Chapter 2 Organisational Behaviour.pptx

BIT 218 OB
LECTURE 2
Individual Behavior,
Personality, and Values

2.0 Individual Behavior,
and Values
2.1 MARS Model of Individual Behavior
and Performance
2.2 Types of Individual Behavior
2.3 Personality in Organizations
2.4 Values in the Workplace
2.5 Ethical Values and Behavior
2.6 Values across Cultures

2.1 MARS Model of Individual Behavior
and Performance
2.1.1 Employee Motivation
2.1.2 Ability
2.1.3 Role Perceptions
2.1.4 Situational Factors

2.1.1. EMPLOYEE MOTIVATION
Motivation represents the forces within a
person that affect his or her direction,
intensity, and persistence of voluntary
behavior.
• Direction refers to the path along
which people steer their effort. In other
words, motivation is goal-directed.

Intensity is the amount of effort allocated
to the goal. Intensity is all about how
much people push themselves to
complete a task.
Persistence refers to the length of time
that the individual continues to exert
effort toward an objective.

Motivation is a force that exists within
individuals; it is not their actual behavior.
Thus, direction, intensity, and persistence
are cognitive (thoughts) and emotional
conditions that directly cause us to move.

2.1.2 ABILITY
Employee abilities also make a difference in
behavior and task performance.
Ability includes both the natural aptitudes and
the learned capabilities required to successfully
complete a task.
Aptitudes are the natural talents that help
employees learn specific tasks more quickly
and perform them better.

2.1.2 ABILITY
Learned capabilities are the physical and
mental skills and knowledge you have
acquired. They tend to wane over time when
not in use.
Aptitudes and learned capabilities (skills and
knowledge) are the main elements of a broader
concept called competencies, which are
characteristics of a person that result in
superior performance.

2.1.3. ROLE PERCEPTIONS
Role perceptions refer to how clearly people
understand their job duties. These perceptions
range from role clarity to role ambiguity.
Role clarity exists in three forms.
First, employees have clear role perceptions
when they understand the specific duties or
consequences for which they are accountable.

Second, role clarity exists when
employees understand the priority of
their various tasks and performance
expectations.
This is illustrated in the classic dilemma of
quantity versus quality, such as how
many customers to serve in an hour
(quantity) versus how well each customer
should be served (quality).

The third form of role perceptions involves
understanding the preferred behaviors or
procedures for accomplishing tasks.
Role ambiguity exists when an employee knows
two or three ways to perform a task, but
misunderstands which of these the company
prefers.

2.1.3. ROLE PERCEPTIONS - Contd
Role perceptions are important
because:
1. Employees with role clarity perform
work more accurately and efficiently,
whereas those with role ambiguity
waste considerable time and energy
performing the wrong tasks or in the
wrong way.

2.1.3. ROLE PERCEPTIONS - Contd
2. Furthermore, role clarity is essential for
coordination with coworkers and other
stakeholders. Role clarity ensures that these
expectations are met and the troupe’s
performances are executed safely.
3. Finally, role clarity motivates employees
because they have a higher belief that their
effort will produce the expected outcomes.

2.1.4 SITUATIONAL FACTORS
Individual behavior and performance also
depend on the situation, which is any
context beyond the employee’s
immediate control.
The situation has two main influences on
individual behavior and performance.

First, the work context constrains or
facilitates behavior and performance.
For example, employees who are
motivated, skilled, and know their role
obligations will nevertheless perform
poorly if they lack time, budget, physical
work facilities, and other resources.

Second, situations provide cues that
guide and motivate people.
For example, companies install barriers
and warning signs in dangerous areas.
The barriers and warning signs are
situational factors that cue employees to
avoid the nearby hazard.

2.2 Types of Individual Behavior
2.2.1 Task Performance
2.2.2 Organisational Citizenship
2.2.3 Counterproductive Work Behaviou
2.2.4 Joining and Staying with the
Organisation
2.2.5 Maintaining Work Attendance

2.2.1. TASK PERFORMANCE
Task performance refers to the individual’s
voluntary goal-directed behaviors that contribute
to organizational objectives. Most jobs require
incumbents to complete several tasks.
There are three types of task performance.
1.Proficient task performance refers to
performing the work efficiently and accurately. It
involves accomplishing the assigned work at or
above the expected standards of quality,
quantity, and other indicators of effectiveness.

2.2.1. TASK PERFORMANCE
A second type is adaptive task performance,
which refers to how well employees modify
their thoughts and behavior to align with
and support a new or changing
environment.
A third form is proactive task performance,
which refers to how well employees take the
initiative to anticipate and introduce new
work patterns that benefit the organization.

2.2.2 ORGANIZATIONAL CITIZENSHIP
Organizational citizenship behaviors (OCBs),
includes various forms of cooperation and
helpfulness to others that support the
organization’s social and psychological
context.
Some OCBs are directed toward individuals,
such as assisting coworkers with their work
problems, adjusting your work schedules to
accommodate coworkers, (supplies,
technology, staff) with coworkers.

2.2.2 ORGANIZATIONAL CITIZENSHIP - Contd
Early literature defined OCBs as discretionary
behaviors (employees don’t have to perform
them), whereas more recent studies indicate
that some OCBs are a job requirement even if
they aren’t explicitly stated.
In fact, OCBs may be as important as task
performance when managers evaluate
employee performance.
Employees who help others have higher task
performance because they receive more
support from coworkers.

2.2.3. COUNTERPRODUCTIVE WORK BEHAVIORS
Organizational behavior is interested in all workplace
behaviors, including dysfunctional activities
collectively known as counterproductive work
behaviors (CWBs).
CWBs are voluntary behaviors that have the potential
to directly or indirectly harm the organization or its
stakeholders.
CWBs are not minor concerns; research suggests that
they can substantially undermine the organization’s
effectiveness.

2.2.4. JOINING AND STAYING WITH THE
ORGANIZATION
Organizations are people working together toward
common goals, so another critical set of behaviors is
joining and staying with the company. Hiring
qualified and productive staff is vital, but so is
ensuring that they stay with the company.
The importance of human capital is particularly
apparent when employees quit. Those who leave
remove valuable knowledge, skills, and relationships
with coworkers and external stakeholders, all of
which take time for new staff to acquire

2.2.5. MAINTAINING WORK ATTENDANCE
Organizations are more effective when
employees perform their jobs at
scheduled times, whether in-person or
through remote work arrangements.
In contrast, absenteeism results in staff
shortages and the temporarily loss of the
absent employee’s skills and knowledge.

2.3 Personality in Organizations
2.3.1 Personality Determinants: Nature
vs Nurture
2.3.2 Five-Factor Model of Personality
2.3.3 Jungian Personality Theory and
the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator

Personality in Organizations - Contd
PERSONALITY DETERMINANTS: NATURE VERSUS
NURTURE
Personality is relatively enduring
pattern of thoughts, emotions, and
behaviors that characterize a person,
along with the psychological
processes behind those characteristics.

PERSONALITY DETERMINANTS: NATURE VERSUS
NURTURE
Personality is shaped by both nature and
nurture, although the relative importance of
each continues to be debated and studied.
We estimate an individual’s personality by what
he or she says and does, and we infer the
person’s internal states—including thoughts and
emotions—from these observable behaviors

2.3.2 five-factor model of personality
Sociable, anxious, curious, dependable,
suspicious, talkative, adventurous, and hundreds
of other personality traits have been described
over the years, so experts have tried to organize
them into smaller clusters.
The most researched and respected clustering of
personality traits is the Five-Factor (Big Five)
Model (FFM).

Personality in Organizations
2.3.1 Personality Determinants: Nature
vs Nurture
2.3.2 Five-Factor Model of Personality

3. Personality in Organizations - Contd
The five-factor model of personality has the
most research support, but it is not the most
popular personality test in practice.
That distinction goes to Jungian personality
theory, which is measured through the Myers-
Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) (see Exhibit 2.5).

Jung suggested that personality is mainly
represented by the individual’s preferences
regarding perceiving and judging information.
Jung explained that the perceiving function—
how people prefer to gather information—
occurs through two competing orientations:
sensing (S) and intuition (N).

Jung also proposed that the judging function—how
people prefer making decisions based on what they
have perceived—consists of two competing
processes: thinking (T) and feeling (F).
People with a thinking orientation rely on rational
cause–effect logic and systematic data collection to
make decisions. Those with a strong feeling
orientation, on the other hand, rely on their
emotional responses to the options presented, as well
as to how those choices affect others.

Jung noted that in addition to the four core processes
of sensing, intuition, thinking, and feeling, people
differ in their level of extraversion– introversion, which
was introduced earlier as one of the Big Five
personality traits.
The MBTI extends Jung’s list of personality traits
described above by also measuring Jung’s broader
categories of perceiving and judging, which represent
a person’s attitude toward the external world.

People with a perceiving orientation are open,
curious, and flexible. They prefer to keep their options
open and to adapt spontaneously to events as they
unfold.
Judging types prefer order and structure and want to
resolve problems quickly.
Pse read 3 benefits and 3 limitations of MBTI.

2.4.1 Types of Values
2.4.2 Values and Individual Behaviour
2.4.3 Values Congruence

Values are stable, evaluative beliefs
that guide our preferences for
outcomes or courses of action in a
variety of situations. They are
perceptions about what is good or
bad, right or wrong.
Values and personality traits are related
to each other, but the two concepts
differ in a few ways.

The most noticeable distinction is that values are
evaluative—they tell us what we ought to do—
whereas personality traits describe what we
naturally tend to do.
A second distinction is that personality traits have
minimal conflict with each other (e.g., you can have
high agreeableness and high introversion), whereas
some values are opposed to other values. For
example, someone who values excitement and
challenge would have difficulty also valuing stability
and moderation.

Third, although personality and values
are both partly determined by
heredity, values are influenced more
by socialization whereas heredity has a
stronger influence on an individual’s
personality traits.

2.4.1 Types of Values
Values come in many forms, and experts on
this topic have devoted considerable
attention to organizing them into clusters.
By far, the most widely accepted model of
personal values is Schwartz’s values
circumplex, developed and tested by social
psychologist Shalom Schwartz and his
colleagues.
This model clusters 57 values into 10 broad
values categories that are organized into the
circular model (circumplex) shown in Exhibit
2.6.

VALUES AND INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOR
Personal values influence decisions and behavior in various
ways.
First, values directly motivate our actions by shaping the
relative attractiveness (valence) of the choices available.
Second, values indirectly motivate behavior by framing our
perceptions of reality. Specifically, values influence whether we
notice something as well as how we interpret it.
Personal values motivate behavior to some extent, but several
factors weaken that relationship.

VALUES AND INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOR
One reason for this “disconnect” between personal values and
individual behavior is the situation. The MARS model states
that the situation influences behavior, which sometimes causes
people to act contrary to their personal values.
Another reason why decisions and behavior are inconsistent
with our personal values is that we don’t actively think about
them much of the time. Values are abstract concepts, so their
relevance is not obvious in many situations.
Furthermore, many daily decisions and actions occur routinely,
so we don’t actively evaluate their consistency with our values

Values tell us what is right or wrong and what
we ought to do. This evaluative characteristic
affects how comfortable we are with specific
organizations and individuals.
The key concept here is values congruence,
which refers to how similar a person’s values
hierarchy is to the values hierarchy of another
entity, such as the employee’s team or
organization.

An employee’s values congruence with
team members increases the team’s
cohesion and performance.
Congruence with the organization’s
values tends to increase the employee’s
job satisfaction, loyalty, and
organizational citizenship as well as
lower stress and turnover.

2.5.1 Three Ethical Principles
2.5.2 Moral Intensity, Moral Sensitivity
and Situational Influences
2.5.3 Supporting Ethical Behaviour

Ethics refers to the study of moral principles or
values that determine whether actions are right
or wrong and outcomes are good or bad. People
rely on their ethical values to determine “the
right thing to do.”
To better understand business ethics, we need to
consider three distinct types of ethical principles:
utilitarianism, individual rights, and distributive
justice.

1. Utilitarianism. This principle says the
only moral obligation is to seek the
greatest good for the greatest number
of people.
2. In other words, we should choose the
option that provides the highest degree
of satisfaction to those affected.

2. Individual rights. This principle says
that everyone has the same set of
natural rights, such as freedom of
movement, physical security, freedom of
speech, and fair trial.
The individual-rights principle extends
beyond legal rights to human rights that
everyone is granted as a moral norm of
society.

3. Distributive justice. This principle
says that the benefits and burdens of
similar individuals should be the same;
otherwise they should be proportional.
For example, employees who contribute
equally in their work should receive
similar rewards, whereas those who
make a lesser contribution should
receive less.

Most organisations maintain or improve
ethical conduct through systematic practices.
One of the most basic steps in this direction is
a code of ethical conduct—a statement about
desired activities, rules of conduct, and
philosophy about the organization’s
relationship to its stakeholders and the
environment.

Another strategy to improve ethical conduct is
to train and regularly evaluate employees
about their knowledge of proper ethical
conduct.
Many large firms have annual quizzes to test
employee awareness of company rules and
practices on important ethical issues such as
giving gifts and receiving sensitive information
about competitors

2.6.1 Individualism and Collectivism
2.6.2 Power Distance
2.6.3 Uncertainty Avoidance
2.6.4 Achievement-Nurturing Orientation
2.6.5 Caveats about Cross-Cultural
Knowledge

Five values have cross-cultural significance:
individualism, collectivism, power distance,
uncertainty avoidance, and achievement-
nurturing orientation.
2.6.1 Individualism is the extent to which we
value independence and personal uniqueness.
Highly individualist people value personal
freedom, self-sufficiency, control over their
own lives, and appreciation of the unique
qualities that distinguish them from others.

2.6.2 Collectivism is the extent to which we
value our duty to groups to which we belong
and to group harmony.
Highly collectivist people define themselves by
their group memberships, emphasize their
personal connection to others in their in-
groups, and value the goals and well-being of
people within those groups.

2.6.3 Power distance refers to the extent to
which people accept unequal distribution of
power in a society.
Those with high power distance value unequal
power.
Those in higher positions expect obedience to
authority; those in lower positions are
comfortable receiving commands from their
superiors without consultation or debate

2.6.4 Uncertainty avoidance is the degree to
which people tolerate ambiguity (low
uncertainty avoidance) or feel threatened by
ambiguity and uncertainty (high uncertainty
avoidance).
Employees with high uncertainty avoidance
value structured situations in which rules of
conduct and decision making are clearly
documented.
They usually prefer direct rather than indirect
or ambiguous communications.

2.6.5 Achievement-nurturing orientation
reflects a competitive versus cooperative view of
relations with other people. People with a high
achievement orientation value assertiveness,
competitiveness, and materialism. They appreciate
people who are tough, and they favor the
acquisition of money and material goods.
In contrast, people in nurturing-oriented cultures
emphasize relationships and the well-being of
others. They focus on human interaction and
caring rather than competition and personal
success.

2.6.5 Caveats about Cross-Cultural Knowledge
One problem is that too many studies have relied on small,
convenient samples (such as students attending one
university) to represent an entire culture. The result is that
many cross-cultural studies draw conclusions that might
not generalize to the cultures they intended to represent.
A second problem is that cross-cultural studies often
assume that each country has one culture. In reality, the
United States and many other countries have become
culturally diverse. As more countries embrace globalization
and multiculturalism, it becomes even less appropriate to
assume that an entire country has one unified culture

END OF LECTURE 2
THANK YOU VERY MUCH 4 UR ATTENTION

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