of a rap song lingers in the air as the children c omplete the final dance step. Someone asks if they can do a repe at performance. Tina asks the teacher assistant to take over so t hat she can explain what is going on. “I base a lot of my teachin g on the theory of multiple intelligences. Many of my students l ove music, especially some of the rap by Johnny and the Kids, a popular rap group of 8-year- olds. We make up our own rap of the letters and their sounds an d add some body movement. Usually we do a couple of songs as a warm- up activity before choosing a book to read. It’s really been amaz ing to see the children’s interest rise and to see how their music is helping them learn!”Behavioral Perspectives Behavioral theory (Coleman & Webber, 2002; Kazdin, 2001; Sk inner, 1974) examines learning in terms of observable behaviors . Behavioral theorists believe that learning occurs by associatio n. When two events occur together often, they are linked, and le arning occurs. For example, when the teacher turns the lights of f and asks the students to be quiet, they learn that turning off th e lights means that they are to stop talking. After a few times, t he teacher should be able to simply turn off the lights to restore quiet. Theorists believe that reinforcement is the primary mechanism f or changing behavior if the type of reinforcement is desired and meaningful. To increase desired student behaviors, educators us e a set of rules, or principles of reinforcement (Walker, She, & Bauer 2006). The first principle is to reinforce only the target b ehavior, or the behavior that the student should exhibit, when it occurs. Second, the target behavior is reinforced immediately af
  • 12. ter it is exhibited. Third, the student receives reinforcement eve ry time the target behavior is exhibited. Finally, as the target be havior becomes more consistent, the student is reinforced only i ntermittently. Educators use various types of reinforcement, including consum able, activity- based, manipulative, possessional, and social reinforcement (Ma rtin & Pear, 2002). Consumables consist of food that the student likes, such as crackers, fruit, or juice. Activity reinforcers are o pportunities to engage in an activity that a student enjoys, such as listening to music, sending an e- mail message, or talking with friends. Manipulative reinforcers include activities that involve drawing, painting, or fixing a ma chine, for example. Possessional reinforcers include a chance to sit in a desired location, wear a favorite cap, or temporarily use an item that belongs to another. Social reinforcers include verb al praise, a high five, a smile, or a glance that indicates social a pproval. For reinforcers to be effective, teachers must determine what types of items a student likes or desires. This information can be gathered by asking the student to complete a checklist or talking informally with the student. Positive reinforcement can be highly effective in helping studen ts change problem behaviors. But unless educators and other sch ool staff use the principles of reinforcement carefully, this inter vention can have many pitfalls. Sometimes school staff inadvert ently strengthen undesirable behaviors. In fact, many undesirabl e behaviors are due to the social attention that they evoke from aides, nurses, peers, teachers, parents, doctors, and others (Mart in & Pear, 2002, p. 39).Applied Behavior Analysis Teachers can have a dramatic effect on the way students with di sabilities learn and behave in the classroom by understanding an d applying concepts associated with behavior theory through ap plied behavior analysis. Applied behavior analysis is a systemat ic procedure that involves identifying and describing a behavior in observable terms, assessing the frequency of the behavior, th e antecedent conditions, and the consequences following the beh
  • 13. avior, developing an intervention(s) designed to change the beh avior, and observing and recording data regarding the effect of t he intervention.APPLIED BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS IN ACTION. Lionel Roy, a resource room teacher, uses applied behavior anal ysis in his work with students with problem behaviors. When a s tudent is experiencing difficulties, Lionel begins by collecting c ritical information. He looks for antecedent conditions and cons equences. Antecedent conditions are events, or triggers, in the e nvironment that occur just before the behavior and can be adjust ed by the teacher, who carefully observes any changes in studen t behavior. For example; a student came into class and slumped in his seat, refusing to participate. As Lionel talked with the stu dent, he found out about a confrontation in the hall just before c lass. Consequences are events that occur directly after the behavior a nd, similar to antecedent events, can be adjusted by the teacher. Both antecedent conditions and consequences directly influence the recurrence of the behavior. As Lionel and the student contin ued to talk, Lionel learned that another teacher had stepped in t o break up the argument, but both students left feeling angry, no t having resolved the problem. Lionel quickly realized that, with out intervention, this consequence was going to affect the stude nt for the rest of the class period and, perhaps, the rest of the da y.Social and Affective Perspectives Social and affective perspectives emphasize the importance of s ocial skills, self- awareness, and relationships with others, which in turn affect le arning. We discuss two theories associated with these perspectiv es: 1. Social cognitive theory 2. Emotional intelligenceSocial Cognitive Theory Social learning theory (Bandura, 1969, 1977, 1986; Glasser, 199 0) focuses on how individuals acquire social behaviors and the e ffects of these behaviors on learning. Teachers can be effective models if they consider four interrelated factors (Bandura, 1986 ). First, the teacher must get the students’ attention. Second, ret
  • 14. ention of learning occurs when students rehearse or practice lear ning. Third, students must have opportunities to perform the tas k. Finally, motivation influences observational learning.Emotio nal Intelligence In additional to cognitive abilities, many researchers believe tha t emotional intelligence plays an important part in learning and in school success. Emotional intelligence includes the ability to manage feelings and handle stress, empathy for others, and lear ned optimism (Cherniss, 2000). Emerging research links emotio nal intelligence and competence to achievement and career succ ess (Low, Lomax, Jackson, & Nelson, 2004). Based on emotional intelligence, Goleman (2001) defines emoti onal competence as a learned capability that results in outstandi ng performance. Today, more and more schools recognize the st rong relationship between social and emotional factors and succ essful student academic achievement (Collaborative for Academ ic, Social, and Emotional Learning, 2003; Payton et al., 2000; Z inns, Weissberg, Wang, & Wallberg, 2004). Emotional competence can be viewed as a framework that inclu des both personal and social competence. Personal competence i ncludes self-awareness, self-regulation, and self- motivation. Social competence includes social awareness and so cial skills. Table 7.1 illustrates these areas and describes charac teristics of an individual displaying emotional competence. For all learners, emotional processes affect the cognitive proces ses. For example, a negative mood can result in missing importa nt details when listening to a group discussion. Educators can e nhance their effectiveness by using interventions to improve stu dent social- emotional functioning (Pellitteri, Dealy, Fasano, & Kugler, 200 6). For example, a teacher carefully monitors the group dynamic s and the emotional tone of social interactions as a small group of students engage in small talk during recess. In the past she ha s had to intervene quickly if a member of the group became aggr essive with other students. Teaching methods based on social and affective perspectives cre
  • 15. ate ways to support peer tutors and opportunities for collaborati ve teams of students to work together. In fact, group support an d cooperation among students are keys to facilitating learning. S tudents acquire social behaviors by observing and modeling oth er students. The classroom becomes a learning community that s upports each member, and teachers design activities to foster a s ense of belonging. Table 7.1 Emotional Competence Personal Competence People with this competence Self-awareness → Know which emotions they are feeling and why → Remain open to new perspectives, continuous learning, and s elf development → Recognize how their feelings affect their performance Self-regulation → Manage their impulsive feelings → Are organized and careful in their work → Think clearly and stay focused under pressure Self-motivation → Set challenging goals → Recognize setbacks as due to manageable circumstance rathe r than a personal flaw → Learn how to improve performance Social Awareness → Are attentive to emotional cues and listen well → Show sensitivity and understand others’ perspectives Social Skills → Are effective in give and take, registering emotional cues in attuning their message → Listen well, seek mutual understanding → Stay receptive to bad news as well as good Adapted from the Emotional Competence Framework. Retrieved June 15, 2007, at the Consortium for Research on Emotional Int elligence in Organizations Web site: http://www.eiconsortium.o rgSOCIAL-EMOTIONAL PERSPECTIVES IN ACTION.
  • 16. Special education consultant Teo Liang encourages the develop ment of class spirit at the beginning of the school year by askin g students to develop a class nickname and logo. He encourages them to think about the characteristics of their school and their classroom that make them special. Someone asks about the old f oundry nearby, and Liang encourages them to investigate. As th e students seek out information, they discover interesting facts a nd history of the old foundry. Someone creates a graphic of the old building, and the students vote to adopt this as their class lo go. Some students volunteer to create a short video that explains their class nickname and logo, and Liang helps them post it to t he Web. Learning how to work together with others, sharing successes, a nd belonging to a group of peers are lifetime skills that help stu dents to be contributing members in their communities. For stud ents with learning and behavior problems, these skills are essent ial, yet their disabilities may have interfered with the acquisitio n of them. Teachers who consider teaching methods based in par t on social learning theory believe that they can assist students t o acquire collaborative skills in working with others.Connecting Theories to Practice We have seen that theories of learning provide a basis for under standing how students learn, including • the ways that information is stored in memory; • how students connect new information to information learned previously; • knowledge of how to learn, or metacognition; • the role of multiple intelligences; • the effects of reinforcement; • the importance of antecedent conditions and consequences; • the effects of group support and cooperation. Knowledge and understanding of how students learn provide the basis for one or more methods of instruction. Figure 7.1 illustra tes the learning theories that we have discussed and their conne ctions to various teaching methods discussed in the following se ction.
  • 17. Figure 7.1 Learning theories and their relationships to methods of teaching Figure 7.2 Factors that influence selection of an instructional method Previous section Next section 7.2 Methods That Support Teaching and Learning Teachers often select a teaching method compatible with their o wn professional training, philosophy of education, or theoretical perspectives. Other factors, such as the characteristics of the le arners, the classroom curriculum, and the teacher’s experience, also influence the selection of a teaching method (Figure 7.2). Learning to be an effective teacher also includes developing kno wledge of research supporting the method of teaching that the te acher uses. Although a teaching method may appeal intuitively t o a teacher, if it does not have a strong research base, there is n o assurance that it will be effective for students with disabilities . There are several contemporary teaching methods of interest: d irect instruction, explicit or conspicuous instruction, affective i nstruction, differentiated instruction, and inquiry- based learning.Direct Instruction Direct instruction is a systematic method that can be used to tea ch, practice, and reinforce specific skills (Adams & Engelmann, 1996; Carlson & Francis, 2002; Kroes- bergen & van Luit, 2003; Minskoff & Allsopp, 2003). Teachers use well- organized and structured lessons and activities to assist students in learning skills or demonstrating certain knowledge. As a teac hing method, direct instruction incorporates elements of more th an one learning theory (Figure 7.1). In addition to cognitive the ories, direct instruction draws from behavioral theory, including the use of reinforcement. Educators use positive comments, hig
  • 18. h fives, and other types of reinforcement to aid student learning. Teachers use direct instruction to assist students in learning skil ls and demonstrating knowledge.What It Looks Like Educators plan direct instruction by determining the sequence o f skills in the curriculum area. The curricula and the sets of skil ls, sometimes referred to as a scope and sequence, are frequentl y part of a school’s curricular guide. Criterion- referenced assessments are good resources, too, because they pr ovide a broad range of curricula and sequences of skills within c urricular areas such as reading, mathematics, spelling, and writi ng. To assess student knowledge and weaknesses in one or more areas of the curriculum, special educators frequently use curric ulum-based and criterion- referenced assessments. They analyze assessment information to determine how much students have mastered and what they do not know within the sequence of skills. This is the point at whic h they design and implement instruction. When a teacher knows what students can and cannot do, he or s he focuses on helping each one to succeed by offering instructio n in a systematic, organized fashion (Figure 7.3). Direct instruct ion, sometimes referred to as mastery learning, can be used in g eneral education classrooms and settings where students receive special education services. Using the direct instruction method, a teacher tells students wha t they will be learning, the reasons for each lesson, and how the se reasons relate to previous lessons. All students use the same materials and are involved in the same activity. The teacher serv es as the principal source of information. Figure 7.3 Characteristics of direct instruction Because the purpose of direct instruction is to teach the students specific material, lessons are highly structured. Teachers may u se applied behavior analysis. Applied behavior analysis is a syst ematic procedure that involves identifying and describing behav ior in observable terms; assessing the frequency of the behavior,
  • 19. the antecedent conditions, and the consequences following the behavior; developing an intervention(s) designed to change the behavior; observing; and recording data regarding the effectiven ess of the intervention. Monitoring the effectiveness of direct instruction through data c ollection is sometimes referred to as precision teaching. Precisi on teaching is a precise and systematic procedure for evaluating instruction. Students are active participants in their progress as they count and chart daily learning. An additional aspect of direct instruction usually involves teach er- directed discussion, readings, and classroom activities. The teac her checks frequently to make sure that each student is making progress toward the desired outcome. The progress checks provi de valuable information and allow the teacher to make adjustme nts during the lesson if students are having difficulty. The teach er can provide correction and reteach some of the lesson, allot a dditional instructional time, or suggest extra learning materials. Because students learn at different rates, the teacher also plans enrichment activities. Thus, students who complete their work b efore other students have an opportunity to deepen and extend t heir knowledge. When students demonstrate that they have met t he learning objectives, the class moves on to the next lesson (Fi gure 7.4). A teacher spends time after the class reflecting on the lesson. F or example, he or she might ask, Were the objectives clear to th e students? Was the lesson presented clearly? Did the students h ave enough time to practice? How could I improve the feedback that I gave to the students? After thinking about the instruction, a teacher may decide to make changes for the following day. Re flection provides a teacher with a way to improve instruction. R eflective teaching is dynamic and powerful.What the Research S ays About Direct Instruction Many research studies present evidence that direct instruction is effective in helping students with disabilities learn new skills a nd increase academic achievement across the curriculum. Swans
  • 20. on and Hoskyn (1998) examined 180 research studies that inclu ded students with learning disabilities. In synthesizing their fin dings, they reported that direct instruction was one of the perva sive influences in remediating the academic difficulties of child ren with learning disabilities. In a second meta- analysis, Swanson (1999a; Swanson & Sachse- Lee, 2000) found that direct instruction and strategy instruction were the most effective techniques for adolescents with learning disabilities and mental retardation. Figure 7.4 Direct instruction in practice Similarly, a meta- anaylsis of mathematics instruction (Kroesbergen & Van Luit, 2 003) found that in 58 studies of mathematics instruction for ele mentary students with disabilities, direct instruction and self- instruction were found to be the most effective methods. Additi onal studies describe the benefits of direct instruction on achiev ement in reading (Engelmann, 1999; Gardill & Jitendra, 1999; S piegel, Vickers, & Viviano, 1999; Swanson, 1999b), mathematic s (Kroesbergen & Van Luit, 2005; Maccini, Gagnon, Mulcah, & Leon, 2006), building social skills (Bendt & Nunan, 1999; Berto ne, Boyle, Mitchel, & Smith, 1999), increasing listening skills ( Engraffia, Graff, Jezuit, & Schall, 1999), language (Kroeger, & Nelson, 2006), and developing skills in language arts such as sp elling (Berninger et al., 1998) and writing (Anderson & Keel, 2 002; Walker, Shippen, Alberto, Houchins, & Cihak, 2006). A special educator provides scaffolded instruction during initial learning. Snapshot: Gabe Cerino’s Classroom Gabe Cerino, a special educator at an elementary school, invites us to observe a lesson in the resource room. For the next 45 mi nutes this morning he will be working with Juan, a first grader. One of Juan’s IEP goals is to increase reading comprehension. T o plan and monitor his specially designed instruction in reading, he uses a chart that lists the skills in developing phonemic awar
  • 21. eness. Gabe keeps a daily check sheet of Juan’s progress. When Juan comes in, he joins Gabe at the table, and together th ey look at a short letter that his teacher has written him (Figure 7.5). Gabe reads it aloud as Juan follows along. When he comes to a word missing the beginning or ending sound of s, he pauses and Juan writes in the corresponding letter. After reading the book Gabe has promised, Juan begins work on a set of picture cards. He pronounces the name of each picture and decides which pictures belong in the pile beginning with an s sound. Before going back to his classroom, he completes a dra wing of objects beginning with the s sound. Afterward, he and Gabe go over his work together, correcting any errors.Explicit o r Conspicuous Instruction Explicit instruction includes the systematic procedures of direct instruction and behavior analysis along with the design procedu res derived from effective schools research (Hall, 2006.) Explici t instruction includes three essential components (Dimino, 2007 ): 1. Metacognition. Students know rules, concepts, and strategies. Students understand how to apply a strategy, such as how to ide ntify an unfamiliar word when reading. Figure 7.5 Juan’s letter 2. Scaffolded instruction. Scaffolded instruction consists of thre e phases: modeling, teacher- assisted or guided practice, and independent phases. 3. Vocabulary instruction. Vocabulary instruction includes selec ting words that are associated with a specific content area. For e xample, in preparing a science lesson a teacher develops a defin ition of precipitation that will be comprehensible to the student. The teacher also plans to provide multiple meaningful exposure s to practice the new vocabulary. Educators often use explicit instruction in the general education classroom to meet the diverse needs of all learners.What It Loo ks Like The teaching team begins with the “big idea” of the unit. This is
  • 22. the content that all students will learn. Primed background kno wledge includes the consideration of how the learner can access the information. The team also addresses any special needs of t he students. Educators teach conspicuous strategies to students s o that they know how to go about learning and problem solving. Knowing one or more of these effective strategies assists stude nts to be more independent learners. Educators also provide mediated scaffolding, or temporary supp ort and guidance during initial learning. The degree of scaffoldi ng is based on individual learner needs. For example, the teache r shows students how to interpret a graph displayed in the textb ook. Together they discuss the meaning of new vocabulary word s. The teacher might also develop an outline of the chapter cont ent. Chapter 8 discusses scaffolding. Educators also use strategic instruction to help students integrat e the big ideas and apply their knowledge to other settings. Strat egic instruction, often used in middle and secondary programs, i s an approach that focuses on providing students with rules or g uidelines so that they can approach learning activities or assign ments more effectively and efficiently and with greater indepen dence. Finally, judicious review requires educators to identify informat ion that is essential and monitor student progress. Additional ac tivities provide review of the material and contribute to retentio n. Figure 7.6 illustrates the components essential to explicit inst ruction. Figure 7.6 Explicit instruction in practice What the Research Says About Explicit Instruction A growing body of research supports the use of explicit instruct ion as an effective method for teaching students, including stud ents with disabilities. A meta- analysis of spelling interventions conducted by one group of res earchers (Wanzek et al., 2006) indicated that explicit instruction with multiple practice opportunities and immediate corrective f eedback helped students consistently improve spelling. Explicit instruction in decoding and comprehension suggests that at-
  • 23. risk children in early elementary grades can achieve gains in co mprehension and early reading skills (Pullen, Lane, Lloyd, Now ak, & Ryals, 2005; Willimas, 2005). Explicit instruction in math ematics increased student problem- solving abilities (Fuchs, Fuchs, Hamlett, & Appleton, 2002). Fu rther, when explicit instruction is combined with concrete to rep resentational to abstract (CRA) in teaching algebra, Witzel (200 5) found an increase in student achievement. For social studies i nstruction, Williams and her colleagues (Williams et al., 2007) f ound that explicit instruction was more effective in learning soc ial studies content than instruction that did not include explicit i nstruction. Considering Cultural and Linguistic Perspectives Research-Based Teaching Methods and Latino Students What teaching methods work best for newcomer students, or stu dents who have recently arrived in this country, and students fro m diverse cultural and linguistic backgrounds? In an extensive r eview of the research concerning Latino students, Fashola, Slavi n, Claderón, and Durán (2002) found a number of replicable pro grams for elementary and middle schools that are proven to mee t the needs of these students. These programs include the instruc tional methods that we discuss in this chapter, such as explicit a nd direct instruction, and a very effective instructional strategy, cooperative learning, that we discuss in Chapter 8. Success for All, a program that uses cooperative learning, one-to- one tutoring for students who have difficulties, and family supp ort to build positive home- school relations, shows very positive results, too. Latino student s who participated in the program made substantial gains on sta ndardized tests, compared to Latino students who did not partici pate (Fashola et al., 2002). Yet Fashola et al. also found large g aps in the knowledge base concerning the teaching of reading an d language arts, particularly in approaches designed for Latino or English language learners. A research team led by Vaughn and her colleagues (Vaughn et a l., 2006) compared the effectiveness of an explicit reading instr
  • 24. uction for first- grade students whose home language was Spanish and who were at risk for reading difficulties with a group of comparison stude nts who participated in the school’s standard instruction for at- risk students. This study found that children who participated in explicit instruction obtained significantly higher scores in phon ological awareness, letter- sound identification, word attach, reading fluency, and compreh ension. Questions for Reflection 1. What teaching methods do educators in other countries use? 2. What Web-based resources might a first- year teacher find helpful for designing instruction?Affective Ins truction Perhaps as a result of the increase in social problems, such as b ullying behaviors, depression, substance abuse, and violent acts of students against other students and teachers, there is much in terest in affective instruction. Based on social learning theory a nd much of the work of Maslow (1999) and Rogers and Freiberg (1994), affective instruction focuses on personal and social lear ning as well as the academic development of each student. Educ ators use different terms to describe one or more areas of affecti ve education, including social and emotional learning (Elias et a l., 1997) character education (Lickona, 1997), moral education ( Gilligan, 1993; Noddings, 2005), multicultural education (Bank s & Banks, 2003), and values education (Huitt, 2003). Additiona lly, some educators use specific curricula to promote personal d evelopment such as social skills training.What It Looks Like Affective instruction begins with careful thought and preparatio n regarding both the physical classroom and the learning enviro nment (Figure 7.7). The teacher nurtures feelings of self- respect among the students as well as respect and acceptance of others. By planning learning activities that offer a degree of stu dent choice, the educator assists students in developing a feelin g of control over their work. Instruction includes both academic and personal/social development. For example, the teacher may
  • 25. stress the importance of skills he or she wants to see a student display in working with a partner. The teacher supports learning by using active listening and paraphrasing student comments or ideas. Visitors quickly observe that the teacher places a high va lue on citizenship and respect for others. Chapters 9 and 10 look more closely at ways educators help students develop and enha nce social skills and positive behaviors. Figure 7.7 Affective instruction in practice What the Research Says About Affective Instruction Muscott and O’Brien (1999) examined an after- school program for 19 elementary students with emotional or be havioral disorders. Instruction focused on one area of affective i nstruction called character education and the use of high school and college mentors. Through a series of interviews, the student s reported that they learned to accept the responsibilities for the ir actions, that they made new friends, and that they responded t o the ideas of cooperation and teamwork. Another study (De Cuyper, Timbremont, Braet, De Backer, & W ullaert, 2004) reports findings in working with children with sy mptoms of moderate depression. Twenty children between the a ges of 10 and 12 participated in 18 sessions of affective instruct ion. At the end of this period, the researchers found that both ch ildren and parents reported significant improvements. Improvements were also noted for 15 children with autism (ages 8–17 years old) who participated in a 7- month intervention program that focused on teaching interperso nal problem solving, affective knowledge, and social interaction . The researcher (Bauminger, 2002) found that children were mo re likely to initiate positive social interaction with peers, includ ing sharing experiences with peers and showing more interest in peers. Snapshot: Ben Schultz’s Classroom Ben Schultz sits on the edge of the desk, watching as students g ather around two boys circling each other with threatening fists. Someone shouts, “Go for it.” The crowd of students begins to s urge closer to the two students. Watching the monitor across fro
  • 26. m Ben, we can see a close up as the camera zeros in on one of t he students in the background. “Cut.” Ben jumps up and provide s suggestions to the young actors. Later we learn that this class has been studying school citizensh ip and how to address the problems of bullying in their building . As a culminating project, the class is creating a series of video clips with typical scenarios that many of the students have faced . Later they will use these videoclips as discussion starters as th ey visit other classes to help students find alternative ways to a ddress common concerns. Although this project focused on affe ctive skills and the use of problem solving as the students devel oped the story lines, Ben found that the students also demonstra ted increased interest in planning and writing as they developed the scenario scripts. We learn that this is the first of many projects the students will complete over the school year. Ben believes that combining affe ctive and academic education is very helpful to his students. Th e students report that one of the most important aspects of this c lass is the teacher’s ongoing availability to students. They are q uick to talk about the respect that their teacher shows for each s tudent and how they, in turn, respect him.Differentiated Instruct ion Designed for the general education classroom, differentiated ins truction is an inclusive approach for working with all students. Tomlinson (2001) identifies three assumptions underlying differ entiated instruction. First, within any classroom, there is a wide range of learners. Second, there is no substitute for high- quality curriculum and instruction. Third, even with high- quality curriculum and instruction, effective educators must buil d bridges between the learner and learning. Teacher- student relationships are essential, and they take time to develo p. Figure 7.8 Differentiated instruction Source: Adapted from “Differentiated Instruction: Inclusive Str ategies that Benefit the Whole Class,” by D. Lawrence-
  • 27. Brown, 2004, American Secondary Education, 32(3), pp. 34– 62. Adapted with permission.What It Looks Like? An educator planning for differentiated instruction tries to maxi mize student attainment of grade- level curriculum standards (Lawrence- Brown, 2004). Planning differentiated instruction often begins with the concept of universal design. Universal design in educat ion means that physical, social, and learning environments are d esigned so that individuals with a wide range of abilities can ha ve meaningful access to and participation in general education. Universal design in education involves flexibility of materials, s trategies, approaches, and technology. It can guide teachers as t hey work to make their teaching and learning activities appropri ate and accessible to a wide range of learners. Figure 7.8 illustrates the components of a differentiated classro om. Providing supports is an important strategy for helping som e students to obtain grade- level proficiency. For these students with mild to moderate disa bilities, grade- level standards are obtainable but very challenging (Lawrence- Brown, 2004). Supports include various types of materials, such as manipulatives, visual aids, charts, outlines, or assistive tech nology such as text-to- speech software to allow students to listen to textbooks. Additio nal supports may also include personal assistance such as peer t utoring or help from a teacher assistant. The teacher will use a v ariety of instructional strategies, such as a handout on the key c oncepts of the unit or a list of the new vocabulary terms. The te acher will help students make connections between prior knowle dge and new learning. Supports are also important so students with severe disabilities can follow alternative achievement standards or a prioritized cu rriculum. These supports enable a student to participate in the g eneral education curriculum while following the IEP, which has different curriculum goals. These goals are accomplished within the context of large-group activities (Lawrence-
  • 28. Brown, 2004, p. 48). Figure 7.9 Differentiated instruction in practice Students with gifts and talents engage in an enriched curriculum . This curriculum allows students to explore concepts and ideas that are not typically covered in the classroom. Students have o pportunities for completing challenging and creative projects an d sharing their work with their classmates. Figure 7.9 illustrates these components of differentiated instruction in practice.What the Research Says About Differentiated Instruction Hawkins (2007) reports a longitudinal study of 100 public schoo ls in Rhode Island that demonstrated significant improvement o n achievement test scores between subgroups of students with I EPs and students without IEPs. This study focuses on improvem ents in either language arts or mathematics. School staff were as ked to identify effective practices that contributed to the rise in student test scores. Among the practices identified were the use of differentiated instruction, small- group instruction, manipulatives, teacher read- alouds, and collaborative teaching models, among other practice s. Additional research should lend further support to the use of differentiated instruction. Snapshot: Jan Browski’s Classroom Jan Browski greets us enthusiastically outside one of the eighth- grade classrooms. “Come on into our classroom! The students ar e anxious to show you our semester- long project, called ‘Exploring Our Town.’ Basically, the classr oom teaching focuses on giving students the general skills that t hey need while working on the project. For example, a few wee ks ago the students heard that a local construction company was going to build a new bridge over Temple Stream. We had heard that the Passamoquoddy Indians had camped near the stream in that area many years ago. As we talked, the students wondered a bout the history of the area and what would be lost as a result of the construction. They decided to conduct interviews with some of the tribe elders still living in the area. In the classroom, we
  • 29. discussed how to develop an interview and collect the data. Two of the students had some experience in developing interview qu estions, and they became our peer tutors for this aspect of the pr oject. They each worked with small groups of students to help t hem refine their questions. “You’ll see the students working in a 2- hour block of time today. Will Engart, the teacher assistant, is g oing to be working with one of the smaller groups. The students were assigned a small booklet to read. Some of the students rea d the historical account and others listened to a copy that was sc anned in to the computer.” As we sit in on the group discussion, we hear students asking What viewpoint is this written from? How do we know this? How is this connected to what we learned in our interviews with the tribe elders? Will leads the students in thinking about their interpretations. St udents with strong higher order thinking skills are modeling var ious ways of connecting the information. Other learners have a mple opportunities to observe, listen, and participate in the disc ussion. We leave the classroom realizing that differentiated inst ruction has enabled all students to deepen their understanding of preservation issues faced by this community.Inquiry- Based Learning Inquiry- based learning relies on the teacher to create experiences from which students derive their own knowledge and meaning. Jerom e Bruner (1966) believed that inquiry- based learning helps students take responsibility for their own l earning and remember important information. Inquiry- based learning, sometimes referred to as discovery learning, or problem solving, is built on the theory of constructivism. Eleme nts of social cognitive theory, such as group work and cooperati on among students, play a role in inquiry- based learning. But organization of student activities should not be the only principle; inquiry is also characterized by the teach
  • 30. er’s mode of participation (Wells, 2000).What It Looks Like The teacher begins by planning a broad purpose, or goal, and he lping students generate their own questions and topics. The teac her gathers information about the topics and makes sure that stu dents have access to needed resources. Inquiry- based learning uses objects and ideas that encourage students to manipulate and compare. The teacher provides questions to cap ture students’ attention and encourage higher order thinking or ways of knowing that were discussed in Chapter 6. Students are encouraged to make guesses based on available information and to find ways of solving problems. The teacher acts as a guide, p roviding basic information and encouraging students to determi ne the best way to organize new and familiar information, but is careful not to provide guidance that would interfere with self- direction and discovery (Figure 7.10). General educators often u se inquiry- based learning in the general education classroom in the belief t hat students learn best through active involvement. Science edu cators, for example, emphasize doing science by focusing on the following student activities: designing experiments, predicting results, manipulating materials, recording observations, and sum marizing findings. These activities are quite different from othe r teaching methods, such as a more direct instruction approach i n which the educator performs the experiment while students wa tch and then discuss the results. Research to Practice Teaching Methods and Specific Content Focus Some teaching methods specific to a curriculum area also have a wide research base that demonstrates their effectiveness for stu dents with disabilities. An example of a curriculum- specific teaching method is MathWings (Madden, Slavin, & Sim ons, 2002), tied to the national mathematics standards develope d by the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics. MathWi ngs involves students in problem solving in real situations using cooperative groups and literature, science, art, and other subjec
  • 31. ts as well as the students’ personal experiences. Students are en couraged to use calculators for developing mathematical concep ts, explain and defend their solutions orally, and write regularly in their individual logbooks. Research studies indicate that stud ents involved in MathWings, including students in poverty, mad e substantial gains in mathematical achievement. Special educators use supported inquiry- based learning to encourage inductive thinking. Figure 7.10 Supported inquiry-based learning in practice Source: Adapted from “Supported Inquiry Science: Teaching for Conceptual Change in Urban and Suburban Science Classrooms ,” by B. Dalton and C. C. Morocco, 1997, Journal of Learning D isabilities, 30(6), pp. 670–685. Adapted with permission. Students are required to use inductive thinking in many inquiry- based activities. Inductive thinking requires students to consider their observations and then develop a general rule based on thei r findings or discoveries. Thus, the students “construct” knowle dge as a result of their own observations and thinking.Supported Inquiry-Based Learning Because students with mild and moderate disabilities often have difficulty with inductive thinking (Mastropieri & Scruggs, 1997 ), special educators often support them through the use of prom pted coaching and supported inquiry methods. In the following dialogue (adapted from Mastropieri & Scruggs), notice how the teacher uses questioning during prompted coaching to help a stu dent with a disability to draw inferences: Educator: Anteaters have long claws on their front feet. Why does this ma ke sense? Student: I don’t know. Educator: Well, let’s think. What do you know about anteaters? For examp le, what do they eat?
  • 32. Student: Anteaters eat ants. Educator: Good. And where do ants live? Student: They live in holes in the ground. Educator: Now, if anteaters eat ants and ants live in holes in the ground, w hy do you think that anteaters have long claws on their front fee t? Student: To dig for ants. Educator: Good. To dig for ants. Sometimes in supported inquiry- based learning, the educator provides the general rule to the stu dents first. Then students are prompted and questioned to apply the rule (Woodward & Noell, 1992). Educators also embed asses sment in instruction, including performance tasks as well as que stions that students respond to in drawing and writing (Dalton & Morocco, 1997).What the Research Says About Inquiry- Based Instruction Research studies supporting the benefits of inquiry- based learning have focused on the importance of insight and di scovery to learning (Parsons et al., 2001). Students report that i nquiry- based learning is enjoyable (Algava, 1999; Romeo & Young, 19 97). Teachers using an inquiry-based, hands- on science curriculum have found that students with learning dis abilities learn and comprehend more information than students t aught from textbooks (Scruggs, Mastropieri, Bakken, & Brigha m, 1993). Research findings suggest that coaching students with learning disabilities to draw inferences regarding science princi ples results in higher levels of recall and understanding (Palincs ar, Magnusson, Collins, & Cutter, 2001) and that supported inqu iry is more effective than an activity-
  • 33. based science approach alone (Dalton & Morocco, 1997; Sasaki & Serna, 1995). Use of inquiry with Web- based activities is an effective practice in inclusive biology clas ses (Bodzin, Waller, Santoro, & Kale, 2007). These studies are part of a small, but growing, body of research that focuses on in quiry-based learning and higher order thinking. Snapshot: Kayla Hennesey’s Classroom Kayla Hennesey, a special educator in a small K– 8 community school, has invited us to join her and her students for the day. One of the first things we see when entering her res ource room is a large glass terrarium on a table. Several student s are gathered around the table this morning, some with handhel ds (such as PDAs) and others with notebooks. The students are using these to record their daily observations. As we move close r, we see a cocoon hanging from a branch. On the table is a vari ety of magnifying glasses. The students are following the life cy cle of two caterpillars they found earlier. Each week they record their observations and take a digital picture to add to the class Web site. Kayla introduced the unit by leading a discussion about two diff erent caterpillars she had brought to class. Most of the students knew that caterpillars metamorphosed into butterflies. But the te acher continued to probe, hoping that the additional questions s he posed would create interest among the students. Do you think that all caterpillars have the same life cycle? What kinds of but terflies will metamorphose from these caterpillars? The students were hooked! Can we find out? Once the students had accepted the challenge, Kayla helped them decide how to conduct their o bservations and collect their data. She provided multiple ways, i ncluding both text and digital formats, for drawing or sketching and recording their observations. Working with the school librar ian, she located resource books at different reading levels and id entified community resource people with whom students could d iscuss their ideas. Previous section
  • 34. Next section 7.3 Using TechnologyTablets and Laptops: Tools or Too Many Obstacles? In considering ways of teaching, tablets and laptops provide exc iting possibilities for enhancing teaching and learning activities because each student can access an enormous amount of informa tion from a desktop or small- group work area. These technology tools enable students to deve lop skills in working with others and to enhance self- esteem and self- sufficiency while working on content knowledge. Students also can use software to help them organize their school schedules a nd assignments as well as other aspects of their daily lives. Tec hnology tools, such as text-to- speech software or word prediction, may allow some students wi th disabilities to access and use information more efficiently an d more accurately than traditional materials. However, for some students with disabilities, using tablets and l aptops may create major problems. Some students may not be ab le to see text on the screen, either because it is too small or bec ause they are not able to read text written at a specific level. La ptops and tablets may not be compatible with specialized softwa re that students with disabilities need to access text information or they may not support the use of voice input as a keyboard alt ernative. For students who have difficulty in keyboarding or wh o are not physically able to use a keyboard, accessing the comp uter directly using speech- recognition software allows them to find and use information. F or students with fine motor difficulties, the reduced keyboard si ze of some laptops, buttons on tablets, and minikeyboards or thu mb keyboards may be too small or too complicated or may requi re too high a degree of fine motor control to operate. Here are s ome questions to consider: What are some of the difficulties tha t the keyboard or screen might present to a student with a disabi lity? What are some advantages to using a tablet? How easy or d
  • 35. ifficult is it to learn to use one? What problems might this tool present to a student with a disability? IN PRACTICE As we learned earlier in this chapter, a method consists of a gen eral plan that the teacher follows to introduce new material, assi st student learning, and provide feedback to students regarding t heir achievement. Educators typically select and use teaching m ethods with which they are most familiar. Often an individual te acher’s selection of a method is based on earlier training and ex periences provided by experienced mentors. Selection of a teaching method also should be based on research findings. The teacher should ask which methods are most effect ive for students with disabilities. Classroom Focus Sean Bellaire, a high school special educator, and Mary Wallace , a high school social studies teacher, meet twice a week to plan daily lessons. Today they are starting a new unit, and together t hey decide that Sean should begin the class by discussing a gene ral topic, familiar to the students, and then move to the specific topic of today’s lesson. Working Toward Solution s As students settle into their seats, Sean asks, “How many of you have ever moved to a new neighborhood or a new community?” He encourages students to share their experiences, sometimes p robing with questions such as, How did you prepare for the mov e? and How long did it take to get settled? After students have a chance to share their experiences, Sean and Mary introduce the
  • 36. new unit, the Western Movement. Each student receives a hando ut with a graphic that represents the overall unit and an outline of the material to be covered today. Several new vocabulary wor ds, such as Donner Pass, are included on the handout. After previewing what they will be covering for today, Mary us es her laptop and a data projector to display the outline with key concepts on the screen while she presents the information orall y. She also encourages students to participate in the lively discu ssion concerning the new information. During this time, Sean as sists several students to record notes on the outline handout. Ne xt the teachers pass out a written follow- up activity for each student to complete. At the end of class, Ma ry provides a brief review of what they covered and answers any questions about an upcoming assignment. For a student with a mild to moderate disability, a method of instruction that is well organized and structured helps in learning new information. What the Research Says Probably no other teaching method has such a wide research bas e as direct instruction. Numerous research studies focus on the e ffectiveness of direct instruction for students with learning disa bilities, behavior disorders, mild to moderate mental retardation , and autism. In fact, the effectiveness of direct instruction is no t restricted to a particular disability, age group, or skills area ( White, 1988). Direct instruction is one of the most effective classroom interve
  • 37. ntions. In a review of 24 meta- analyses concerning various types of intervention used with stu dents with disabilities, Forness (2001) found that direct instruct ion, mnemonic strategies, reading- comprehension strategies, and behavior modification were the m ost effective methods. MyEducationLab: Your Turn Learn more about how teachers use direct instruction— go to MyEducationLab and select the topic Instructional Practic es and Learning Strategies. Then watch the video entitled “Read ing: Direct Instruction.” Compare and contrast how the teachers in the preceding scenario and the teacher in the video used dire ct instruction. Be prepared to discuss your ideas with members of the class. 7.4 Emerging Concepts What will teaching and learning look like in your classroom? E merging concepts in the field of education as well as new techn ologies present innovative ways of teaching and learning. As yo u read the following section, envision how you might employ on e or more of these concepts or technology tools in your future cl assroom. Do you think teaching and learning would be more eff ective?Learning and Social Networks Technology offers new windows of opportunity for creating lear ning networks among students. Learning portals that provide a s
  • 38. ingle point of access, coupled with wireless and mobile technol ogies such as laptops and cell phones, allow students to connect with others in the classroom and in classrooms across the world to collect data, solve problems, and create products. Moreover, these technologies offer multiple formats for learning. Students download multimedia content, including text, graphics, animatio ns, video or audio clips. For many students, being “plugged in” is not only motivating but also helps make learning fun. For other students, networks provide opportunities for using ne w skills. Today students build social networks beyond physical neighborhoods and communicate regularly with individuals with whom them have common interests but have never met face to f ace. Educators can build social networks for students to introdu ce and practice social skills by working with others or role playi ng in virtual worlds. Participating in social networks, though, d emands an understanding of certain protocols for participation a nd a foundation of learning how to play safely. In a synchronous learning or social environments, the students o r the instructor and the students communicate in real time. How ever, asynchronous environments operate continuously, and lear ners come during times that are convenient. Synchronous learning allows teachers to provide immediate feed back and correct student misunderstandings. Technology tools t hat may support this environment include student- controlled clickers to participate in whole-
  • 39. class quizzes, voice and video conferencing with experts across the country, text messaging with other students across the globe , and live Web quests. Asynchronous learning allows teachers to extend learning beyon d the classroom in an interactive way, providing students opport unities to think more deeply about their activities and then parti cipate in threaded discussions, create blogs, or produce material s to post to a Web- based bulletin board. Podcasts allow students to listen to materi al once or multiple times, if needed. Future learning networks may provide a variety of environments , using the best features of each. In class, seat time may be aug mented by small- group activities in a synchronous environment; later, students m ay post ideas and drafts of work in an asynchronous environmen t. The 21st century is truly a time of emerging concepts, technol ogies, and new ideas for learning networks! Snapshot: Piper Armstrong’s Mentorship Program Piper recently graduated from the state university with a major i n biology and coursework in special education. In her first year of teaching at Randall High, she is participating in an interestin g mentorship program. She explains that this online mentoring p roject, called Electronic Mentoring for Student Success (eMSS), matches new teachers (first or second year of teaching middle o r high school science) with an experienced science teacher from
  • 40. another school district who teaches in the same content area. T he mentoring takes place online and is focused on content and p edagogy. Scientists from the University of California and Monta na State University also participate to provide content support w hen needed or share their research activities. Discussion areas a re provided for earth, space, life, and physical science, and seve ral modules are designed to explore different aspects of science teaching between mentors and mentees (eMSS, 2006). Previous section Next sectionSummary • Based on learning theory and research in the field, an effective teaching method provides a general plan that the teacher follow s in introducing material, assisting student learning, and providi ng feedback to students regarding their achievement. • Theories of learning offer different perspectives on how stude nts learn and provide a framework for teaching methods. • An integral part of any teaching method should include planni ng and developing ways to welcome all students in the classroo m. Educators must work to create opportunities for students to l earn about and celebrate the unique characteristics of people in their communities, building respect for and acceptance of others . • Some research suggests that particular teaching methods better
  • 41. meet the needs of Latino students than other methods. Much ad ditional research is needed for teaching of students whose secon d or third language is English and for newcomer students with d isabilities. • Web- based technologies, such as social and learning networks hold m uch promise for all students, including students with disabilities . • As new devices and concepts emerge, educators may need to p lay many roles, such as teacher, advocate, investigator, and lead er to uphold the right to information access for all students.
  • 42.
  • 43. Chapter 6 Planning and Organizing Instruction OBJECTIVES After completing this chapter, you should be able to Discuss planning classroom environments to positively affect l earning. Describe how special educators and other team members develo p individualized education programs. Discuss the process of planning and organizing instruction. Students with and without disabilities are expected to acquire k nowledge and skills across all areas of the school curriculum. In fact, IDEA states that students with disabilities must have acce ss to the general education curriculum. Today, special educators must be familiar with the general education curriculum as well as with specialized teaching methods and instructional strategie s for students with disabilities. They may join general educators as part of a teaching team, or they may work alone or with othe r special educators to plan, organize, and implement instruction. To begin, educators ask questions about the students with whom they will be teaching. What do Tony, Tasha, and Juanita know? In planning and organizing instruction, special educators begin by assessing the academic needs of students with disabilities in the various content areas, such as literacy (including reading an d writing), mathematics, science, and social studies. Assessment
  • 44. results help educators to determine where to begin planning an d implementing instruction. Chapter 5 examined some of the ass essment approaches that educators use to link assessment inform ation with instruction. By using assessment information aligned with the general education curriculum, educators can plan and d evelop learning activities that deepen students’ understanding a nd strengthen their skills while facilitating work toward high ac ademic achievement. Special educators also assess student skills and behaviors. They consider prerequisite skills that a student may need, which is cri tical before planning instruction. For example, the educator con ducts a brief probe to assess whether a student is familiar with t he meaning of new vocabulary words. Special educators also ass ess social skills and behaviors. When students need to build app ropriate social skills and positive behaviors, educators plan and organize instructional activities to include a social skills compo nent as part of the academic instruction. For example, an educat or may plan a lesson in writing that involves working cooperati vely with one or more other students to allow a student with a di sability to build positive behaviors in working with peers. If students require accommodations or modifications, educators review the students’ IEPs to determine what accommodations or modifications are described. If students use AT devices, educat ors consider how they will use the devices during assessment, in struction, and learning activities. Careful planning and organizi
  • 45. ng of instruction create successful learning opportunities for all students. Planning and organizing instruction for students with disabilitie s begins with knowing the characteristics of learners, what they know, and what they can do. Chapters 2 and 3 discussed the cha racteristics of students, their abilities, and their diverse needs. Chapter 5 discussed the assessment of students to answer questi ons about their achievement, skills, and behaviors. This chapter discusses how teachers use assessment information to plan instr uction and organize learning experiences. 6.1 Classroom Environments Each classroom consists of various environments— physical, social, and learning— that must be considered in planning instruction. The physical en vironment consists of the space and furnishings that make up th e classroom. The social environment comprises the everyday act ivities, interactions, and relationships that exist in the classroo m and their impact on learning. The learning environment consi sts of the content of the instruction, the methods and instruction al strategies that a teacher uses, the learning strategies that a stu dent uses, and the ways the student demonstrates progress and a chievement.Physical Environment As we discussed in Chapter 1, special educators work in various
  • 46. settings, such as general education classrooms, resource rooms, special- purpose schools, and other places. The physical environment for learning has received considerable emphasis in regard to studen ts with disabilities. For example, the Americans with Disabilitie s Act (ADA) ensures that all public classrooms are physically a ccessible to students with disabilities. But simply creating ramp s and wide doorways is not enough; students must have access t o meaningful instruction and learning activities. To participate fully in learning activities, students should have physical access to appropriate classroom materials and equipme nt. For example, a visitor to Mario Stefani’s social studies class observes students working in small groups using a variety of m aterials. One group of four students works together using laptop s, whereas another group uses graph paper, pens, colored pencil s, and various small cardboard shapes. Tony, a student with men tal retardation, is an active participant in another group of four students who are using wooden forms to create a model of the s ocial structure of an ancient society. The teacher frequently pla ns various small-group learning activities involving hands- on use of materials that are stored in accessible locations. In his classroom, small tables are placed throughout the room for sma ll-group work. Additional considerations in the physical environment include li ghting, temperature, distractions, and noise level. The teacher s
  • 47. hould adjust lighting so that projectors and computer screens ar e free from glare, which can make reading difficult. The teacher should also check that room displays are not visually distractin g. For example, hanging mobiles help a room look attractive, bu t materials that are visually stimulating may be distracting to so me learners. When possible, the teacher arranges seating away f rom a door, bulletin board, window, or other areas that could di stract these students. To create a positive physical environment, the teacher monitors the noise level, making sure that no studen t work group is loud enough to distract students in other groups. Figure 6.1 illustrates a teacher- made form for observing the physical environment. Special educators create positive social environments for studen ts.Social Environment Establishing positive relationships with peers and teachers and building a school community are important components of the e ducational program for all students. Yet, for many students with disabilities, these relationships may not develop. Students with disabilities in fourth and fifth grades report that they felt lonely at school (Pavri & Monda- Amaya, 2000). Murray and Greenberg (2001) found that student s with disabilities in fifth and sixth grades are more dissatisfied with their relationships with teachers and establish poorer bonds with school than students without disabilities.
  • 48. Research studies such as these suggest that special educators to day must plan ways of creating positive social environments for students with disabilities while planning interventions to streng then relationships between students with and without disabilitie s. In fact, Hunt (2000) found that teachers were the driving forc e for the unification of general education and special education programs. These teachers worked together to develop needed cu rricular adaptations and social supports, often coteaching in the classroom. They implemented a social curriculum and conflict- resolution procedures. They respected and valued all students an d, in return, expected all students to respect others. Successful t eachers also encourage students to attempt new and difficult tas ks and to take learning risks. Teachers hold high expectations fo r all students, and students’ attempts are valued. Figure 6.2 illus trates a teacher- made form for observing the social environment. Figure 6.1 Observing the physical environment Source: From Assessment of Children and Youth with Special N eeds (3rd ed.), by L. G. Cohen and L. J. Spenciner. Published by Allyn & Bacon, Boston, MA. Copyright © 2007 by Pearson Edu cation. Reprinted by permission of the publisher. Figure 6.2 Observing the social environment Source: From Assessment of Children and Youth with Special N
  • 49. eeds (3rd ed.), by L. G. Cohen and L. J. Spenciner. Published by Allyn & Bacon, Boston, MA. Copyright © 2007 by Pearson Edu cation. Reprinted by permission of the publisher.Learning Envir onment As noted previously, the classroom learning environment includ es the content of instruction, the instructional strategies that the teacher employs, the learning strategies that students use, and t he methods students use to demonstrate progress and achieveme nt. Students bring diverse needs, skills, and abilities to the class room. How can learning experiences be meaningful and relevant for each student? How can teachers help every student achieve high academic standards? Teachers frequently plan and organize instruction across more than one content area to help students make learning connections. For example, one team of teachers p lanned an integrated unit in literacy, science, and social studies. Students broadened their understanding of the 1800s not only b y studying historical events but also by participating in and writ ing about activities that illustrate the way of life during that per iod. They conducted research to learn how people dressed and w hat foods they ate. They created replicas of simple machines tha t people used and learned how they worked. In planning an integrated unit, teachers frequently embed the st udent’s IEP goals and objectives within lesson plans and teachin g activities. Let us return to Tony, the boy with mental retardati on whom we met earlier. When planning instructional activities
  • 50. for Tony and the other students, Nelson Barnes, the social studi es teacher, decided to design activities that would involve small - group work. Encouraging students to work and learn together en ables them to grasp concepts of earlier societies in which work was interdependent. For Tony, learning to work with peers is no t only important for understanding these concepts but is also par t of his IEP. One of his goals is to increase his skills in working cooperatively with peers. Learning activities that involve both i ndividual and group work support the diverse abilities that stude nts bring to the classroom. In a report that analyzed how planning instruction to meet a wid e range of student abilities and standards- based curricula affects students with disabilities, Jorgensen (19 97) found that several essential questions challenge and support students both with and without disabilities. Some of these questi ons include: What is the central unit, problem, or question? Wh at will interest students— for example, serve as a unit “grabber” or kick- off activity? What are the learning experiences? What assessme nt approaches can be used? What are the culminating projects? Educators must consider many questions such as these in planni ng and organizing the learning environment. Figure 6.3 illustrat es a teacher- made form for considering the learning environment.
  • 51. Planning and organizing instruction for students with disabilitie s involves working closely with general education teachers and t he general education curriculum so that all students can achieve high standards. For example, Raphael Suazo, the special educat ion teacher, meets regularly with the classroom teachers to cons ult and coordinate education planning for Tony. Tony participat es in the general education classes for social studies and science and receives specially designed instruction for mathematics and language arts in the resource room. Raphael, who majored in m athematics with a concentration in special education, is responsi ble for delivering mathematics instruction; another special educ ator, who is also highly qualified but in English and language ar ts, teaches an intensive English course for Tony and a small gro up of other students. As with each student in the high school, T ony is expected to work toward high achievement in every acade mic area. Figure 6.3 Observing the learning environment Source: Excerpts from Assessment of Children and Youth with Special Needs (3rd ed.), by L. G. Cohen and L. J. Spenciner. Pu blished by Allyn & Bacon, Boston, MA. Copyright © 2007 by P earson Education. Reprinted by permission of the publisher. Considering Cultural and Linguistic Perspectives Physical, Social, and Learning Environments
  • 52. In considering the physical, social, and learning environments, t he teacher plans ways to enable students to connect classroom l earning with their homes and communities. Learning experience s and instructional activities should be culturally relevant and m eaningful. Diversity perspectives should be embedded when pla nning units of instruction. For example, in planning a unit on nu trition, the teacher plans and organizes instructional activities s o students learn about foods from various cultural groups that ar e part of the community. Meaningful learning experiences, such as inviting students to bring in a recipe from home to create a cl assroom cookbook, are included in the unit. Teachers create culturally responsive social environments, too. They arrange collaborative groups to encourage student learning . They work to connect prior experiences with new learning. Stu dents engage in a variety of activities that allow them to move a bout the classroom. What should a teacher consider in planning and organizing instruction that is effective for all students? Afte r extensive research, the Center for Research on Education, Div ersity, and Excellence has developed five principles for effectiv e pedagogy that are applicable across K– 12 grade levels (Dalton, 1998). 1. Joint productive activity The teacher designs instructional act ivities requiring student collaboration to accomplish a joint pro duct…. [The teacher] organizes students in a variety of groupin gs, such as by friendship, mixed academic ability, language, pro
  • 53. ject, or interests, to promote interaction. [The teacher] plans wit h students how to work in groups…. (p. 11) 2. Developing language and literacy across the curriculum The t eacher listens to students talk about familiar topics such as hom e and community…. [The teacher] assists written and oral langu age development through modeling, eliciting, probing, restating, clarifying, questioning, praising, etc., in purposeful conversatio n and writing. [The teacher] interacts with students in ways that respect students’ preferences for speaking that may be different from the teacher’s, such as wait-time, eye contact, turn- taking, or spotlighting…. [The teacher] encourages students’ us e of first and second languages in instructional activities. (p. 17 ) 3. Making meaning Connecting school to students’ lives. The te acher … designs instructional activities that are meaningful to s tudents in terms of local community norms and knowledge…. [T he teacher] acquires knowledge of local norms and knowledge b y talking to students, parents, or family members, community m embers, and by reading pertinent documents…. [The teacher] pl ans jointly with students to design community- based learning activities…. (p. 22) 4. Teaching complex thinking The teacher assures that students —for each instructional topic— see the whole picture as a basis for understanding the parts…. [ The teacher] designs instructional tasks that advance student un
  • 54. derstanding to more complex levels…. [The teacher] gives clear , direct feedback about how student performance compares with the challenging standards…. (p. 26) 5. Teaching through conversation The teacher … has a clear aca demic goal that guides conversation with students. [The teacher] ensures that student talk occurs at higher rates than teacher talk …. [The teacher] guides conversation to include students’ views , judgments, and rationales using text evidence and other substa ntive support…. (p. 30) Questions for Reflection 1. Consider the students in your community schools. To develop language and literacy across the curriculum (see recommendati on 2), what children’s books and folk tales can you locate that would help you in working with these students? 2. To become more knowledgeable about the culture and traditio ns of the students in your community schools, what online resou rces would be helpful? Chapter 5 Linking Assessment and Instruction OBJECTIVES
  • 55. After completing this chapter, you should be able to Discuss contemporary views regarding assessment practices an d instruction. Compare and contrast contemporary assessment approaches for planning and monitoring instruction. Discuss approaches to evaluating instruction, including state an d federal mandates that influence practices. Describe professional standards and ethics in assessing student s with disabilities. Good teaching always begins with an understanding of what the student already knows and can do. Before special educators star t to plan specific instruction, they identify questions and gather information about the student’s knowledge, skills, and abilities. Educators continue to gather information, or perform assessmen t, during the lesson or instructional activities, in monitoring stu dent work, and at the end of the instructional unit. When linking assessment with instruction, an educator uses student assessme nt information to make instructional decisions regarding introdu cing new material, providing additional practice with supplemen tary learning activities, or modifying lessons and using different instructional strategies. In other words, the assessment informa tion guides teaching practices. Finally, assessments that are closely aligned with the curriculu m provide a special educator with valuable help in monitoring st udent progress. By examining this assessment information, the e
  • 56. ducator can identify areas of proficiency and areas where the st udent is making progress. Assessment information also indicates areas in which the student needs attention, signaling the teacher that adjustments should be made in instruction. Previous section Next section 5.1 Contemporary Views of Assessment and Instruction Educators use an array of assessment approaches from student t o student and from classroom to classroom. Perhaps as a student , you have experienced some of the many different ways teacher s (and professors) monitor and assess achievement. Contempora ry researchers have written about the importance— and connections— of good assessment to effective teaching. According to Shepard (as cited in Olson, 2002, p. 2), “We have strong evidence that hi gh- quality classroom assessment improves learning tremendously, possibly more effectively than any other sort of teaching interve ntion.” In this chapter, we look at various assessment approache s and ways teachers construct high- quality assessments and, link assessments with instruction to hel p students with disabilities meet high academic standards, devel op positive behaviors, and demonstrate competent social skills.
  • 57. 5.2 Assessment for Planning and Monitoring InstructionPlannin g Where to Begin Instruction Before planning instruction, teachers use various assessment ap proaches to identify what students know and can do. They gathe r information about academic achievement, attainment of social skills, and positive behaviors. Many of the traditional assessme nt practices, such as teacher- developed quizzes and standardized achievement tests, focus on content knowledge. These assessment approaches require studen ts to recall or identify information. By contrast, contemporary a ssessments focus not only on knowledge but also on process skil ls, learning strategies, thinking skills, acquisition of social and personal behaviors, effective communication, and work habits. Students may be asked to compare, analyze, and evaluate inform ation in these types of assessments.Selecting Appropriate Asses sment Approaches Each of the assessment approaches discussed in this chapter has its own strengths and limitations. Some approaches are best use d as an integral part of instruction. Curriculum- based assessments, criterion- referenced assessments, probes, and observations are examples of assessments that occur before and during instruction. These t ypes of assessments are known as formative assessments. Forma tive assessments provide students and teachers with ongoing inf ormation about their work and progress. For teachers, formative
  • 58. assessments provide information about what students can do an d enable teachers to reflect on what methods and strategies are most effective in supporting student learning (Darling- Hammond & Ancess, 1996). Other approaches, referred to as summative assessments, occur at the end of lessons, instructional units, or marking periods to s how student growth and progress. Student performances, portfol ios, teacher- made exams, and standardized tests are examples of summative assessments. Although summative assessments provide students time to develop understandings, sometimes students have to wai t a long time to receive feedback. Chapter 9 presents another val uable assessment approach, student observations, used in both f ormative and summative assessments. When selecting an assessment approach, teachers should be kno wledgeable of IDEA mandates. Regarding assessment practices, IDEA states that assessments and other evaluation materials use d to assess a child must be provided and administered in the chil d’s native language or other mode of communication. The assess ment should be in the form most likely to yield accurate informa tion about what the child knows and can do academically, devel opmentally, and functionally, unless it is clearly not feasible to do so. Because teachers use a variety of assessment approaches to mak e informed decisions, the assessment approach and the scoring p
  • 59. rocedure must be both reliable and valid. Teachers want to have confidence in the results. The reliability of an assessment refer s to the “scoring procedure that enables the examiner to quantif y, evaluate, and interpret behavior or work samples. Reliability refers to the consistency of such measurements when the testing procedure is repeated on a population of individuals or groups” (American Educational Research Association, American Psycho logical Association, & National Council on Measurement in Edu cation, 1999). The validity of a test or other measure refers to the “degree to w hich evidence and theory support the interpretations of test scor es entailed by the proposed tests” (American Educational Resear ch Association et al., 1999, p. 9). An educator who needs infor mation about a student’s reading comprehension or a student’s a bility to solve a mathematical problem must have confidence tha t the assessment approach will provide that information.Curricul um-Based Assessment Curriculum- based assessment (CBA) provides valuable information to speci al educators about what students know and are able to do. Becau se CBAs consist of items that address specific areas of student k nowledge or skills, a teacher can use the assessment results to p inpoint a student’s actual skill levels. This information allows t he teacher to develop appropriate instructional and learning acti vities and to focus instruction on what the student needs to mast
  • 60. er. Special educators frequently use the results of CBA to deter mine a student’s progress toward school district or state curricul um standards. Developing a CBA 1. Identify the content area and performance objectives. By iden tifying performance objectives, educators define the behaviors t hat the student must demonstrate in order to indicate progress. Because a CBA focuses on specific areas of the curriculum, edu cators begin by carefully examining the curriculum area and ide ntifying the specific information or skills they wish to assess. E ducators consider the kind of information students should know: facts, concepts, rules, and/or strategies (Howell & Nolet, 2000) . Facts are pieces of information that the student has memorized , such as the temperature at which water freezes or capitals of v arious countries. Concepts involve more than memorizing and re call; they require the student to understand and distinguish the a ttributes of one concept from another. Rules and strategies invol ve both memorizing and identifying situations in which the rule or strategy applies. A well- constructed CBA typically assesses two or more types of inform ation. 2. Decide on the question and response format. Before educators begin writing the actual test questions, they will need to decide if the assessment will be a paper-and- pencil assessment or if it will be available as a digital file acces
  • 61. sible by computer. Educators can construct assessment items tha t require students to use their laptops to respond in a text or voi ce note or on a traditional answer sheet. Educators address other considerations as well, including what question formats to include in the assessment and how students will be asked to respond (Hargrove, Church, Yssel, & Koch, 200 2). Question formats include total recall, fill in the blank, multi ple choice, and matching. Students with cognitive disabilities an d short- term memory difficulties may have more difficulty with some q uestion formats than others. 3. Write the test questions. In this step, educators develop the s pecific test questions that correspond to the performance objecti ves. The content of the test questions should be closely aligned with the curriculum. This will help to ensure that the assessment is valid. 4. Develop scoring procedures. Educators must decide how test items will be scored and how educators will determine student p rogress. For example, a question could be scored as right or wro ng, or a certain number of points could be assigned based on the student’s response. 5. Organize and interpret the information. Educators consider h ow best to organize the assessment information so that it can be interpreted easily. They frequently create a bar or line graph. B y using graphs, educators and the student and family members c